10.

3 The Moment Distribution Method for Beams

The moment distribution method for beams may be summarized as follows:

1. Determine the stiffness for each member. For a member that is fixed at both ends, use
equation (1)(1).
kAB=4EIL(1)(1)kAB=4EIL

For a member that has a pin at one end, use equation (2)(2).
kAB=3EIL(2)(2)kAB=3EIL

2. Determine the distribution factors for each member at each node based on relative stiffness of
the members using equation (3)(3).
DFAB=kAB∑ki(3)(3)DFAB=kAB∑ki

Use a distribution factor of zero for a fixed support and 1.0 for a pinned support with only one
connected member.

3. Determine the fixed end moments for all members that have external loads applied between
the end nodes. Use Figure 9.6 from Chapter 9.

4. For each node in turn:

A. Determine the unbalanced moment on the node.

B. Distribute the unbalanced moment to each member connected to the node in proportion to
the distribution factors in the reverse direction of the unbalanced moment.
C. For each member that the moment has been distributed to, carry over some of the
moment to the opposite end of the member according to equations (4)(4)
CO=12(4)(4)CO=12

and (5)(5).
CO=0(5)(5)CO=0
 For a member with a fixed end opposite (a regular locked node), carry over half of the
moment that was applied by the distribution. For a member with a pinned end opposite
(where there are no other members connected to that pin) do not carry over any moment.

5. Repeat the previous step for each node, multiple times as necessary until the carry over
moments are a small fraction of the total moments at each member end.

6. Sum all of the moments in each member end from all previous steps (including the original
fixed end moments). This sum gives the total moment at each member end in the real system.
Typically it is convenient to keep track of the iterative part of the above method using a table.

Example
The moment distribution method for beams will be illustrated in detail using the relatively simple
example structure shown in Figure 10.5.

Figure 10.5: Indeterminate Beam Analysis using the Moment Distribution Method Example

First, we need to find the stiffness of each member. Member AB has moment resistance at
both ends, so we will use equation (1)(1):
kABkABkAB=4EIL=4EI5=0.8EIkAB=4EILkAB=4EI5kAB=0.8EI

Member BC has a pin at the right side node C with only one member (BC) connected to that
node. So, for this member, we will find the stiffness using equation (2)(2):
kBCkBCkBC=3EIL=3EI4=0.75EIkBC=3EILkBC=3EI4kBC=0.75EI
The stiffness for both members is shown in Figure 10.6 part (a).
 Figure 10.6: Indeterminate Beam Analysis using the Moment Distribution Method Example -
Analysis Steps for a Single Node

Next, we need to find all of the distribution factors for all the members at each joint. Let's first
look at member AB at node A. If we consider the rotational stiffness of the fixed support at A to
be infinite (it cannot rotate), then we can find the stiffness of member AB at node A as follows:

DFABDFABDFAB=kABkAB+kwall=0.8EI0.8EI+∞=0DFAB=kABkAB+kwallDFAB=0.8EI0.8
EI+∞DFAB=0

This is an example that shows why we consider the distribution factor at a fixed support to be
zero. Any moment that is carried over to the fixed support at A will stay there and never be
distributed back into any other members. Even if we try to unlock the fixity at node A in our
analysis, we cannot distribute the moment at the fixed support into any connected members. We
do not have to unlock and redistribute forces at fixed support locations.

At node B there are two members that are connected, members AB and BC, both of which
need distribution factors for node B:

DFBADFBADFBADFBCDFBCDFBC=kABkAB+kBC=0.8EI0.8EI+0.75EI=0.516=kBCkAB+k
BC=0.75EI0.8EI+0.75EI=0.484DFBA=kABkAB+kBCDFBA=0.8EI0.8EI+0.75EIDFBA=0.516
DFBC=kBCkAB+kBCDFBC=0.75EI0.8EI+0.75EIDFBC=0.484

Notice that DFBA+DFBC=1.0DFBA+DFBC=1.0 as expected (all of the moment at the node

must be distributed to the connected members).
For the pin end at node C, there is only one member attached, member BC:

DFCBDFCB=kBCkBC=1.0DFCB=kBCkBCDFCB=1.0

Since the pin cannot resist any moment, when the pin is unlocked, all of the moment must be
distributed back to the single connected member. Since the distributed moment is equal to the
negative of the unbalanced moment, the sum of the two will equal zero.
 The next step is to determine the fixed end moments. Figure 9.6 was used to calculate the
fixed end moments at either end of member BC as shown in Figure 10.6 part (b). These moments
are equal to:
FEMBC=+25kNmFEMCB=−25kNmFEMBC=+25kNmFEMCB=−25kNm

Now we have all of the information that we need to conduct the iterative moment distribution
analysis. The moment distribution analysis is best kept track of using a table. For this example,
the moment distribution analysis is shown in Table 10.1. The steps in this table up to the first
carry over row are simultaneously depicted in Figure 10.6.
Table 10.1: Moment Distribution Table for Beam Example (all values in 0kNm0kNm)

Table 10.1 begins at the top with a heading for each node. It may also be useful to label the
nodes that are at fixed support locations (node A in this case), or pinned support conditions with
no moment (node C in this case). Then, for each node, we need a column for every member that
is connected to that node. In this example, nodes A and C only have one member each, and node
B is connected to both members. It is also convenient to write the distribution factor for each
member at each node underneath the member heading. We previously calculated the distribution
factors for all members at all nodes based on the relative stiffness of each member at the node.
 As previously discussed, we will start the analysis by assuming that all of the nodes are fixed
for rotation. The next step is to apply the fixed end moments that we previously calculated to the
appropriate member ends as shown in Table 10.1. This step is also shown in Figure 10.6 part (b).
In this step, we must be careful about making sure that the sign of the moment is correct. Recall
that counter-clockwise point moments are considered negative and clockwise moments are
considered positive. These fixed end moments create unbalanced moments at nodes B and C.
These unbalanced moments are held in place by the rotational fixity that we applied to each node
at the beginning of the problem. At node B, for example, if we were to release the fixity, there is
a moment of +25kNm+25kNm on the node and no resisting moment in the opposite rotational
direction, meaning that the node is not in equilibrium (which it must be for the node to be
stationary.
So, if we were to release the rotational fixity at node B or C, the node would rotate due to the
unbalanced moment, applying moments to all members connected to the joint, until the moments
applied to the other members are in balance (in equilibrium). For this moment distribution
analysis, we can start with either node B or C. We will start with node B.

So the next step is to release the rotational fixity at node B and rebalance the moments. This
step is shown in Table 10.1 in the first row labelled 'Balance B' and simultaneously
in Figure 10.6part (c). To counteract the total unbalanced moment at node B
of +25kNm+25kNm we need to allow the node to rotate until a total counteracting moment
of −25kNm−25kNm is achieved by all of the members connected to the joint. Together, the
original unbalanced moment of +25kNm+25kNm and the new moment of −25kNm−25kNm will
add together to equal zero moment, meaning that node B attains equilibrium. The total
counteracting moment of −25kNm−25kNm is split between all of the connected members at
node B according to their relative stiffness. This is the purpose of the distribution factors that we
copied in at the top of the table. These distribution factors that we previously calculated tell us
what percentage of moment goes in to each connected member. In this case the counteracting
end moment in member BA is 0.516(−25)=−12.90.516(−25)=−12.9 and in member BC
is 0.484(−25)=−12.10.484(−25)=−12.1. These must add up to the full counteracting moment
value of −25−25. Once we apply the counteracting moment, it may be convenient to draw a line
under them in the table as shown. This is an indication that all of the moments above the line are
in equilibrium (they all add up to zero). This will help when calculating any new unbalanced
moments that get applied to the node in the future.
Of course when we apply a moment to one end of a member, this may effect the value of the
moment at the other end of the member. This is only true if we know that the other end of the
member has some moment resistance (i.e. it is not a pin with only one member connected to it).
This moment that is induced at the other end of the member is the carry-over moment. After
balancing node B, the new counteracting moments which put the node into equilibrium when it is
unlocked and balanced must be carried over to the other ends of all members connected to node
B. Previously we found that applying a moment to one end of a member when the other end is
fixed will result in half of that applied moment being induced at the opposite end of the member
(in the same direction). So the counter balancing moment on member AB at node B
of −(−12.9kNm)−(−12.9kNm) (MBAMBA) will cause half of that moment at the other end of
member AB at node A (MAB=−(−6.45kNm)MAB=−(−6.45kNm)). This is the same as saying
that the carry-over factor for that member CO=12CO=12. This carry-over is shown
in Table 10.1 between BA and AB. For the other member connected to node B, member BC, the
opposite end at node C is a pin that cannot take any moment. Therefore, the carry-over factor for
that member CO=0CO=0 as shown in the table. This carry-over process is also shown for the
two members in Figure 10.6 part (d).
After node B is balanced and the carry-overs are applied to the opposite ends of the connected
members, we re-lock (fix) node B and move onto another node in the structure. The order that
we go in does not matter, but it is typically a good idea to go in some consistent order to ensure
that all nodes are balanced, multiple times if necessary. In our case, we do not need to ever
balance node A since it has a fixed support in the real structure. Any moments that are applied or
carried over to the fixed support at node A will stay there permanently (the distribution factor for
node A is 0).

So, we will move onto node C as shown in Table 10.1. The first step again is to
unlock/release the node and balance the unbalanced moment. At node C, there is only one
previous unbalanced load which was caused by the fixed end moment (−25kNm−25kNm);
however, if there was a non-zero carry-over moment from the balancing of node B, then the total
unbalanced moment for node C would be the sum of the original fixed end moment and the
carried-over moment. The total counterbalancing moment for the unbalanced moment at node C
is, therefore, +25kNm+25kNm which is applied entirely to member CB (since it is the only
member at the node and the distribution factor is 1.0). Since all the moments at node C are now
balanced, there is a horizontal line drawn underneath the counterbalancing moment. Then, since
the opposite end of that member, at node B, is fixed, we need to carry over half of the
counterbalancing moment to the other end of member BC at node B (+12.5kNm+12.5kNm), as
shown in the table.
So now, this has caused a new unbalanced moment at node B which needs to be balanced out
again as shown in Table 10.1 (the second row that is labelled 'Balance B'). Since the carry-over
moments from this balancing do not get transferred to the pin end at node C, there are no longer
any unbalanced moments in the system after this step, so we are done with balancing nodes. It is
not typical that a moment distribution analysis ends with perfectly balanced nodes as we will see
in a later example. Typically, we need to keep iterating back and forth between nodes until the
carry-over moments become sufficiently small as to be negligible.
The last step is to sum all of the moments that have been applied to each member end over the
entire history of the analysis. Since we have used a table for our analysis (Table 10.1), we can
just sum up all of the moment values in each column (each column representing one member
end. This step is shown in the last row of the table, and these values give us the real moments are
each end of each member.
Using these moments, we can find the shears in the members and then draw the shear and
moment diagrams for the beam as shown in Figure 10.7.
 Figure 10.7: Indeterminate Beam Analysis using the Moment Distribution Method Example -
Shear and Moment Diagrams

