Ground Improvement 2015

Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Ground improvement
Classification of ground improvement methods
Category Method Objective

A. Ground improvement Compaction ; by vibrating To increase strength and
without admixtures in stiffness
non-cohesive soils or fill
materials
Sand/ gravel
B. Ground improvement Preloading and vertical drains To reduce settlement or
without admixtures in by long term loading and speed up compressing
cohesive soils or fill materials drainage
Clay/peat
C. Ground improvement with Stone and sand columns To increase strength and
admixtures stiffness
all soil types
D. Ground improvement with Grouting and freezing To increase strength and
grouting type of admixtures stiffness, to reduce
permeability
1
CategoryGeoEngineering,
Section MethodCIE 4363 Principle
A. Ground 1 Dynamic compaction - By dropping a heavy weight
Ground improvement
improvement 2 Vibro compaction - By a vibratory probe
without admixtures 3 Explosive compaction - Shock wave induced by blasting
in non-cohesive 4 Surface compaction - Shallow depth compaction by a variety of machines
soils or fill materials
B. Ground 1 Replacement - Remove bad soil by excavation and replace by fill
improvement 2 Preloading by fill with - Fill is applied and removed to pre-consolidate
without admixtures vertical drains
in cohesive soils or 3 Preloading with vacuum - Vacuum pressure is used to pre-consolidate
fill materials drainage
4 Thermal stabilisation - Permanently or temporarily change soil properties by heating
or freezing
C. Ground 1 Vibro or dynamic - Compacted gravel driven as columns in soft soil
improvement with replacement or stone columns
admixtures 2 Sand compaction piles - Sand pile installed with casing
3 Geotextile confined columns - Sand in a geotextile lined cylindrical column
4 Microbial method - Microbial method to modify soil for increased strength or
reduced permeability
D. Ground 1 Cement grouting - Grouting soil or cavities to increase strength or reduce
improvement with permeability (gravel)
grouting type of 2 Chemical grouting - Solution of 2 or more chemicals react in soil pores to form a
admixtures gel or a solid (sand)
3 Mixing methods (MIP) - Mixing soft soil with cement or other binders in-situ; all soil
4 Jet grouting types
- High pressure grouting to erode the soil to form columns or
5 Compaction grouting panels; all soil types
- Very stiff mortar used to densify loose soil (sand)
+ Freezing 6 Compensation grouting - With viscous suspensions the soil is fractured to compensated,2
(all soil types) negate or reduce settlements (sand)
Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363 Compaction
Ground improvement
Compaction methods
• Introduction
• Vibroflotation
• Dynamic compaction|
• Rapid Impact Compaction
• Applications
3
Ground improvement Introduction
Compaction
• To increase strength and stiffness
• To reduce possibility of liquefaction
• Only with non-cohesive soils:
- fills: special requirements

- existing soils: check feasibility
4
Density < > pore-volume (n)
• Loose packing: n = 40 – 50 %
• Dense packing: n = 25 – 30 %
• Range depends on:
– Grain size distribution
– Shape of grain
5
Compaction
• Decrease of pore volume >> draining pore
water
• Permeability is most important:
- Permeable soils: rapid compaction
- Low permeability: slow compaction
• Compaction time determines costs
6
Above or below groundwater table

• Air or water in pores
• Capillary forces may slow down process
Lower limit of permeability?

• Difficult to asses, (determined by costs)
• Rule of thump:
max 10 – 15 % particles < 0,060 mm
7
Vibro compaction
Ground improvement
Vibro compaction
Germany: Rütteldruckverfahren
UK: Vibro flotation
characteristics:
• torpedo diameter: 0.35 m
• length: 3 – 5 m
• engine with eccentrics on the axes
inside the torpedo
• electric: 60 – 150 Ampere
• frequency: 25 – 50 Hz
• water jets at the top and at the tip
8
Werkwijze
Ground improvement
Rütteldruckverfahren
(Vibro flotation)
9
Ground improvement
Vibro compaction
Result:
• Compacted cylinder with diameter: 2 – 3 m
• C.t.c. distance : 1 – 2.5 m
• Depth depends on requirements
• Amount of sand to be added: 0.25 – 0.50 m³/m’
10
Vibro compaction
Ground improvement
Suitable grain size
11
Vibro compaction
Ground improvement
Result of
compaction
• Centre of
compaction
point
• In between
points
12
Vibro compaction
Ground improvement
Cone resistance as function of distance