8.2 Force Method using an External Reaction Redundant Force

Let's start with a simple indeterminate system that is only 1°1° indeterminate. Such a system is
shown in Figure 8.1. This system is a beam with a pin support and two roller supports, giving it
four reaction components, but only three equations of equilibrium. We cannot find the moment
diagram for this beam using any of the methods that we have learned so far.
Figure 8.1: The Force Method - Using Superposition to Separate out a Redundant Reaction Force
Component
 The way that we will deal with the beam in Figure 8.1 is to break the problem up into
determinate parts (using superposition) and then reconciling those parts with each other using
compatibility. Recall that, from the beam's point of view, there is no real difference between a
load caused by an external force, and a load caused by a reaction force. The only difference
between the two is that we know that at the reaction force location, the deformation/rotation
associated with that reaction component is zero. The reaction component keeps the structure in
place, either by restraining a displacement, or by restraining a rotation. This known displacement
rotation at the reaction component location gives us some additional information about how the
structure behaves, beyond what we can tell about the structure from equilibrium alone. For
example, inFigure 8.1 the top diagram shows the beam with the reaction, and the second diagram
from the top shows the associated free body diagram for that beam subjected to the given
external forces. The top diagram gives us additional information that the second diagram (the
free body diagram) doesn't: namely, that the beam is restrained from moving vertically at point
A, C, and E. This is a type of compatibility information. This extra compatibility information is
not required when we are analysing the shears and moments in a determinate beam; however,
when we are analysing an indeterminate beam, we can put it to use.
To take advantage of this extra compatibility information at the reaction supports, we will
divide our free body diagram in Figure 8.1 into two separate systems using superposition. To
start with, we will choose one of the reaction components to be our redundant force. We will
treat this reaction component in a special way, by considering what would happen if the support
reaction wasn't there, but we still had the force of that reaction. For the system shown
in Figure 8.1, the roller reaction at point C has been chosen as the redundant force. So, we
remove the support, but keep the equivalent reaction force CyCy, which we will now call
our redundant force (although we don't know the value of CyCy yet). This means that in our
analyses, the beam will be allowed to displace at point C. The support reactions at points A and
E will remain as they were. For this beam, by removing the support reaction at C and then
treating the equivalent reaction force as an external force, we have changed
our 1°1° indeterminate system into a determinate system. This new determinate system, without
the reaction support associated with the redundant force is called the primary system. Later, we
will have a way to bring the compatibility at C (the fact that there is actually a reaction support
there) back into play.
 So, without the support at C, and treating the reaction force CyCy as if it was an external
force, we can divide the full behaviour of the beam into two different systems using
superposition as shown in Figure 8.1. One system will have the real external
forces PP and QQ ('external forces without redundant' in the figure), and the other system will
have only the redundant force CyCy('redundant force only' in the figure). Both of these systems
will be allowed to deflect at point C, but not at points A and E (the supports at A and E are still
considered to exist). For each system, the forces on it will cause reaction forces at A and E. The
superposition of these two systems will give us back the full free body diagram for the beam, and
the sum of the reaction forces for the two systems will give us the total reaction forces for the
full beam system.
Why are we doing all of this? Because now we can use the superposition of the deformations
of the two separate systems to find the redundant force (CyCy) which is our true reaction force at
point C in the system. Recall from the previous discussion on superposition (see Chapter 5) that
superposition applies to both forces/moments and deformations of a structure. So, the
deformation of the system with only the external forces (without the redundant force) summed
with the deformation of the system with only the redundant force will equal the full deformation
of the real full beam. This is illustrated in Figure 8.2.
 Figure 8.2: The Force Method Superposition of Displacements Caused by External forces and
the Redundant Reaction Force Component

The top diagram in Figure 8.2 shows the deformation of the full indeterminate beam with the
reaction at point C still in place. Of course, we know that the vertical deformation at point C
(ΔCΔC) is equal to zero, as shown. Once we eliminate the support at C, giving us our primary
system, we can apply the two components of the superimposed system and measure the
deflection at point C. For the first one, we only apply the external reactions PP and QQ to the
primary system. Since the primary system is determinate, we can easily find the vertical
displacement at point C (ΔC0ΔC0) using one of the methods from Chapter 5, assuming that we
are given the magnitudes of the forces PPand QQ. For the second of the superimposed systems,
only the redundant force CyCy is applied to the primary system with the goal of determining the
vertical displacement that the redundant force causes at point C (ΔCCΔCC). Of course, unlike
for PP and QQ, we don't actually know the value of the redundant force, it is what we are trying
to find.
Superposition and compatibility together give us one extra piece of information. The two
superimposed displacements at point C (ΔC0ΔC0 and ΔCCΔCC) must add together to get the
total displacement at point C (ΔCΔC) in the real beam, which we know must be equal to zero
since there is actually a vertical support at that location. This means that:
ΔC=ΔC0+ΔCC=0(1)(1)ΔC=ΔC0+ΔCC=0

This equation may be called our compatibility condition for this problem.
We can't directly use this compatibility condition to solve for CyCy because we don't have a
readily available method for calculating the force in a structure that is associated with a known
deflection (all of the methods from Chapter 5 find the deflection caused by a given force). But,
we can find how much deflection at C (part of ΔCCΔCC) would be caused by each unit or
each 1kN1kNpiece of the force CyCy. We find this by applying a unit load at point C in the same
direction as the redundant, and then finding the deflection at C caused by that unit force. This
gives us the amount of deflection at C caused by each 0kN0kN of CyCy and is called
the flexibility coefficient (fCCfCC). This flexibility coefficient has units of length divided by
force (e.g. 0mm/kN0mm/kN). So, the total deflection caused by redundant force CyCy is equal
to:
ΔCC=fCCCy(2)(2)ΔCC=fCCCy

where ΔCCΔCC is the total deflection of the primary system at point C caused by the redundant
forceCyCy, and fCCfCC is the deflection of the primary system at point C caused by a single
unit load at point C. If we sub equation (2)(2) into equation (1)(1), then we get:
ΔC0+fCCCy=0(3)(3)ΔC0+fCCCy=0

and, then we can rearrange to solve for the redundant force CyCy:
Cy=−ΔC0fCC(4)(4)Cy=−ΔC0fCC
This solution for CyCy gives us the exact amount of force necessary at point C to keep point C in
place vertically (when the system is subjected to forces PP and QQ). So, since CyCy has been
the exact right amount of force all along, it doesn't actually matter that we removed the support
at C when we started treating the reaction at C as a redundant force instead of a reaction force.
The amount that the beam is pushed downwards by the external forces PP and QQ is exactly
balanced by the amount that the beam is pushed upwards by the redundant force CyCy.
Once we have solved for the reaction force at C (CyCy), we have only three unknowns
reaction forces left: AxAx, AyAy, and EyEy (assuming PP and QQ are known). So, it is a trivial
exercise now to use the three equilibrium equations to solve for these unknowns. From there,
once we know all of the reactions, we can draw the shear and moment diagrams.
The choice of CyCy as our redundant reaction was somewhat arbitrary. We could also have
chosen, AyAy or EyEy as the redundant force instead; however, CyCy is a bit easier because
when the support at C is removed, we are left with a primary system that is a simply supported
beam, which is easy to analyse for deflections. We could not have chosen AxAx as a redundant
force because the removal of the reaction component AxAx would make the resulting primary
system unstable, which means that it would be impossible to analyse to determine deflections.
It is also important to note that for a structure with a fixed support, a moment reaction could
be chosen to be the redundant force. In this case, the compatibility condition would relate the
rotations at the redundant location instead of the deformations, for example:

θC=θC0+θCC=0θC=θC0+θCC=0

and the flexibility coefficient would relate a unit moment to the rotation caused by that moment
(units of 01/kNm01/kNm):
θCC=−fCCMC(5)(5)θCC=−fCCMC

This same method is also directly applicable to indeterminate frames and trusses, as we will
see.

Example
The force method with an external reaction redundant force will be illustrated using the example
frame structure shown in Figure 8.3. This simple frame is 1°1° indeterminate and has a
constant EIEIfor all members.
 Figure 8.3: Force Method using an External Reaction Redundant Force Example

The first step is to select which reaction component to use as the redundant force. In this case,
the easiest one would be the vertical reaction at point C (CyCy). This is because, once the
reaction at C is removed, the primary system is effectively a cantilever, which is very easy to
analyse. Of course AyAy and MAMA would also work as redundants (but not CxCx, because
removing it would make the primary system unstable). The resulting primary structure is shown
in Figure 8.4.
 Figure 8.4: Force Method using an External Reaction Redundant Force Example - Primary
Structure with External Loads

With CyCy selected as the redundant force, the compatibility condition for this problem is:
ΔC0+ΔCC=0ΔC0+ΔCC=0

where ΔC0ΔC0 is the deflection of the primary system at point C due to the external loads
only, ΔCCΔCCis the deflection of the primary system at C due to the redundant force only, and 0
is the necessary result of the superposition of the two deflections, which must be zero because in
the full indeterminate structure there is a vertical support at C which restrains the structures
vertical deflection at that location.
As with the beam discussed previously, the first step to finding the redundant force is to
find ΔC0ΔC0, the deflection of the primary structure (primary system) due to the external loads
only (without the redundant force). This structure and the corresponding deflected shape are
shown inFigure 8.4. Since this structure is a frame, we cannot use the moment area method or the
conjugate beam method to solve for the deflection ΔC0ΔC0, we must use the virtual work
method.
The virtual work analysis of the primary structure with the external load is shown
in Figure 8.5. For this virtual work analysis, the real system is the primary structure with the
external load (as shown), and the virtual system is the primary structure with a single vertical
unit load at point C (since we are trying to find the vertical deflection of the real system at point
C). The resulting real shear diagram and real curvature diagram for the real system are shown in
the figure right below the real system. The curvature diagram has the same shape as the moment
diagram for this system (not shown), since EIEI is constant for all of the members. The virtual
shear diagram and virtual moment diagram for the virtual system are also shown.
Figure 8.5: Force Method using an External Reaction Redundant Force Example - Deflection of
the Primary Structure due to External Loads

Using the virtual work methods from Chapter 5 (and using the Product Integration table
inFigure 5.22 we can find the vertical deflection at C:
Wv,iWv,iWv,i=LMQ4+L6[Qa(2Ma+Mb)+Qb(Ma+2Mb)]=−576kN2m3EI−3124kN2m3EI=−37
00kN2m3EIWv,i=LMQ4+L6[Qa(2Ma+Mb)+Qb(Ma+2Mb)]Wv,i=−576kN2m3EI−3124kN2m3
EIWv,i=−3700kN2m3EI

Applying the virtual work balance:

Wv,e(ΔC0)(1kN)ΔC0=Wv,i=−3700kN2m3EI=−3700kNm3EIWv,e=Wv,i(ΔC0)(1kN)=−3700kN
2m3EIΔC0=−3700kNm3EI

Now we have ΔC0ΔC0 which is one part of our compatibility condition. Next, we need to
find the effect of a unit redundant of 1kN1kN on the deflection of the primary system at point C
(without the external loads). We will also use virtual work for this as shown in Figure 8.6.
Figure 8.6: Force Method using an External Reaction Redundant Force Example - Deflection of
the Primary Structure due to the Unit Redundant Force

For the virtual work analysis shown in Figure 8.6, the real system is the primary structure
with a unit redundant force at point C as shown in the figure. It is important to note that the unit
redundant force is not applied as 1kN1kN like a virtual load, it is unitless (or in units
of 0kN/kN0kN/kN) because we want to find the values per kN of applied redundant force. To
find the deflection at C due to that unit redundant force, we need to create a virtual system with a
virtual external unit load at point C (in the same direction as the redundant). This means that the
real and virtual systems for finding the effect of a unit redundant force are functionally identical
as shown in the figure. These real and virtual systems, while identical to each other, also happen
to be identical to the virtual system from Figure 8.5 (which was being used to find the deflection
of the primary system caused by the external loads on the system without the redundant). So,
both the real and virtual system results for the unit redundant analysis in Figure 8.6 may be taken
directly from the previous virtual system from Figure 8.5. This saves some analysis work since
the moment diagrams will be the same for all three. The only difference may be that the
curvature diagram for the real system in Figure 8.6 may be a bit different if EIEI were not
constant. The proper units for the real system are also a bit different for the unit redundant
analysis because the unit redundant does not have a units (i.e. it is in units of 0kN/kN0kN/kN as
mentioned previously).
Using the virtual work method with these real and virtual systems, we can solve for the
flexibility coefficient fCCfCC which is the deflection of the primary structure at C due to a unit
redundant force at C (as shown in the top diagram in Figure 8.6):
Wv,iWv,iWv,i=LMQ3+L6[Qa(2Ma+Mb)+Qb(Ma+2Mb)]=21.3kN2m3EI+71.7kN2m3EI=93.0k
Nm3EIWv,i=LMQ3+L6[Qa(2Ma+Mb)+Qb(Ma+2Mb)]Wv,i=21.3kN2m3EI+71.7kN2m3EIWv,i
=93.0kNm3EI

Applying the virtual work balance:

Wv,e(fCC)(1kN)fCC=Wv,i=93.0kNm3EI=93.0m3EIWv,e=Wv,i(fCC)(1kN)=93.0kNm3EIfCC=
93.0m3EI
 Now that we have the flexibility coefficient we can revisit our compatibility condition to
solve for the magnitude of the redundant force:

ΔC0+ΔCCbutΔCC∴CyCyCyCy=0=fCC(Cy)=−ΔC0fCC=−(−3700kNm3EI)(EI93.0m3)=+39.8k
N=39.8kN↑ΔC0+ΔCC=0butΔCC=fCC(Cy)∴Cy=−ΔC0fCCCy=−(−3700kNm3EI)(EI93.0m3)Cy
=+39.8kNCy=39.8kN↑

Since we assumed that the unit redundant force pointed upwards in our analysis (as shown
inFigure 8.6), a positive result for CyCy confirms that the reaction actually points upwards.
After all of this analysis, we have managed to determine the magnitude of the reaction
component CyCy. Knowing this, there are only three unknown reactions remaining in the
indeterminate system as shown in Figure 8.7, AxAx, AyAy, and MAMA. These may be easily
found using equilibrium and their values are shown in Figure 8.7. Once the reactions are all
known the shear and moment diagrams may be drawn as shown in the figure.
 Figure 8.7: Force Method using an External Reaction Redundant Force Example - Moment and
Shear in the Full Indeterminate Frame

8.3 Force Method using an Internal Force as the Redundant Force

External reactions are usually the easiest forces to use as redundant forces for a force method
analysis. But what could we do if our structure is internally indeterminate, but externally
determinate (i.e. if we remove a reaction, then our structure will be unstable)? In this case, we
can use an internal force, such as an axial force, or internal moment to act as the redundant force,
which is the force that we remove to get the determinate primary structure that was discussed in
the previous section. This may also be useful if the use of an internal redundant results in a
primary structure that is particularly easy to analyse.

For the single degree indeterminate beam that we studied in the previous section
(fromFigure 8.1), once we add internal redundants into the mix, there are an infinite amount of
different redundants that we could choose to form our determinate primary system for the force
method analysis. Three of these are shown in Figure 8.8. The top of the figure shows the
previously studied single degree indeterminate beam. The second diagram from the top shows
the primary system (the system with the redundant reaction removed) if the chosen redundant
force is the reaction at point C (CyCy). This is the example that was studied in Section 8.2. The
third shows a potential internal redundant force, the moment at point C (MCMC). For an external
reaction redundant, we simply remove the reaction, but for an internal redundant, we must
release whatever effect or continuity that redundant force is associated with. In this case, the
internal moment at point C is associated with the transfer of moment through the beam from the
left side of point C to the right. To remove the effect of this redundant, we must add a hinge at
point C, effectively 'breaking' the beam's ability to resist moment at point C. If the beam could
transfer moment, then the slope of the beam at point C must be continuous. The effect of adding
the hinge (and breaking the moment transfer) is to have a 'kink' in the deflected shape of the
beam, which will be shown later. The bottom diagram in the figure shows another potential
position for an internal moment redundant in the beam: to the left of point C, at newly-identified
point B'. There are an infinite number of potential locations for an internal moment redundant in
this beam, because it may be located anywhere along the length. Any position for added hinge in
this beam will make the system determinate for use as a primary system for the force method
analysis; however, it is clear that some locations are more convenient for analysis than others.
Locating the internal moment redundant at point C effectively converts the indeterminate beam
into two adjacent simply-supported beams, which will be quite simple to analyse.
 Figure 8.8: Redundant Force Selection for the Force Method

For internal redundant forces, the same rule applies as for the use of external reaction
redundant forces: the removal of the restraint or continuity that is associated with an internal
redundant force must not cause the structure to become unstable.
Beams and Frames
For a beam or frame element, the most common type of internal redundant for a force method
analysis is an internal moment. Continuing to use the same example beam, a force method
analysis using a redundant internal moment at point C is shown in Figure 8.9.
Figure 8.9: Force Method for Beams and Frames using an Internal Force as the Redundant Force
 Similarly to the external reaction redundant case that was discussed previously, the internal
redundant force method analysis shown in Figure 8.9 works because we have some knowledge
of the compatibility of the structure. For this case, the first step is to remove the continuity in the
mean associated with the redundant internal moment at point C by adding a hinge at that point
(which cannot transfer moment). This continuity is the compatibility information that we will
rely on for the force method analysis. We know that the full beam structure actually has a
continuous slope at C, i.e. no 'kink'. So, we remove the restraint, find out how much the two
sides of the hinge will rotate, and then find out how much redundant force (in this case internal
moments at point C) we need to add to counteract the external forces to make the slope at point
C continuous again (to eliminate the kink).
Starting with the primary system with the added hinge (second from the top in Figure 8.9), we
first add the external forces and see how much rotation we get on either side of the newly added
hinge. We can find this rotation using any of the methods from Chapter 5. This rotation may be
different on the left side of C (θC0,leftθC0,left) and right side of C (θC0,rightθC0,right) as
shown. Note that, as drawn in the figure, θC0,leftθC0,left is a positive rotation (counter-
clockwise), and θC0,rightθC0,right is a negative rotation (clockwise). The total amount of kink
at point C can be measured as the difference of these two rotations as shown in the figure and
repeated here:
θC0=θC0,right−θC0,left(1)(1)θC0=θC0,right−θC0,left

This is equal to the total difference in slope of the beam from the left side of C to the right side of
C.

This total change in rotation must be counter-acted by the redundant force, to bring the beam
back to straight and eliminate the kink. We know that there is no kink because in the real beam it
is continuous. So we apply a redundant internal moment at C as two unit moments on either side
of point C (as shown at the bottom of Figure 8.9). These moments are applied in the positive
sense according to our sign convention from Chapter 1. Unit moments are used because we don't
actually know the magnitude of the internal moment at C. Like the external reaction redundant
case, we will find the rotation caused by the redundant in terms of a flexibility, so that we know
how much rotation is caused by a single unit of moment. Then from that we can use the
compatibility relationship to solve for the unknown redundant moment, as we will see. These
unit moments are unitless (i.e. it is not in terms of 0kNm0kNm). Two unit moments are required
because if we cut a continuous beam at a single location, the internal moment would be
represented by equal and opposite moments on either side of the cut (as previously discussed
in Chapter 1). So, the resulting rotation on either side of the cut (which are our flexibilities) are
represented by fCC,leftfCC,left and fCC,rightfCC,right as shown in the figure. Similar to before,
as shown, fCC,leftfCC,left is positive, and fCC,rightfCC,right is negative. In this notation
'CCCC' the first letter is the location that the deflection or rotation (flexibility) is measured at and
the second letter is the location of the unit load or moment that is causing that deflection or
rotation. In this case, the flexibility and unit moment are located at the same position C, hence
'CCCC'. Like the situation for the primary system with the external load, when we add the
redundant unit moments here, we are interested in the total relative change in rotation for the two
sides of point C:
fCC=fCC,right−fCC,left(2)(2)fCC=fCC,right−fCC,left

This total difference in slope of the beam from the left side of C to the right side of C is what will
counteract the total difference in slope caused by the external forces when we apply our
compatibility condition.

To find the amount of internal moment MCMC that will cause the primary beam to become
continuous at point C again (to make sure that there is no kink), we must apply the following
compatibility condition:
(θC0,right−θC0,left)+(fCC,right−fCC,left)MC=0(3)(3)(θC0,right−θC0,left)+(fCC,right−fCC,left
)MC=0

where MCMC is our redundant moment, the parameter that we are trying to find using the force
method. Applying equations (1)(1) and (2)(2), we get:
θC0+fCCMC=0(4)(4)θC0+fCCMC=0

The rotation θC0θC0 and the flexibility fCCfCC are found through the analysis of the primary
system, leaving MCMC as the only unknown:
MC=−θC0fCC(5)(5)MC=−θC0fCC

Example
The use of the force method of analysis with an internal redundant force will be illustrated using
the example in Figure 8.10. This is a 1°1° indeterminate multi-span beam structure with a
uniform distributed load ww along it's entire length. We will find the moment diagram in terms
of the distributed load value ww and the total beam length LL. The EIEI of the beam is constant
along the length.

Figure 8.10: Internal Redundants for Beams Example

Similar to the structure in the previous discussion, the internal moment at the centre
support MBMB will be used as the redundant force for the force method analysis of this beam.
The primary system, with the continuity associated with the internal moment MBMB removed
by the addition of a hinge at point B, is shown at the top of Figure 8.11. The compatibility
condition for this system will be that the beam must have a continuous slope at point B, which
may be represented by the equation:
θB0+fBBMB=0θB0+fBBMB=0
 Figure 8.11: Internal Redundants for Beams Example - Primary Systems

The first step in the analysis is to find the effect of the external beam loads (in this case the
distributed load ww) on the rotation of the beam on the left and right sides of the new hinge at
point B. This situation is shown in Figure 8.11 (Primary System with External Forces). The
distributed load causes the primary system to deflect downwards for each span as if each span
was a separate simply-supported beam. This causes
rotations θB0,leftθB0,left and θB0,rightθB0,right at point B as shown on the figure. The
resulting curvature diagram for the primary system with the external load is also shown on the
figure.
The rotations θB0,leftθB0,left and θB0,rightθB0,right may be determined using any of the
methods fromChapter 5. Here, we will use the second moment area theorem. The second
moment area deviations (ΔA/BΔA/B and ΔC/BΔC/B), from the tangent at B to the deflected
shape at the supports on the left and right ends of the beam, are shown in Figure 8.11. Recall that
these are found by calculating the moment of the area of the curvature diagram between the
deflected point and the location associated with the reference tangent. Also recall
from Figure 5.7 in Chapter 5 that the area of the half parabolas in our curvature diagram will
be 23LM23LM and the centroid of that area is 38L38L from the high side of the parabola.
Knowing these, we can apply the second moment area theorem to find the
rotations θB0,leftθB0,left and θB0,rightθB0,right (don't forget that the moment arms for the
areas are always measured relative to the deflected point, not the reference tangent point):
ΔA/BΔA/B∴θB0,left=[23(L6)(wL272EI)][58(L6)]+[23(L6)(wL272EI)][L6+38(L6)]=wL41944E
I=ΔA/BL/3ΔA/B=[23(L6)(wL272EI)][58(L6)]+[23(L6)(wL272EI)][L6+38(L6)]ΔA/B=wL4194
4EI∴θB0,left=ΔA/BL/3

θB0,left=wL3648EIθB0,left=wL3648EI

For θB0,rightθB0,right:
ΔC/BΔC/B∴θB0,right=[23(L3)(wL218EI)][58(L3)]+[23(L3)(wL218EI)][L3+38(L3)]=2wL4243
EI=−ΔC/B2L/3ΔC/B=[23(L3)(wL218EI)][58(L3)]+[23(L3)(wL218EI)][L3+38(L3)]ΔC/B=2wL
4243EI∴θB0,right=−ΔC/B2L/3
 θB0,right=−wL381EIθB0,right=−wL381EI

The rotation is negative because it is clockwise.