to compaction point 13
Dynamic compaction
Ground improvement
Dynamic compaction
(Menard Method or
Heavy Tamping)
Principle:
• Compaction with shock wave
(compression and shear waves)
• Drop heavy weight several
times at 1 point
• Soil liquefies
• After draining of excess pore
water the density has increased
14
Ground improvement
Dynamisch verdichten
(Methode Menard of
‘Heavy Tamping’
15
Dynamic compaction
Ground improvement
Process:
• Operation in number of phases: 3 – 12
• Per phase and point: large number of impacts
: 5 – 10
• Size of compartment e.g. 8 x 8 m
diepte [m] 4 30
depth [m]
gewicht [ton] 4 830 180
weight [ton] 8 180
valhoogte [m] 7 30
drop height
7 30
[m]
• After each phase check density (with qc)
16
Dynamic compaction
Ground improvement
17
Dynamic compaction Taiwan
Ground improvement
Verdichtingsproject
Taiwan
18
Dynamic compaction
Ground improvement
0
Compaction results
with dynamic
compaction.
10
m
19
Dynamic compaction
Ground improvement
results
It is impossible to compact soft

cohesive soils with dynamic or
vibro compaction
20
Rapid Impact Compaction
Ground improvement
Also called CDC (Cofra Dynamic Compaction)
www.youtube.com/watch?v=KfuMrhRpvFM
21
Rapid impact compaction
Ground improvement
number of blows
depth
Depth improvement and depth coefficients

(from Berry and Narendranathan, 2010).
22
Rapid impact compaction
Ground improvement
Comparison of DC and RIC projects (Cofra, adjusted

form BRE powerpoint) 23
Applications
Ground improvement
• Reduce compressibility
• Increase shear strength
higher foundation pressures below shallow
footings
• Reduce liquefaction risk
– Earthquake areas
– Dynamically loaded structures
• machine foundations
• Wind turbines
– Slopes in loose packed sands
24
Applications
Ground improvement
25
Applications
Ground improvement
f f
Pr;max = c ⋅ N c + γ ⋅ d ⋅ N q + 0,5 ⋅ γ ⋅ B ⋅ N γ
ϕ = 30o N q = 18, 4; N γ = 15, 2;
ϕ = 40o 64,2
N q = 18, 84,7
4; N γ = 15, 2;
E = B ⋅ qc ( B = 5…10 ) 26
Ontwerp
Ground improvement
• Reduce liquefaction
risk
27
Applications
Ground improvement
Compact such
qc=13
that relative
density
Dr > 60%
Westerschelde
required
qc> 13 MPa
liquefaction No liquefaction
28
Ground improvement
Reducing liquefaction risk
29
Ground improvement

A. Ground improvement Compaction To increase strength and
without admixtures in non- stiffness
cohesive soils or fill materials
B. Ground improvement Preloading and vertical drains To reduce settlement

without admixtures in
D. Ground improvement with Grouting and freezing To increase strength to

grouting type of admixtures reduce permeability
30
Grouting
Ground improvement
Grouting of soils
• Introduction
• Jet-grouting
• Permeation grouting (cement injection and
chemical injection)
• Soil-fracturing (compensation grouting and
compaction grouting)
31
Introduction
Ground improvement
Jet-grouting destroys soil structure completely

– mixing and or replacing soil by cement grout
Cement- and chemical injection (permeation grouting)