Using equation (1)(1), we can find the total change in slope (amount of kink) at point B:
θB0θB0=θB0,right−θB0,left=−wL381EI−wL3648EIθB0=θB0,right−θB0,leftθB0=−wL381EI−w
L3648EI

θB0=−wL372EIθB0=−wL372EI

This gives us one ingredient for our compatibility condition equation.

The next required ingredient for the compatibility condition is the flexibility of the primary
system at point B due to the unit redundant moments as shown in the lower part of Figure 8.11.
To do this, a unit moment is added to both sides of the newly added hinge at point B of the
primary system as shown in the figure. The unit moment on the left side is counter-clockwise
and the unit moment on the right side is clockwise. These are equal and opposite and both
together represent a positive internal moment in the beam (which causes the beam to bend such
that it is concave-up).
The resulting curvature diagram for the primary system subject to the unit redundant moments
is shown at the bottom of Figure 8.11. We can use this curvature diagram with the second
moment area theorem to find the rotations on the left and right of point B caused by the unit
redundant moments (fBB,leftfBB,left and fBB,rightfBB,right), which are our flexibility
coefficients:
ΔA/BΔA/B∴fBB,left=[12(L3)(1.0EI)][23(L3)]=L227EI=ΔA/BL/3ΔA/B=[12(L3)(1.0EI)][23(L3)
]ΔA/B=L227EI∴fBB,left=ΔA/BL/3

fBB,left=L9EIfBB,left=L9EI

Again, the calculation for fBB,rightfBB,right is similar but has a negative rotation:
ΔC/BΔC/B∴fBB,right=[12(2L3)(1.0EI)][23(2L3)]=4L227EI=−ΔC/B2L/3ΔC/B=[12(2L3)(1.0EI)
][23(2L3)]ΔC/B=4L227EI∴fBB,right=−ΔC/B2L/3

fBB,right=−2L9EIfBB,right=−2L9EI
and using equation (2)(2), we can find the total change in slope (amount of kink) at point B:
fBBfBB=fBB,right−fBB,left=−2L9EI−L9EIfBB=fBB,right−fBB,leftfBB=−2L9EI−L9EI

fBB=−L3EIfBB=−L3EI

This gives us the last ingredient for our compatibility condition equation.

Applying our compatibility equation now, we can solve for the unknown internal moment
redundant MBMB:
θB0+fBBMBMBMB=0=−θB0fBB=−(−wL372EI)(−3EIL)θB0+fBBMB=0MB=−θB0fBBMB=−(
−wL372EI)(−3EIL)

MB=−wL224MB=−wL224

Now that we know the moment at point B (MBMB), we can go back to the full structure and
solve for the reactions, as shown in Figure 8.12. The full free body diagram of the structure is
shown near the top of the figure. We can see immediately that the horizontal reaction at point A
(AxAx) will be zero due to horizontal equilibrium. The force method analysis did not give us any
information about the full global free body diagram; however, if we make a cut in the free body
diagram at point B, we know the internal moment at the cut section MBMB, which was our
redundant force in the analysis.
 Figure 8.12: Internal Redundants for Beams Example - Using the Found Redundant to Find the
Moment Diagram

If we use take a free body diagram of a cut at point B just to the left of point B as shown
inFigure 8.12, we can use a moment equilibrium around point B to find the
reaction Ay=124wL↑Ay=124wL↑. Since MBMB is negative, the moment arrow on the right side
of a member will be clockwise (to cause concave-down style bending). We take the cut just to
the left of point B so that our free body diagram does not include the vertical reaction at B
(ByBy). This allows us to use vertical equilibrium to find the shear just to the left of point B
which is VB,left=−724wLVB,left=−724wL. The shear to the left of B is negative because the
arrow for VBVB will point up. Recall that our sign convention is that shear arrows that point up
on the right side of a member represent negative shear. Recall as well that the shear force is
undefined right at the position of an external reaction force because the reaction changes the
shear instantaneously at that point. Therefore, it is only useful to talk about the shear 'just to the
left' or 'just to the right' of a reaction.
The same process may be followed for the right side of the beam (with a cut section just to the
right of point B as shown in Figure 8.12) to give us the vertical
reaction Cy=1348wL↑Cy=1348wL↑ and shear to the right of B which
is VB,right=1948wLVB,right=1948wL. The last missing piece, the vertical reaction ByBy can
be found using global equilibrium to be By=2124wL↑By=2124wL↑. The completed free body
diagram with the known reactions is shown in the figure, and this may be used to draw the final
shear and moment diagrams for the indeterminate multi-span beam as shown.
Trusses
The use of an internal redundant force is also common for indeterminate truss analysis. Any truss
system with a dual cross-brace, such as the one shown at the top of Figure 8.13 will be internally
indeterminate. This particular truss also happens to be externally determinate since it only has
three external reaction components. This means that the only way to find the forces in this truss
using the force method is to use an internal truss axial force as a redundant. If we removed a
reaction component, then the resulting primary system would be unstable (and therefore,
impossible to analyse).
Figure 8.13: Force Method for Trusses using an Internal Force as the Redundant Force - Primary
System with External Load

When using a truss member axial force as a redundant for a force method analysis, we need to
release the deformation associated with the axial force. This means that we must effectively
completely break the truss element to form the determinate primary system, since truss elements
only take axial forces. It does not matter where along the truss member we break it. We will
consider that the remaining pieces of the truss element remain in place, even though they would
technically fall out of place when cut in the middle.

For the single degree indeterminate truss shown in Figure 8.13, the force method analysis
process will be illustrated using the axial force in truss member BC (FBCFBC) as the redundant.
The resulting primary system for this truss is shown in the middle of Figure 8.13. Member BC is
cut at a single point along its length and the cut ends are labelled b and c. When the external
force is applied, as shown in the figure the truss deforms and the BC diagonal distance,
originally L0L0 is shortened to LPLP. This causes the newly cut ends at b and c to overlap as
shown in the image on the right side of the figure. We can call the length of the overlap due to
the external force ΔBC,0ΔBC,0which is equal to the difference between the initial length of the
diagonal BC (L0L0) and the final length after the application of external force PP (LPLP).
To find the value of the overlap ΔBC,0ΔBC,0 we can use the method of virtual work
from Chapter 5. The real system for this virtual work analysis is simply the primary system with
the external load applied (and no force in members Cc and Bb since they are cut). This is a
determinate truss that is easy to analyse. The virtual system will be the same primary system,
without the external force PP, but with virtual external unit loads applied at each cut end at b and
c. This pair of virtual unit load is in the same location and direction as the unknown that we want
to find, i.e. the overlap of the two cut ends at b and c. Having two unit loads in opposite
directions instead of a single, will find the relative movement of the two ends. The real and
virtual systems for finding ΔBC,0ΔBC,0 are shown at the bottom of Figure 8.13.
The virtual system, with unit loads at points b and c, shown at the bottom middle
of Figure 8.13, is equivalent to the virtual system shown at the bottom right of the figure. The
unit loads at b and c put both cut ends into an equal 1.0kN1.0kN of tension, so we can easily
conceptualize and analyse the truss virtual system as if the member BC was not cut but had a
known axial tension of 1.0kN1.0kNas shown at the bottom right of the figure.
So, in the primary system subject to the external load, the load causes the two cut ends of the
member BC to overlap by ΔBC,0ΔBC,0, an amount which we can calculate using virtual work.
In the full indeterminate system, we know that the member BC cannot overlap itself because it is
continuous. Therefore, we need to find the value of the redundant internal axial force in member
BC (FBCFBC) that will counteract this overlap by pushing the split ends of the member at b and
c apart. Again, as in previous analyses, we will find the effect on the overlap caused by a unit
redundant load to find a flexibility coefficient. This will allow us to determine how much force
in member BC in the primary system will exactly counteract the overlap caused by the external
forces.
To find the flexibility coefficient, we will apply unit redundant loads to members Bb and Cc
at both cut faces (at points b and c) as shown in Figure 8.14. Like the internal moment redundant
for the beam that was discussed in the previous section, we need a pair of forces to represent the
action of the internal axial force. This is because it causes forces that are equal and opposite at
any cut section. These unit redundant forces will cause the truss to deform and will create their
own overlap at the cut section as shown at the top right of Figure 8.14. This overlap caused by
the unit redundant forces is our flexibility coefficient fBCBCfBCBC. In this notation
'BCBCBCBC' the first pair of letters is the location that the overlap is measured at and the
second pair of letters is the location of the unit internal axial load. In this case, the overlap
(flexibility) and unit internal axial load are for the same member BC, hence 'BCBCBCBC'.
Figure 8.14: Force Method for Trusses using an Internal Force as the Redundant Force - Primary
System with Unit Redundant Load

Since we will consider the unit redundant to represent a tension force (because we generally
tension axial forces to be positive), the resulting flexibility coefficient fBCBCfBCBC will
represent an overlap in this case as shown to the right side of Figure 8.14; however, this just
means that when we apply our compatibility condition, the force in BC will come out negative.
The redundant force in this case will have to produce a gap between the ends b and c to
compensate for the overlap caused by the external forces on the primary system.
To find the value of the flexibility coefficient (the amount of overlap cause by a unit amount
of redundant force, we can again use virtual work as shown on the bottom of Figure 8.14. The
real system for the virtual work is our primary system with the unit redundants on either side of
the cut at point b and c as shown in the figure (but with no units for the redundants). The virtual
system is identical since we are trying to find the overlap at that location (the same thing we
were trying to do previously for the primary system with the external load). Both the real and
virtual systems cause a uniform unit tension force in the remainder of member BC and so, as
before, can both be analysed as if the member BC was not cut but had a known axial tension
of 1.0kN1.0kN (or just 1.01.0for the real system) as shown at the bottom right of Figure 8.14.
The real and virtual system here are the same as the virtual system for the primary system with
the external load (the one shown at the bottom right of Figure 8.13. This means that we can use
the same truss solution for all three. This virtual work analysis gives us the flexibility
coefficient fBCBCfBCBC.
Now, since we know that the total redundant force FBCFBC needs to compensate for the
overlap caused by the external force on the primary system (ΔBC,0ΔBC,0), we can use
compatibility to solve for that redundant as before:
ΔBC,0+fBCBCFBC=0(6)(6)ΔBC,0+fBCBCFBC=0

where ΔBC,0ΔBC,0 is the overlap or gap between cut ends b and c in the primary system caused
by the external force on the truss, fBCBCfBCBC is the overlap or gap between cut ends b and c
in the primary system caused by the unit redundant internal axial force at the location of the cut
ends, and FBCFBCis the total redundant internal axial force in member BC.
If ΔBC,0ΔBC,0 causes an overlap between b and c, then FBCFBC must create an equal and
opposite gap between b and c that is equal to:
ΔBCBC=fBCBCFBC=−ΔBC,0(7)(7)ΔBCBC=fBCBCFBC=−ΔBC,0

Example
The force method process for trusses with a single degree of internal indeterminacy will be
illustrated using the example structure shown in Figure 8.15. This is an indeterminate truss with
a single external point load of 100kN100kN.
 Figure 8.15: Internal Redundants for Trusses Example

The first step in the analysis is to select a redundant. For this example, we will select the
internal axial load in member BC as the redundant force. This is an internal redundant. So, the
primary system, with the continuity associated with the redundant force removed, is shown at the
top of Figure 8.16. To remove the effect of the redundant, we have to make member BC unable
to resist an internal axial force, which is to break the member for axial resistance anywhere
between its ends. In this example, the member BC is broken at points b and c as shown in the
figure. We will consider that, although the member is broken for axial at points b and c, the
broken ends of the member will stay in place so that we can see how much they overlap or
separate when load is applied to the primary system.
Figure 8.16: Internal Redundants for Trusses Example - Primary System with the External Load

We will use the primary system to find the required ingredients for our compatibility
condition, with the ultimate goal of solving for our redundant force so that we reduce the
indeterminate truss system to a determinate system that we can solve using the method of joints.
With the internal axial force in member BC as our redundant, the compatibility condition for this
example structure is:

ΔBC,0+fBCBCFBC=0ΔBC,0+fBCBCFBC=0

where ΔBC,0ΔBC,0 is the overlap or gap between the cut section ends b and c caused by the
external forces, fBCBCfBCBC is the overlap or gap between the cut section ends b and c caused
by the unit redundant force, and FBCFBC is the magnitude of the redundant force (which we are
trying to solve for).
The first load that we will apply to the primary system is the external load, in this case
the 100kN100kN load at point C, as shown in Figure 8.16. We would like to measure how much
the cut ends of member BC will overlap when that load is applied (ΔBC,0ΔBC,0). To do this, we
will use virtual work on the primary system with the external load. The real system is simply the
primary system with the external load. Since member BC is cut and there is no external load
directly applied to that member, the load in BC will be zero and we can ignore it. The rest of the
truss member forces may be found using the method of joints, with the resulting forces shown in
the upper diagram inFigure 8.16.
As discussed previously, the virtual system to find the overlap of b and c is the primary
system with unit loads applied to the cut ends as shown in the lower half of Figure 8.16. This
system may be solved by considering the load in member BC to be 1.0kN1.0kN in tension before
starting the analysis. This 1.0kN1.0kN load is shown in bold in the figure. Even though the
system shown is indeterminate because of the cross-brace. Once we know the force in one of the
members is 1.0kN1.0kN, we have enough information to solve the forces in all of the other
members using the method of joints. The resulting forces in all of the members of the virtual
system are shown in the figure.
Knowing the real and virtual system forces in all of the members, we can apply virtual work
to find the overlap of b and c (ΔBC,0ΔBC,0) as shown in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1: Virtual Work for the Primary System Truss with the External Load
 Applying the virtual work balance:

Wv,e(1kN)(ΔBC,0)ΔBC,0=Wv,i=1080EA0kNm=1080EA0mWv,e=Wv,i(1kN)(ΔBC,0)=1080E
A0kNmΔBC,0=1080EA0m

which is the overlap of points b and c caused by the external load on the primary system.

The next step is to find the effect of the unit redundant internal axial force. This unit
redundant force is applied at the cut ends b and c as shown in Figure 8.17. This force is unitless.
To find the flexibility coefficient fBCBCfBCBC we can use virtual work to find the overlap of
points b and c caused by the unit redundant forces. The real and virtual systems for this virtual
work analysis are the same as the virtual system for the primary system subjected to the external
force previously shown in Figure 8.16.
 Figure 8.17: Internal Redundants for Trusses Example - Primary System with the Unit
Redundant Load

Knowing the real and virtual system forces in all of the members, we can apply virtual work
to find the overlap of b and c (fBCBCfBCBC) as shown in Table 8.2.
Table 8.2: Virtual Work for the Primary System Truss with the Redundant Load
 Applying the virtual work balance:

Wv,e(1kN)(fBCBC)fBCBC=Wv,i=17.28EA0kN=17.28EA0m/kNWv,e=Wv,i(1kN)(fBCBC)=17
.28EA0kNfBCBC=17.28EA0m/kN

which is the overlap of points b and c caused by the redundant load on the primary system
(per 0kN0kN of redundant load).
Now that we have solved for ΔBC,0ΔBC,0 and fBCBCfBCBC, we can use the compatibility
equation for the system to solve for the redundant force magnitude FBCFBC:
ΔBC,0+fBCBCFBCFBCFBCFBCFBC=0=−ΔBC,0fBCBC=−(1080EA0m)(EA17.280kN/m)=−6
2.5kN=62.5kN(Compression)ΔBC,0+fBCBCFBC=0FBC=−ΔBC,0fBCBCFBC=−(1080EA0m)(
EA17.280kN/m)FBC=−62.5kNFBC=62.5kN(Compression)

Going back to the full system now, with the redundant force in member BC included in the
truss as a known force, the rest of the truss member axial forces may be found. This complete
truss solution is shown in Figure 8.18.
 Figure 8.18: Internal Redundants for Trusses Example - Resulting Truss Member Loads

8.4 Force Method for Multiple Degrees of Indeterminacy

In the previous sections, we have looked at how to solve indeterminate systems with only one
degree of indeterminacy (either internal or external determinacy). But, what happens if we have a
system that has two or more degrees of indeterminacy? Such a situation is depicted
in Figure 8.19. This beam is similar to the indeterminate beam studied previously in Figure 8.1,
but with a fixed end at point A instead of a pin. This gives the beam an extra degree of
indeterminacy, making it a 2°2°indeterminate system.
 Figure 8.19: Force Method for Structures with Multiple Degrees of Indeterminacy

For every degree of indeterminacy, we must have a redundant force (internal or external).
This is because, for a force method analysis, our primary beam, i.e the beam with the redundant
restraints removed, must be determinate. For the example beam shown in Figure 8.19, since the
beam is 2°2° indeterminate, then we must select two different redundant forces. If we select the
vertical reactions at points C and E (CyCy and EyEy) as the redundants, as shown in the figure,
then our primary system, with the redundant reactions removed, is determinate (it has become a
simple cantilever).
Now that we have multiple redundant forces, we will also have multiple compatibility
conditions as well, one for each redundant. In the example beam in Figure 8.19, there is a
compatibility condition associated with each support, i.e. that the overall displacement at the
support has to equal zero.
To apply these two compatibility conditions, we must separately consider the effect of each
type of loading on the primary system. Of course, one of those will be the deflection of the
primary system caused by the external loads. This is shown for the example structure in the
middle ofFigure 8.19. Since we have a compatibility equation for each reaction (that the support
must remain at zero displacement), we need to know how the external forces on the primary
system will effect the deflection of the beam at both of those support locations. These are shown
in the figure as ΔCOΔCO for the reaction location at point C and ΔE0ΔE0 for the reaction
location at point E. These deflections may again be found using any of the applicable methods
from Chapter 5. Since this example is a determinate cantilever, it may be convenient to find the
deflections using the moment area theorems for this problem.
With our previous force method analyses, we would then find the effect of a unit redundant
(at the location of the redundant force) on the deflection at the same support location. We then
used that unit redundant to find the total redundant force that is necessary to counteract the effect
of the external loads on the primary system (to bring the support deflection back to zero, where
we know it has to be because of compatibility).
 When we have multiple redundants, we need to find the effect of each redundant force
separately by analysing the structure separately for each (one unit redundant force at each
redundant force location). This results in two different beam analyses, as shown for our example
in the lower two diagrams in Figure 8.19. Of course, each unit redundant load does not only
effect the displacement of the structure at its own location, but also effects the deflection of the
structure at the other unit redundant location. This is shown in the figure. For example, when a
unit redundant load is applied at point C in the figure, this loads causes the entire beam to
deflect. In particular, we are interested in how much the beam deflects at the redundant load
(support) locations. When the unit redundant is applied at point C (the second diagram from the
bottom inFigure 8.19), the deflection of the beam at point C is called fCCfCC, which is the
flexibility at point C when the unit load is applied at point C. Likewise, that same unit load at
point C also causes deflection of the beam at point E called fECfEC which is the flexibility at
point E when the unit load is applied at point C. When the unit load is applied at point E (the
bottom diagram in Figure 8.19), the deflection of the beam at point E is called fEEfEE, which is
the flexibility at point E when the unit load is applied at point E. Likewise, that same unit load at
point E also causes deflection of the beam at point C called fCEfCE which is the flexibility at
point C when the unit load is applied at point E.
We can find all of these flexibility terms explicitly using the methods from Chapter 5. The
difference for multiple redundants is that we now must solve one system for each redundant, and
for each of those systems, we must find as many deflections as there are redundants. This means
the total number of deflections we have to find is the square of the number of redundants. We
can save a bit of this work by taking advantage of Maxwell's Law of Reciprocal Deformations as
we shall see later; however, it is clear that the force method will become quite unmanageable for
indeterminate systems with many degrees of indeterminacy.
Once we have all of our flexibility terms (for our example, fCCfCC, fECfEC, fEEfEE,
and fCEfCE), and all of our primary system deflections due to the external loads, (in our
example, ΔCOΔCO and ΔE0ΔE0), then we can apply our compatibility conditions to solve for
the redundant forces. For the example structure in Figure 8.19, there are two different
compatibility conditions, one for each redundant reaction point where we know that the
deflection must equal zero:
ΔCO+fCCCy+fCEEyΔEO+fECCy+fEEEy=0=0(1)(2)(1)ΔCO+fCCCy+fCEEy=0(2)ΔEO+fECC
y+fEEEy=0

As can be seen in Figure 8.19, there are three different deflections that effect the displacement at
point C in the primary system: the deflection at C caused by the external loads (ΔCOΔCO), the
deflection at C caused by the redundant load at point C (ΔCC=fCCCyΔCC=fCCCy), and the
deflection at C caused by the redundant load at point E (ΔCE=fCEEyΔCE=fCEEy). Note that the
last one scales based on how much redundant load is applied at point E, not point C. Likewise,
there are three other deflections that effect the displacement at point E in the primary system: the
deflection at E caused by the external loads (ΔEOΔEO), the deflection at E caused by the
redundant load at point C (ΔEC=fECCyΔEC=fECCy), and the deflection at E caused by the
redundant load at point E (ΔEE=fEEEyΔEE=fEEEy).
Once we have the above equations set up, based on our previous analyses we have numerical
values for all of the parameters except for the redundant force magnitudes CyCy and EyEy. But,
we have two equations, so those unknown magnitudes may be found by solving for two
equations and two unknowns. As the number of degrees of indeterminacy of a problem increases,
the number of redundant forces and the number of compatibility conditions increase accordingly.
So, for a 3°3° indeterminate structure, using the force method, we would have to solve a system
of three equations and three unknowns.
Like before, once we have found the values for all of the redundants, we can go back to our
full system, treat those redundant forces as known forces, and solve the rest of the system using
equilibrium only.

Maxwell's Law of Reciprocal Deformations

In the previous example, we had to find four different flexibility coefficients by analysing the
determinate primary structure: fCCfCC, fECfEC, fEEfEE, and fCEfCE. Using Maxwell's Law of
Reciprocal Deformations we can cut that number down a bit. Maxwell's Law of Reciprocal
Deformations states that, the deflection at a point B caused by a unit load at point A, is equal to
the deflection at point A caused by a unit load at point B (as long as the structure is linear
elastic). For the previous example, this means that we could say that:
fEC=fCE(3)(3)fEC=fCE
So, we would only have to solve for one or the other, not both.

If we have a 3°3° indeterminate structure with redundant loads at points A, B and C, then we
need to find the effect of a redundant unit load at each location on the deflection at all three
locations. That is, we would need to
find fAAfAA, fABfAB, fACfAC, fBAfBA, fBBfBB, fBCfBC, fCAfCA, fCBfCB, fCCfCC, nine
different flexibility coefficients. Using Maxwell's Law of Reciprocal Deformations, we can say
that:
fABfACfBC=fBA=fCA=fCBfAB=fBAfAC=fCAfBC=fCB

This cuts our work down from finding nine flexibility coefficients, to just six.