– injection of pores in the soil
• cement: roc, hard soils and gravels (with big pores)
• Chemical (e.g. silica gels): sands and fine gravel
Soil-fracturing fractures the soil; soil structure is locally broken;

fractures are injected with cement grout
32
Introduction
Ground improvement
jetgrouting
33
Introduction
Ground improvement
Purpose jetgrouting and permeation grouting:

• Reduce permeability
• Increase strength and stiffness
Cement injection:
• dams, retaining walls in hard soils and roc
Chemical injection:
• Building pits (as groundwater sealing)
• Underpinning of foundations
34
Introduction
Ground improvement
Purpose Soil-fracturing:
• compaction grouting; to increase the stresses
(p.e. the friction between soil and piles)
• compensation of settlements
(compensation grouting)
35
Introduction
Ground improvement
Chemical injection
Water sealing
Injectie laag
36
Introduction
Ground improvement
Water-
retaining
and bearing
injection
body
37
Grouting
Ground improvement
Grouting of soils
• Introduction
• Jet-grouting
chemical injection)
• Soil-fracturing (compensation grouten en
compaction grouten)
38
Jetgrouting
Ground improvement
39
Jetgrouting
Ground improvement
cement suspension cement suspension cement suspension

Jetgrouting: water
air air
S Single
D Double
T Triple
Monitor
40
Ground improvement
Jetgrout rig
41
Ground improvement
Monitor
42
Jetgrouting
Ground improvement
clay silt sand gravel
Diameter (m)
jetgrout
column in
different
soils
meters 43
Jetgrouten
Ground improvement
Installing a
jetgrout
column
44
Ground improvement
Example of
permeation grouting
(hard gel injection)
45
Jetgrouten
Ground improvement
Application:
Jet grouting and under-
tunneling to reduce
settlements
46
Jetgrouting
Ground improvement
Principle of water sealing injection layers:

• Injection layer is not fully water tight;
• Draining percolating water is required
• In case b and c; uncontrolled leakage and erosion is a
major risk (in case of non-cohesive soils)
47
Permeation grouting
Ground improvement
Grouting of soils
• Introduction
• Jet-grouting
chemical injection)
compaction grouten)
48
Permeation grouting
Ground improvement
Possibility of permeating pores depends on:

• Grain size distribution
• Viscosity of injection fluid
Injection fluids:
1 cement suspension and bentonite-cement suspension
(particles in the fluid are not able to penetrate sand)
2 chemical solutions
conditions:
• Initial viscosity equal to water (or slightly higher than water)
• Reaction from liquid phase to a viscous fluid or hard
material
• Reaction time (time enough for injection)
49
Permeation grouting Chemisch injecteren
Ground improvement
Limits for several injection fluids
50
Permeation grouting
Ground improvement
Chemical injection
Development of
viscosity in time for
different injection
fluids
(water has a viscosity
equal to 1 cP)
51
Permeation grouting
Ground improvement
Silica gel solutions (chemical injection fluid)
• 14 % water glass (solution of silicates of soda and

potash)
• 85 % water
• 1.5 % harder
Initial viscosity : 1.5 – 5 cP
52
Permeation grouting
Ground improvement
Reaction time as
function of the
percentage of
harder
53
Permeation grouting
Ground improvement
Alternative materials:
• Ultra-fine-cement
for injection in fine sands with 20 % < 0.2 mm
• Resins (harsen) (expensive and often toxic)
54
Ground improvement
Ultra-fine or micro cement
55
Ground improvement
• Definition of micro fine cement
56
Ground improvement
• Composition of suspensions
57
Ground improvement
Claimed (by producers) injection range for micro cement, but according to
tests in NL fine sands with 20 % < 0.2 mm is the limit
58
Ground improvement
d95 = app. 20 µm D10 < app. 0.20 mm
59
Permeation grouting
Ground improvement
process
• Systems:
– Injection element
– Tube a manchette (TAM)
• Procedure using injection element or TAM
– Drill a bore hole
– Install injection element or TAM
– Fill space between element and bore hole with
bentonite cement suspension
– Wait for hardening of bentonite / cement
60
Permeation grouting
Ground improvement
• Procedure using injection element or TAM