We can show that Maxwell's Law of Reciprocal Deformations works, using virtual work.
Recall from Chapter 5 that internal virtual work for a bending structure is equal to:
Wv,i=∫L0MvMrEIdx(4)(4)Wv,i=∫0LMvMrEIdx

where MvMv is the moment in the virtual system, MrMr is the moment in the real system, EE is
the Young's Modulus of the member, and II is the moment of inertia of the member. Often, we
consider that MvMrEIMvMrEI is the curvature of the real system, but the EIEI could just as
easily be attached to the virtual system instead, it doesn't matter in this formulation. Likewise,
the external virtual work is equal to the external displacements in the real system multiplied by
the external forces in the virtual system:
Wv,e=∑iΔriPvi(5)(5)Wv,e=∑iΔriPvi

where ΔriΔri is the deflection of the real system at each location of a virtual external force ii,
and PviPvi is the external virtual force ii. In typical virtual work analysis, we usually only have
one virtual force, but this is equation is also valid for if we have multiple virtual forces, each
being paired with its own real deflection at the location of that force.
Now, let's say that we have a real system (called system A) with ii different external forces,
and a virtual system (called system B) with jj different external forces. Using the virtual work
balance:
Wv,e∑jΔAjPBj=Wv,i=∫L0MBMAEIdx(6)(7)(6)Wv,e=Wv,i(7)∑jΔAjPBj=∫0LMBMAEIdx
Each virtual external force PBjPBj is accounted for explicitly on the left side of the equation, as
well as causing the moment MBMB. Each real external force causes the deflection ΔAjΔAj at
each virtual external force location, and causes the moment MrMr.
Now let's switch the real and virtual system, system A will be the virtual system and system B
will be the real system. We get the virtual work force balance:

Wv,e∑iΔBiPAi=Wv,i=∫L0MAMBEIdx(8)(9)(8)Wv,e=Wv,i(9)∑iΔBiPAi=∫0LMAMBEIdx

Now notice that, while the left side of the equation has changed significantly, the right side is the
same as it was before. Switching the position of MAMA and MBMB has no effect on the
multiplication.
Since the right sides of the equations (the internal virtual work) are the same no matter which
system we consider to be real and which we consider to be virtual, then:

∑jΔAjPBj=∑iΔBiPAi(10)(10)∑jΔAjPBj=∑iΔBiPAi

If we now consider the external forces from both system A and system B are virtual forces
(PBj=1PBj=1, and PAi=1PAi=1), then:
∑jΔAj=∑iΔBi(11)(11)∑jΔAj=∑iΔBi

If we simplify this further, such that there is only one external load in system A and one external
load in system B, then:

ΔAj=ΔBi(12)(12)ΔAj=ΔBi

Recall that ΔAjΔAj is now the deflection at point A due to the unit force at point B
and ΔBiΔBi is now the deflection at point B due to the unit force at point A. So, restated:
fAB=fBA(13)(13)fAB=fBA

Example
The force method for a structure with multiple degrees of indeterminacy will be illustrated using
the example structure shown in Figure 8.20. This is a 3°3° indeterminate frame with a
constant EE, but varying II.
 Figure 8.20: Frame Analysis with Multiple Degrees of Indeterminacy Example

Since this frame is 3°3° indeterminate, we must choose three redundant forces. To make the
analysis of the primary structure easy, it is a good idea to select all three reactions at point D as
the redundant forces (DxDx, DyDy and MDMD), as shown in Figure 8.20. This results in a
primary system that is effectively a bent cantilever, which is easy to analyse.
So, the three compatibility conditions for this problem will be associated with the three
support components at point D, and each compatibility condition will have four different
contributors to the deflection/rotation at point D, one caused by the external loads on the primary
system, and three more, one each for the redundant unit forces in each reaction component
direction at point D. The resulting compatibility conditions are:
ΔDx,0+fDx,DxDx+fDx,DyDy+fDx,MDMD=0ΔDy,0+fDy,DxDx+fDy,DyDy+fDy,MDMD=0Δ
MD,0+fMD,DxDx+fMD,DyDy+fMD,MDMD=0ΔDx,0+fDx,DxDx+fDx,DyDy+fDx,MDMD=0
ΔDy,0+fDy,DxDx+fDy,DyDy+fDy,MDMD=0ΔMD,0+fMD,DxDx+fMD,DyDy+fMD,MDMD=
0

where ΔDx,0ΔDx,0, ΔDy,0ΔDy,0 and ΔMD,0ΔMD,0 are the deflections/rotations of the primary
system at point D caused by the external loads on the structure, DxDx is the unknown horizontal
redundant reaction at point D, DyDy is the unknown vertical redundant reaction at point
D, MDMD is the unknown rotational moment redundant reaction at point D, fDx,DxfDx,Dx is
the horizontal deflection at point D caused by a unit redundant force in the horizontal direction at
point D, fDx,DyfDx,Dy is the horizontal deflection at point D caused by a unit redundant force
in the vertical direction at point D, fDx,MDfDx,MDis the horizontal deflection at point D caused
by a unit redundant moment at point D, etc.
We will have to find all of the parameters in the above equations except for the unknown
redundant reaction forces/moments (DxDx, DyDy and MDMD), which we are trying to solve
for. Of course, using Maxwell's Law of Reciprocal Deformations, we only need to find six out of
the nine total flexibility coefficients. To find all of the parameters, we can use virtual work. For
the external load on the primary system, the virtual work analysis is illustrated in Figure 8.21.
The primary system with the external loads (and the redundant reactions removed) is shown at
the upper left of the figure. We can find the shear and moment diagrams as shown on the top
right. Below that, the virtual systems for finding horizontal deflection at point D, vertical
deflection at point D and rotation at point D are shown, along with their associated shear and
moment diagrams. These three virtual systems are labelled System A, System B and System C,
respectively as shown in the figure. Only the moment diagrams are shown here, not the curvature
diagrams. The incorporation of the different element stiffness EIEI will be done later in the
calculation of the internal virtual work to convert the moments to curvatures.
Figure 8.21: Frame Analysis with Multiple Degrees of Indeterminacy Example - Primary System
with External Loads

We can use a virtual work analysis to find the deflections at the redundant force locations
caused by the external loads (using the virtual work product integration table from Figure 5.22)
as shown below.
To find ΔDx,0ΔDx,0 using the External Load Moment Diagram (real system) with System A
(virtual system) from Figure 8.21:
Wv,e(1kN)(ΔDx,0)(1kN)(ΔDx,0)(1kN)(ΔDx,0)ΔDx,0=Wv,i=(rectangle 90)(rectangle
4)+(parabola 504)(rectangle 4)+(triangle 90)(trapezoid
4,3)=1EI[LMQ]+1EI[LMQ3]+1E2I[LM6(2Qa+Qb)]=1EI[6(−90)(4)]+1EI[6(−504)(4)3]+1E2I[1(
−90)6(2(4)+(3))]=−6274.5EI0mWv,e=Wv,i(1kN)(ΔDx,0)=(rectangle 90)(rectangle 4)+(parabola
504)(rectangle 4)+(triangle 90)(trapezoid
4,3)(1kN)(ΔDx,0)=1EI[LMQ]+1EI[LMQ3]+1E2I[LM6(2Qa+Qb)](1kN)(ΔDx,0)=1EI[6(−90)(4)
]+1EI[6(−504)(4)3]+1E2I[1(−90)6(2(4)+(3))]ΔDx,0=−6274.5EI0m

We had to divide the first leg of the real system (the one with the parabola) into two separate
components to solve of the product integral using Figure 5.22). This is because the product
integration table only has a parabola that goes from a maximum value to zero at a point of zero
slope. So we must divide the leg up into a rectangle of height 90 and a parabola of height 504 as
shown in Figure 8.21. Each of these components is integrated using the full height of the
rectangle on the same leg of the virtual system A (of height 4). Since the integral is of a product,
this is equivalent to the distributive property A(B+C)=AB+ACA(B+C)=AB+AC. Notice also
that the higher moment of inertia 2I2I is taken into account within the third term of the long
expression above.
To find ΔDy,0ΔDy,0 using the External Load Moment Diagram (real system) with System B
(virtual system) from Figure 8.21:
Wv,e(1kN)(ΔDy,0)(1kN)(ΔDy,0)(1kN)(ΔDy,0)ΔDy,0=Wv,i=(rectangle 90)(triangle
6)+(parabola 504)(triangle 6)+(triangle 90)(rectangle
6)=1EI[LMQ2]+1EI[LMQ12]+1E2I[LMQ2]=1EI[6(−90)(−6)2]+1EI[6(−504)(−6)12]+1E2I[1(−
90)(−6)2]=3267.0EI0mWv,e=Wv,i(1kN)(ΔDy,0)=(rectangle 90)(triangle 6)+(parabola
 504)(triangle 6)+(triangle 90)(rectangle
6)(1kN)(ΔDy,0)=1EI[LMQ2]+1EI[LMQ12]+1E2I[LMQ2](1kN)(ΔDy,0)=1EI[6(−90)(−6)2]+1E
I[6(−504)(−6)12]+1E2I[1(−90)(−6)2]ΔDy,0=3267.0EI0m

To find ΔMD,0ΔMD,0 using the External Load Moment Diagram (real system) with System
C (virtual system) from Figure 8.21:
Wv,e(1kN)(ΔMD,0)(1kN)(ΔMD,0)(1kN)(ΔMD,0)ΔMD,0=Wv,i=(rectangle 90)(rectangle
1)+(parabola 504)(rectangle 1)+(triangle 90)(rectangle
1)=1EI[LMQ]+1EI[LMQ3]+1E2I[LMQ2]=1EI[6(−90)(1)]+1EI[6(−504)(1)3]+1E2I[1(−90)(1)2]
=−1570.5EI0radWv,e=Wv,i(1kN)(ΔMD,0)=(rectangle 90)(rectangle 1)+(parabola 504)(rectangle
1)+(triangle 90)(rectangle
1)(1kN)(ΔMD,0)=1EI[LMQ]+1EI[LMQ3]+1E2I[LMQ2](1kN)(ΔMD,0)=1EI[6(−90)(1)]+1EI[6(
−504)(1)3]+1E2I[1(−90)(1)2]ΔMD,0=−1570.5EI0rad

The next step is to find the flexibility coefficients. As discussed previously, the real and
virtual systems for finding the flexibility coefficients for the primary system are equal to the
virtual systems that were previously used to find the deflections caused by the external forces
(Systems A, B and C in Figure 8.21). So, we already have all of the required moment diagrams
that need to be used to find the flexibility coefficients. For example, flexibility
coefficient fDx,MDfDx,MD is equal to the horizontal deflection at point D, due to a unit
redundant moment applied at point D. So, to find fDx,MDfDx,MD using virtual work, we will
use system C for the real system and system A for the virtual system. We can do this for all six
required flexibility coefficient as shown below.
To find fDx,DxfDx,Dx we will use System A (real system) and System A (virtual system)
fromFigure 8.21:
Wv,e(1kN)(fDx,Dx)(1kN)(fDx,Dx)fDx,Dx=Wv,i=1EI(LMQ)+1E2I(LMQ3)=1EI(6(4)(4))+1E2I
(4(4)(4)3)=106.7EI0m/kNWv,e=Wv,i(1kN)(fDx,Dx)=1EI(LMQ)+1E2I(LMQ3)(1kN)(fDx,Dx)=
1EI(6(4)(4))+1E2I(4(4)(4)3)fDx,Dx=106.7EI0m/kN

To find fDx,DyfDx,Dy, which is the same as fDy,DxfDy,Dx, we will use System B (real
system) and System A (virtual system) from Figure 8.21:
Wv,e(1kN)(fDx,Dy)(1kN)(fDx,Dy)fDx,Dy=fDy,Dx=Wv,i=1EI(LMQ2)+1E2I(LMQ2)=1EI(6(−6
)(4)2)+1E2I(4(−6)(4)2)=−96EI0m/kNWv,e=Wv,i(1kN)(fDx,Dy)=1EI(LMQ2)+1E2I(LMQ2)(1k
N)(fDx,Dy)=1EI(6(−6)(4)2)+1E2I(4(−6)(4)2)fDx,Dy=fDy,Dx=−96EI0m/kN

Continuing in this way we can find the rest:

fDx,MD=fMD,DxfDy,DyfDy,MD=fMD,DyfMD,MD=28EI01/kN=216EI0m/kN=−48EI01/kN=
14EI01/kNmfDx,MD=fMD,Dx=28EI01/kNfDy,Dy=216EI0m/kNfDy,MD=fMD,Dy=−48EI01/k
NfMD,MD=14EI01/kNm

At this point, we know all of the deflections and flexbilities for the primary system, so we can
sub these back into our compatibility conditions:

−6274.5EI+106.7EIDx+−96EIDy+28EIMD3267.0EI+−96EIDx+216EIDy+−48EIMD−1570.5EI
+28EIDx+−48EIDy+14EIMD=0=0=0−6274.5EI+106.7EIDx+−96EIDy+28EIMD=03267.0EI+−
96EIDx+216EIDy+−48EIMD=0−1570.5EI+28EIDx+−48EIDy+14EIMD=0

We can simplify this by multiplying both sides of each compatibility condition by EIEI:
−6274.5+106.7Dx−96Dy+28MD3267.0−96Dx+216Dy−48MD−1570.5+28Dx−48Dy+14MD=0=
0=0−6274.5+106.7Dx−96Dy+28MD=03267.0−96Dx+216Dy−48MD=0−1570.5+28Dx−48Dy+1
4MD=0

This is a system of three equations and three unknowns that we can solve
for DxDx, DyDy and MDMD, to get:
DxDyMD=61.8kN→=41.2kN↑=129.7kNm↶Dx=61.8kN→Dy=41.2kN↑MD=129.7kNm↶

These are our redundant reaction forces.

If we now treat these redundant reactions as known, we can use global equilibrium to solve
for the rest of the frame's reaction forces (at point A) as shown in Figure 8.22.
 Figure 8.22: Frame Analysis with Multiple Degrees of Indeterminacy Example - Finding the
Moment Diagram using the Solved Redundants

Then, knowing all of the external forces and reactions for this 3°3° indeterminate system, we
can find the final shear and moment diagrams as shown in Figure 8.22.
8.4 Force Method for Multiple Degrees of Indeterminacy

In the previous sections, we have looked at how to solve indeterminate systems with only one
degree of indeterminacy (either internal or external determinacy). But, what happens if we have a
system that has two or more degrees of indeterminacy? Such a situation is depicted
in Figure 8.19. This beam is similar to the indeterminate beam studied previously in Figure 8.1,
but with a fixed end at point A instead of a pin. This gives the beam an extra degree of
indeterminacy, making it a 2°2°indeterminate system.
 Figure 8.19: Force Method for Structures with Multiple Degrees of Indeterminacy

For every degree of indeterminacy, we must have a redundant force (internal or external).
This is because, for a force method analysis, our primary beam, i.e the beam with the redundant
restraints removed, must be determinate. For the example beam shown in Figure 8.19, since the
beam is 2°2° indeterminate, then we must select two different redundant forces. If we select the
vertical reactions at points C and E (CyCy and EyEy) as the redundants, as shown in the figure,
then our primary system, with the redundant reactions removed, is determinate (it has become a
simple cantilever).
Now that we have multiple redundant forces, we will also have multiple compatibility
conditions as well, one for each redundant. In the example beam in Figure 8.19, there is a
compatibility condition associated with each support, i.e. that the overall displacement at the
support has to equal zero.
To apply these two compatibility conditions, we must separately consider the effect of each
type of loading on the primary system. Of course, one of those will be the deflection of the
primary system caused by the external loads. This is shown for the example structure in the
middle ofFigure 8.19. Since we have a compatibility equation for each reaction (that the support
must remain at zero displacement), we need to know how the external forces on the primary
system will effect the deflection of the beam at both of those support locations. These are shown
in the figure as ΔCOΔCO for the reaction location at point C and ΔE0ΔE0 for the reaction
location at point E. These deflections may again be found using any of the applicable methods
from Chapter 5. Since this example is a determinate cantilever, it may be convenient to find the
deflections using the moment area theorems for this problem.
With our previous force method analyses, we would then find the effect of a unit redundant
(at the location of the redundant force) on the deflection at the same support location. We then
used that unit redundant to find the total redundant force that is necessary to counteract the effect
of the external loads on the primary system (to bring the support deflection back to zero, where
we know it has to be because of compatibility).
 When we have multiple redundants, we need to find the effect of each redundant force
separately by analysing the structure separately for each (one unit redundant force at each
redundant force location). This results in two different beam analyses, as shown for our example
in the lower two diagrams in Figure 8.19. Of course, each unit redundant load does not only
effect the displacement of the structure at its own location, but also effects the deflection of the
structure at the other unit redundant location. This is shown in the figure. For example, when a
unit redundant load is applied at point C in the figure, this loads causes the entire beam to
deflect. In particular, we are interested in how much the beam deflects at the redundant load
(support) locations. When the unit redundant is applied at point C (the second diagram from the
bottom inFigure 8.19), the deflection of the beam at point C is called fCCfCC, which is the
flexibility at point C when the unit load is applied at point C. Likewise, that same unit load at
point C also causes deflection of the beam at point E called fECfEC which is the flexibility at
point E when the unit load is applied at point C. When the unit load is applied at point E (the
bottom diagram in Figure 8.19), the deflection of the beam at point E is called fEEfEE, which is
the flexibility at point E when the unit load is applied at point E. Likewise, that same unit load at
point E also causes deflection of the beam at point C called fCEfCE which is the flexibility at
point C when the unit load is applied at point E.
We can find all of these flexibility terms explicitly using the methods from Chapter 5. The
difference for multiple redundants is that we now must solve one system for each redundant, and
for each of those systems, we must find as many deflections as there are redundants. This means
the total number of deflections we have to find is the square of the number of redundants. We
can save a bit of this work by taking advantage of Maxwell's Law of Reciprocal Deformations as
we shall see later; however, it is clear that the force method will become quite unmanageable for
indeterminate systems with many degrees of indeterminacy.
Once we have all of our flexibility terms (for our example, fCCfCC, fECfEC, fEEfEE,
and fCEfCE), and all of our primary system deflections due to the external loads, (in our
example, ΔCOΔCO and ΔE0ΔE0), then we can apply our compatibility conditions to solve for
the redundant forces. For the example structure in Figure 8.19, there are two different
compatibility conditions, one for each redundant reaction point where we know that the
deflection must equal zero:
ΔCO+fCCCy+fCEEyΔEO+fECCy+fEEEy=0=0(1)(2)(1)ΔCO+fCCCy+fCEEy=0(2)ΔEO+fECC
y+fEEEy=0

As can be seen in Figure 8.19, there are three different deflections that effect the displacement at
point C in the primary system: the deflection at C caused by the external loads (ΔCOΔCO), the
deflection at C caused by the redundant load at point C (ΔCC=fCCCyΔCC=fCCCy), and the
deflection at C caused by the redundant load at point E (ΔCE=fCEEyΔCE=fCEEy). Note that the
last one scales based on how much redundant load is applied at point E, not point C. Likewise,
there are three other deflections that effect the displacement at point E in the primary system: the
deflection at E caused by the external loads (ΔEOΔEO), the deflection at E caused by the
redundant load at point C (ΔEC=fECCyΔEC=fECCy), and the deflection at E caused by the
redundant load at point E (ΔEE=fEEEyΔEE=fEEEy).
Once we have the above equations set up, based on our previous analyses we have numerical
values for all of the parameters except for the redundant force magnitudes CyCy and EyEy. But,
we have two equations, so those unknown magnitudes may be found by solving for two
equations and two unknowns. As the number of degrees of indeterminacy of a problem increases,
the number of redundant forces and the number of compatibility conditions increase accordingly.
So, for a 3°3° indeterminate structure, using the force method, we would have to solve a system
of three equations and three unknowns.
Like before, once we have found the values for all of the redundants, we can go back to our
full system, treat those redundant forces as known forces, and solve the rest of the system using
equilibrium only.

Maxwell's Law of Reciprocal Deformations

In the previous example, we had to find four different flexibility coefficients by analysing the
determinate primary structure: fCCfCC, fECfEC, fEEfEE, and fCEfCE. Using Maxwell's Law of
Reciprocal Deformations we can cut that number down a bit. Maxwell's Law of Reciprocal
Deformations states that, the deflection at a point B caused by a unit load at point A, is equal to
the deflection at point A caused by a unit load at point B (as long as the structure is linear
elastic). For the previous example, this means that we could say that:
fEC=fCE(3)(3)fEC=fCE
So, we would only have to solve for one or the other, not both.

If we have a 3°3° indeterminate structure with redundant loads at points A, B and C, then we
need to find the effect of a redundant unit load at each location on the deflection at all three
locations. That is, we would need to
find fAAfAA, fABfAB, fACfAC, fBAfBA, fBBfBB, fBCfBC, fCAfCA, fCBfCB, fCCfCC, nine
different flexibility coefficients. Using Maxwell's Law of Reciprocal Deformations, we can say
that:
fABfACfBC=fBA=fCA=fCBfAB=fBAfAC=fCAfBC=fCB

This cuts our work down from finding nine flexibility coefficients, to just six.

We can show that Maxwell's Law of Reciprocal Deformations works, using virtual work.
Recall from Chapter 5 that internal virtual work for a bending structure is equal to:
Wv,i=∫L0MvMrEIdx(4)(4)Wv,i=∫0LMvMrEIdx

where MvMv is the moment in the virtual system, MrMr is the moment in the real system, EE is
the Young's Modulus of the member, and II is the moment of inertia of the member. Often, we
consider that MvMrEIMvMrEI is the curvature of the real system, but the EIEI could just as
easily be attached to the virtual system instead, it doesn't matter in this formulation. Likewise,
the external virtual work is equal to the external displacements in the real system multiplied by
the external forces in the virtual system:
Wv,e=∑iΔriPvi(5)(5)Wv,e=∑iΔriPvi

where ΔriΔri is the deflection of the real system at each location of a virtual external force ii,
and PviPvi is the external virtual force ii. In typical virtual work analysis, we usually only have
one virtual force, but this is equation is also valid for if we have multiple virtual forces, each
being paired with its own real deflection at the location of that force.
Now, let's say that we have a real system (called system A) with ii different external forces,
and a virtual system (called system B) with jj different external forces. Using the virtual work
balance:
Wv,e∑jΔAjPBj=Wv,i=∫L0MBMAEIdx(6)(7)(6)Wv,e=Wv,i(7)∑jΔAjPBj=∫0LMBMAEIdx
Each virtual external force PBjPBj is accounted for explicitly on the left side of the equation, as
well as causing the moment MBMB. Each real external force causes the deflection ΔAjΔAj at
each virtual external force location, and causes the moment MrMr.
Now let's switch the real and virtual system, system A will be the virtual system and system B
will be the real system. We get the virtual work force balance:

Wv,e∑iΔBiPAi=Wv,i=∫L0MAMBEIdx(8)(9)(8)Wv,e=Wv,i(9)∑iΔBiPAi=∫0LMAMBEIdx

Now notice that, while the left side of the equation has changed significantly, the right side is the
same as it was before. Switching the position of MAMA and MBMB has no effect on the
multiplication.
Since the right sides of the equations (the internal virtual work) are the same no matter which
system we consider to be real and which we consider to be virtual, then:

∑jΔAjPBj=∑iΔBiPAi(10)(10)∑jΔAjPBj=∑iΔBiPAi

If we now consider the external forces from both system A and system B are virtual forces
(PBj=1PBj=1, and PAi=1PAi=1), then:
∑jΔAj=∑iΔBi(11)(11)∑jΔAj=∑iΔBi