(continuation)
– Injection per element or manchette
– With TAMs double packers are used
– Injection openings are covered with rubber manchette
to avoid soil penetration
61
Ground improvement
Injection element
Tube a manchette
(TAM)
62
Permeation grouting
Ground improvement
Horizontal layer
• Injection elements
• c.t.c. app. 1 m
• spheres with diameter 1 – 1.5 m
Vertical sheet
• TAM with injection openings spaced at e.g. 0.33 m
• diameter cylinder 0.6 – 0.9 m
• eventually more then one sheet
63
Grouting
Ground improvement
Grouting of soils
• Introduction
• Jet-grouting
chemical injection)
compaction grouten)
64
Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363 Soil-fracturing
Ground improvement
Compensation
grouting
65
Soil-fracturing
Ground improvement
Soil fracturing
• For lifting the soil predominantly horizontal
fractures are required
• Normally consolidated soils fracture mostly
vertical
• Therefore first “pre-conditioning” is required to
increase the horizontal stress and the stiffness
• Consequently horizontal fractures must be injected
in several charges
66
Soil-fracturing
Ground improvement
• Compensation grouting
trial at Sophia Tunnel
• Goal: to confirm that
compensation grouting is
able to lift piled Foundation
foundations as well piles
because of possible
Grouting zone
application at North
South line Amsterdam Tunnel
67
Ground improvement
Lay out “fracture

grouting” test at
Sophia tunnel
68
Soil-fracturing
Ground improvement
Result
• Pile foundation lifted (after
passage TBM) app 1 cm
• Not possible during TBM
passage because high bore Shortest distance sleeve - extensometer
speed and response > 1 mm
• Relation between injected 12
volume per injection
Response (heave) [mm]

opening and heave shows 10
much scatter
• Effectiveness between 8
10 and 20%
6
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Distance sleeve - extensometer [m] 69
Soil-fracturing
Ground improvement
North-South linen
70
Soil-fracturing
Ground improvement
71
Soil-fracturing
Ground improvement
72
Ground improvement

A. Ground improvement Compaction To increase strength and
without admixtures in non- stiffness
B. Ground improvement Preloading and vertical drains To reduce settlement

without admixtures in
D. Ground improvement with Grouting and freezing To increase strength to

grouting type of admixtures reduce permeability
73
Ground improvement
Methods
- Brine (in Dutch Pekel) as freezing fluid (app. –30
°C) flowing through a pipe system in the
ground from and to a freezing plant
- Liquid nitrogen (–196 °C)
delivered by trucks flowing through a pipe
system in the ground and evaporated into the
air
74
Uitvoering
Ground improvement
Freezing with liquid nitrogen
Freezing with brine and a

freezing plant
75
applications
Ground improvement
Ground freezing applications:

• To make vertical shafts
• Retaining and cut off walls
• Passage of pipelines through retaining
structures
• Closing leakages
• Cross connection for bored tunnels
76
Ground improvement
Main characteristics:
1. only for temporary sealing
2. more reliable than grouting (frozen soil is 100%
water tight)
3. but once leakage trough a frozen soil body starts
you are lost
4. freezing flowing groundwater is hardly impossible
Ground improvement
78
Ground improvement
Freezing for vertical shaft
79
Ground improvement
80
Uitvoering
Ground improvement
Installation of freezing tubes

• parallel system of tubes
• C.t.c. distance of tubes: 0,5 – 1,2 m
• Drilled or vibrated
• For brine the tubes contain two concentric
pipes
• For nitrogen: perforated tubes bring the liquid
directly into the soil
81
Uitvoering
Ground improvement
Time needed to freeze the soil:

• With brine: 20 – 40 days
• With nitrogen: 5 days
Design:
• Permeability: frozen soil is impermeable
• Strength:
- stronger than grouted soil
- depends on type of soil
- depends on loading time (creep is essential)
• Take expanding of the soil into account when
freezing
82
Uitvoering
Ground improvement
Costs
• Nitrogen method is fast but expensive
1000 – 3000 litre per m³ frozen soil
• Brine: 40 – 90 kWh/m³
• ≥ 500 €/m³
83
Uitvoering
Ground improvement
MPa
Decreasing
compressive
strength with
increasing
loading time
84
Uitvoering
Ground improvement
85
Uitvoering
Ground improvement
Properties of froozen soil

korte duur lange duur
σbr ϕ C E σbr ϕ C E
grondsoort dichtheid MN/m² – MN/m² MN/m² MN/m² – MN/m² MN/m²
korrelig vast 7 38 2 600 4 22 1,4 260

900 400
matig vast 5 30 1,5 500 3,5 15 1,2 250
samen-hangend matig hard 3 20 1 400 2 10 0,8 200

500 250
stijf 2,5 15 0,8 300 1,5 7,5 0,6 120
86
Execution
Ground improvement
Properties of froozen soil

Short term loading Long term loading
σbr ϕ C E σbr ϕ C E
Soil type density MN/m² – MN/m² MN/m² MN/m² – MN/m² MN/m²
Non cohesive dense 7 38 2 600 4 22 1,4 260

900 400
Moderate 5 30 1,5 500 3,5 15 1,2 250
dense
cohesive Moderate 3 20 1 400 2 10 0,8 200
stiff 500 250
stiff 2,5 15 0,8 300 1,5 7,5 0,6 120
87
Ground improvement
Applications
Cross connection between

bored tunnels
First freezing the

soil, next concreting
88
Ground improvement
• Frozen collar around

existing subway tunnel
Wall of frozen soil
89

Ground Improvement 2015

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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363

Classification of ground improvement methods

Category Method Objective

- fills: special requirements

Density < > pore-volume (n)

• Compaction time determines costs

Above or below groundwater table

Lower limit of permeability?

Suitable grain size

Cone resistance as function of distance

It is impossible to compact soft

Also called CDC (Cofra Dynamic Compaction)

Depth improvement and depth coefficients

Comparison of DC and RIC projects (Cofra, adjusted

– Slopes in loose packed sands

Reducing liquefaction risk

Classification of ground improvement methods

Category Method Objective

B. Ground improvement Preloading and vertical drains To reduce settlement

D. Ground improvement with Grouting and freezing To increase strength to

Jet-grouting destroys soil structure completely

Cement- and chemical injection (permeation grouting)

Soil-fracturing fractures the soil; soil structure is locally broken;

Purpose jetgrouting and permeation grouting:

cement suspension cement suspension cement suspension

Principle of water sealing injection layers:

Possibility of permeating pores depends on:

Limits for several injection fluids

Silica gel solutions (chemical injection fluid)

• 14 % water glass (solution of silicates of soda and

• Resins (harsen) (expensive and often toxic)

• Definition of micro fine cement

d95 = app. 20 µm D10 < app. 0.20 mm

• Procedure using injection element or TAM

Lay out “fracture

Response (heave) [mm]

Classification of ground improvement methods

Category Method Objective

B. Ground improvement Preloading and vertical drains To reduce settlement

D. Ground improvement with Grouting and freezing To increase strength to

Freezing with liquid nitrogen

Freezing with brine and a

Ground freezing applications:

Freezing for vertical shaft

Installation of freezing tubes

Time needed to freeze the soil:

Properties of froozen soil

grondsoort dichtheid MN/m² – MN/m² MN/m² MN/m² – MN/m² MN/m²

korrelig vast 7 38 2 600 4 22 1,4 260

samen-hangend matig hard 3 20 1 400 2 10 0,8 200

Properties of froozen soil

Soil type density MN/m² – MN/m² MN/m² MN/m² – MN/m² MN/m²

Non cohesive dense 7 38 2 600 4 22 1,4 260

Cross connection between

First freezing the

• Frozen collar around

Wall of frozen soil

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