If we simplify this further, such that there is only one external load in system A and one external
load in system B, then:

ΔAj=ΔBi(12)(12)ΔAj=ΔBi

Recall that ΔAjΔAj is now the deflection at point A due to the unit force at point B
and ΔBiΔBi is now the deflection at point B due to the unit force at point A. So, restated:
fAB=fBA(13)(13)fAB=fBA

Example
The force method for a structure with multiple degrees of indeterminacy will be illustrated using
the example structure shown in Figure 8.20. This is a 3°3° indeterminate frame with a
constant EE, but varying II.
 Figure 8.20: Frame Analysis with Multiple Degrees of Indeterminacy Example

Since this frame is 3°3° indeterminate, we must choose three redundant forces. To make the
analysis of the primary structure easy, it is a good idea to select all three reactions at point D as
the redundant forces (DxDx, DyDy and MDMD), as shown in Figure 8.20. This results in a
primary system that is effectively a bent cantilever, which is easy to analyse.
So, the three compatibility conditions for this problem will be associated with the three
support components at point D, and each compatibility condition will have four different
contributors to the deflection/rotation at point D, one caused by the external loads on the primary
system, and three more, one each for the redundant unit forces in each reaction component
direction at point D. The resulting compatibility conditions are:
ΔDx,0+fDx,DxDx+fDx,DyDy+fDx,MDMD=0ΔDy,0+fDy,DxDx+fDy,DyDy+fDy,MDMD=0Δ
MD,0+fMD,DxDx+fMD,DyDy+fMD,MDMD=0ΔDx,0+fDx,DxDx+fDx,DyDy+fDx,MDMD=0
ΔDy,0+fDy,DxDx+fDy,DyDy+fDy,MDMD=0ΔMD,0+fMD,DxDx+fMD,DyDy+fMD,MDMD=
0

where ΔDx,0ΔDx,0, ΔDy,0ΔDy,0 and ΔMD,0ΔMD,0 are the deflections/rotations of the primary
system at point D caused by the external loads on the structure, DxDx is the unknown horizontal
redundant reaction at point D, DyDy is the unknown vertical redundant reaction at point
D, MDMD is the unknown rotational moment redundant reaction at point D, fDx,DxfDx,Dx is
the horizontal deflection at point D caused by a unit redundant force in the horizontal direction at
point D, fDx,DyfDx,Dy is the horizontal deflection at point D caused by a unit redundant force
in the vertical direction at point D, fDx,MDfDx,MDis the horizontal deflection at point D caused
by a unit redundant moment at point D, etc.
We will have to find all of the parameters in the above equations except for the unknown
redundant reaction forces/moments (DxDx, DyDy and MDMD), which we are trying to solve
for. Of course, using Maxwell's Law of Reciprocal Deformations, we only need to find six out of
the nine total flexibility coefficients. To find all of the parameters, we can use virtual work. For
the external load on the primary system, the virtual work analysis is illustrated in Figure 8.21.
The primary system with the external loads (and the redundant reactions removed) is shown at
the upper left of the figure. We can find the shear and moment diagrams as shown on the top
right. Below that, the virtual systems for finding horizontal deflection at point D, vertical
deflection at point D and rotation at point D are shown, along with their associated shear and
moment diagrams. These three virtual systems are labelled System A, System B and System C,
respectively as shown in the figure. Only the moment diagrams are shown here, not the curvature
diagrams. The incorporation of the different element stiffness EIEI will be done later in the
calculation of the internal virtual work to convert the moments to curvatures.
Figure 8.21: Frame Analysis with Multiple Degrees of Indeterminacy Example - Primary System
with External Loads

We can use a virtual work analysis to find the deflections at the redundant force locations
caused by the external loads (using the virtual work product integration table from Figure 5.22)
as shown below.
To find ΔDx,0ΔDx,0 using the External Load Moment Diagram (real system) with System A
(virtual system) from Figure 8.21:
Wv,e(1kN)(ΔDx,0)(1kN)(ΔDx,0)(1kN)(ΔDx,0)ΔDx,0=Wv,i=(rectangle 90)(rectangle
4)+(parabola 504)(rectangle 4)+(triangle 90)(trapezoid
4,3)=1EI[LMQ]+1EI[LMQ3]+1E2I[LM6(2Qa+Qb)]=1EI[6(−90)(4)]+1EI[6(−504)(4)3]+1E2I[1(
−90)6(2(4)+(3))]=−6274.5EI0mWv,e=Wv,i(1kN)(ΔDx,0)=(rectangle 90)(rectangle 4)+(parabola
504)(rectangle 4)+(triangle 90)(trapezoid
4,3)(1kN)(ΔDx,0)=1EI[LMQ]+1EI[LMQ3]+1E2I[LM6(2Qa+Qb)](1kN)(ΔDx,0)=1EI[6(−90)(4)
]+1EI[6(−504)(4)3]+1E2I[1(−90)6(2(4)+(3))]ΔDx,0=−6274.5EI0m

We had to divide the first leg of the real system (the one with the parabola) into two separate
components to solve of the product integral using Figure 5.22). This is because the product
integration table only has a parabola that goes from a maximum value to zero at a point of zero
slope. So we must divide the leg up into a rectangle of height 90 and a parabola of height 504 as
shown in Figure 8.21. Each of these components is integrated using the full height of the
rectangle on the same leg of the virtual system A (of height 4). Since the integral is of a product,
this is equivalent to the distributive property A(B+C)=AB+ACA(B+C)=AB+AC. Notice also
that the higher moment of inertia 2I2I is taken into account within the third term of the long
expression above.
To find ΔDy,0ΔDy,0 using the External Load Moment Diagram (real system) with System B
(virtual system) from Figure 8.21:
Wv,e(1kN)(ΔDy,0)(1kN)(ΔDy,0)(1kN)(ΔDy,0)ΔDy,0=Wv,i=(rectangle 90)(triangle
6)+(parabola 504)(triangle 6)+(triangle 90)(rectangle
6)=1EI[LMQ2]+1EI[LMQ12]+1E2I[LMQ2]=1EI[6(−90)(−6)2]+1EI[6(−504)(−6)12]+1E2I[1(−
90)(−6)2]=3267.0EI0mWv,e=Wv,i(1kN)(ΔDy,0)=(rectangle 90)(triangle 6)+(parabola
 504)(triangle 6)+(triangle 90)(rectangle
6)(1kN)(ΔDy,0)=1EI[LMQ2]+1EI[LMQ12]+1E2I[LMQ2](1kN)(ΔDy,0)=1EI[6(−90)(−6)2]+1E
I[6(−504)(−6)12]+1E2I[1(−90)(−6)2]ΔDy,0=3267.0EI0m

To find ΔMD,0ΔMD,0 using the External Load Moment Diagram (real system) with System
C (virtual system) from Figure 8.21:
Wv,e(1kN)(ΔMD,0)(1kN)(ΔMD,0)(1kN)(ΔMD,0)ΔMD,0=Wv,i=(rectangle 90)(rectangle
1)+(parabola 504)(rectangle 1)+(triangle 90)(rectangle
1)=1EI[LMQ]+1EI[LMQ3]+1E2I[LMQ2]=1EI[6(−90)(1)]+1EI[6(−504)(1)3]+1E2I[1(−90)(1)2]
=−1570.5EI0radWv,e=Wv,i(1kN)(ΔMD,0)=(rectangle 90)(rectangle 1)+(parabola 504)(rectangle
1)+(triangle 90)(rectangle
1)(1kN)(ΔMD,0)=1EI[LMQ]+1EI[LMQ3]+1E2I[LMQ2](1kN)(ΔMD,0)=1EI[6(−90)(1)]+1EI[6(
−504)(1)3]+1E2I[1(−90)(1)2]ΔMD,0=−1570.5EI0rad

The next step is to find the flexibility coefficients. As discussed previously, the real and
virtual systems for finding the flexibility coefficients for the primary system are equal to the
virtual systems that were previously used to find the deflections caused by the external forces
(Systems A, B and C in Figure 8.21). So, we already have all of the required moment diagrams
that need to be used to find the flexibility coefficients. For example, flexibility
coefficient fDx,MDfDx,MD is equal to the horizontal deflection at point D, due to a unit
redundant moment applied at point D. So, to find fDx,MDfDx,MD using virtual work, we will
use system C for the real system and system A for the virtual system. We can do this for all six
required flexibility coefficient as shown below.
To find fDx,DxfDx,Dx we will use System A (real system) and System A (virtual system)
fromFigure 8.21:
Wv,e(1kN)(fDx,Dx)(1kN)(fDx,Dx)fDx,Dx=Wv,i=1EI(LMQ)+1E2I(LMQ3)=1EI(6(4)(4))+1E2I
(4(4)(4)3)=106.7EI0m/kNWv,e=Wv,i(1kN)(fDx,Dx)=1EI(LMQ)+1E2I(LMQ3)(1kN)(fDx,Dx)=
1EI(6(4)(4))+1E2I(4(4)(4)3)fDx,Dx=106.7EI0m/kN

To find fDx,DyfDx,Dy, which is the same as fDy,DxfDy,Dx, we will use System B (real
system) and System A (virtual system) from Figure 8.21:
Wv,e(1kN)(fDx,Dy)(1kN)(fDx,Dy)fDx,Dy=fDy,Dx=Wv,i=1EI(LMQ2)+1E2I(LMQ2)=1EI(6(−6
)(4)2)+1E2I(4(−6)(4)2)=−96EI0m/kNWv,e=Wv,i(1kN)(fDx,Dy)=1EI(LMQ2)+1E2I(LMQ2)(1k
N)(fDx,Dy)=1EI(6(−6)(4)2)+1E2I(4(−6)(4)2)fDx,Dy=fDy,Dx=−96EI0m/kN

Continuing in this way we can find the rest:

fDx,MD=fMD,DxfDy,DyfDy,MD=fMD,DyfMD,MD=28EI01/kN=216EI0m/kN=−48EI01/kN=
14EI01/kNmfDx,MD=fMD,Dx=28EI01/kNfDy,Dy=216EI0m/kNfDy,MD=fMD,Dy=−48EI01/k
NfMD,MD=14EI01/kNm

At this point, we know all of the deflections and flexbilities for the primary system, so we can
sub these back into our compatibility conditions:

−6274.5EI+106.7EIDx+−96EIDy+28EIMD3267.0EI+−96EIDx+216EIDy+−48EIMD−1570.5EI
+28EIDx+−48EIDy+14EIMD=0=0=0−6274.5EI+106.7EIDx+−96EIDy+28EIMD=03267.0EI+−
96EIDx+216EIDy+−48EIMD=0−1570.5EI+28EIDx+−48EIDy+14EIMD=0

We can simplify this by multiplying both sides of each compatibility condition by EIEI:
−6274.5+106.7Dx−96Dy+28MD3267.0−96Dx+216Dy−48MD−1570.5+28Dx−48Dy+14MD=0=
0=0−6274.5+106.7Dx−96Dy+28MD=03267.0−96Dx+216Dy−48MD=0−1570.5+28Dx−48Dy+1
4MD=0

This is a system of three equations and three unknowns that we can solve
for DxDx, DyDy and MDMD, to get:
DxDyMD=61.8kN→=41.2kN↑=129.7kNm↶Dx=61.8kN→Dy=41.2kN↑MD=129.7kNm↶

These are our redundant reaction forces.

If we now treat these redundant reactions as known, we can use global equilibrium to solve
for the rest of the frame's reaction forces (at point A) as shown in Figure 8.22.
 Figure 8.22: Frame Analysis with Multiple Degrees of Indeterminacy Example - Finding the
Moment Diagram using the Solved Redundants

Then, knowing all of the external forces and reactions for this 3°3° indeterminate system, we
can find the final shear and moment diagrams as shown in Figure 8.22.