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Beauty
Beauty is a characteristic of an animal, idea, object, person or place
that provides a perceptual experience of pleasure or satisfaction. Beauty
is studied as part of aesthetics, culture, social psychology, philosophy
and sociology. An "ideal beauty" is an entity which is admired, or
possesses features widely attributed to beauty in a particular culture, for
perfection.

Ugliness is considered to be the opposite of beauty.

The experience of "beauty" often involves an interpretation of some

entity as being in balance and harmony with nature, which may lead to
feelings of attraction and emotional well-being. Because this can be a
subjective experience, it is often said that "beauty is in the eye of the
beholder."[1]
Rayonnant rose window in Notre Dame de
There is evidence that perceptions of beauty are evolutionary Paris. In Gothic architecture, light was
determined, that things, aspects of people and landscapes considered considered the most beautiful revelation of
beautiful are typically found in situations likely to give enhanced God.

survival of the perceiving human's genes.[2][3]

Contents
Ancient Greek
The Age of Reason
The Romantic period
The 20th century and after
Human beauty
Effects on society
Writers' definitions
See also
References
External links

Ancient Greek
The classical Greek noun that best translates to the English-language words "beauty" or "beautiful" was κάλλος, kallos,
and the adjective was καλός, kalos. However, kalos may and is also translated as ″good″ or ″of fine quality″ and thus has a
broader meaning than mere physical or material beauty. Similarly, kallos was used differently from the English word
beauty in that it first and foremost applied to humans and bears an erotic connotation.[4]

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The Koine Greek word for beautiful was ὡραῖος, hōraios,[5] an adjective etymologically coming from the word ὥρα, hōra,
meaning "hour". In Koine Greek, beauty was thus associated with "being of one's hour".[6] Thus, a ripe fruit (of its time)
was considered beautiful, whereas a young woman trying to appear older or an older woman trying to appear younger
would not be considered beautiful. In Attic Greek, hōraios had many meanings, including "youthful" and "ripe old age".[6]

The earliest Western theory of beauty can be found in the works of early Greek philosophers from the pre-Socratic period,
such as Pythagoras. The Pythagorean school saw a strong connection between mathematics and beauty. In particular, they
noted that objects proportioned according to the golden ratio seemed more attractive.[7] Ancient Greek architecture is
based on this view of symmetry and proportion.

Plato considered beauty to be the Idea (Form) above all other Ideas.[8] Aristotle saw a relationship between the beautiful
(to kalon) and virtue, arguing that "Virtue aims at the beautiful."[9]

Classical philosophy and sculptures of men and women produced according to the Greek philosophers' tenets of ideal
human beauty were rediscovered in Renaissance Europe, leading to a re-adoption of what became known as a "classical
ideal". In terms of female human beauty, a woman whose appearance conforms to these tenets is still called a "classical
beauty" or said to possess a "classical beauty", whilst the foundations laid by Greek and Roman artists have also supplied
the standard for male beauty in western civilization. During the Gothic era, the classical aesthetical canon of beauty was
rejected as sinful. Later, Renaissance and Humanist thinkers rejected this view, and considered beauty to be the product
of rational order and harmonious proportions. Renaissance artists and architects (such as Giorgio Vasari in his "Lives of
Artists") criticised the Gothic period as irrational and barbarian. This point of view of Gothic art lasted until Romanticism,
in the 19th century.

The Age of Reason

The Age of Reason saw a rise in an interest in beauty as a philosophical
subject. For example, Scottish philosopher Francis Hutcheson argued
that beauty is "unity in variety and variety in unity".[10] The Romantic
poets, too, became highly concerned with the nature of beauty, with
John Keats arguing in "Ode on a Grecian Urn" that

Beauty is truth, truth beauty, —that is all.

Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know.

The Birth of Venus, by Sandro Botticelli.

The goddess Venus is the classical
The Romantic period
personification of beauty. In the Romantic period, Edmund Burke postulated a difference between
beauty in its classical meaning and the sublime. The concept of the
sublime, as explicated by Burke and Kant, suggested viewing Gothic art
and architecture, though not in accordance with the classical standard of beauty, as sublime.

The 20th century and after

The 20th century saw an increasing rejection of beauty by artists and philosophers alike, culminating in postmodernism's
anti-aesthetics.[11] This is despite beauty being a central concern of one of postmodernism's main influences, Friedrich
Nietzsche, who argued that the Will to Power was the Will to Beauty.[12]

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In the aftermath of postmodernism's rejection of beauty, thinkers have returned to beauty as an important value.
American analytic philosopher Guy Sircello proposed his New Theory of Beauty as an effort to reaffirm the status of
beauty as an important philosophical concept.[13][14] Elaine Scarry also argues that beauty is related to justice.[15]

Beauty is also studied by psychologists and neuroscientists in the field of experimental aesthetics and neuroesthetics
respectively. Psychological theories see beauty as a form of pleasure.[16][17] Correlational findings support the view that
more beautiful objects are also more pleasing.[18][19][20] Some studies suggest that higher experienced beauty is associated
with activity in the medial orbitofrontal cortex.[21][22] This approach of localizing the processing of beauty in one brain
region has received criticism within the field.[23]

Human beauty
The characterization of a person as “beautiful”, whether on an individual basis or by
community consensus, is often based on some combination of inner beauty, which
includes psychological factors such as personality, intelligence, grace, politeness,
charisma, integrity, congruence and elegance, and outer beauty (i.e. physical
attractiveness) which includes physical attributes which are valued on an aesthetic
basis.

Fresco of a Roman woman
from Pompeii, c. 50 AD
Standards of beauty have changed over time, based on changing cultural values.
Historically, paintings show a wide range of different standards for beauty. However,
humans who are relatively young, with smooth skin, well-proportioned bodies, and
regular features, have traditionally been considered the most beautiful throughout
history.

A strong indicator of physical beauty is "averageness".[24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37] When images of human

faces are averaged together to form a composite image, they become progressively closer to the "ideal" image and are
perceived as more attractive. This was first noticed in 1883, when Francis Galton overlaid photographic composite images
of the faces of vegetarians and criminals to see if there was a typical facial appearance for each. When doing this, he
noticed that the composite images were more attractive compared to any of the individual images.[38] Researchers have
replicated the result under more controlled conditions and found that the computer generated, mathematical average of a
series of faces is rated more favorably than individual faces.[39] It is argued that it is evolutionarily advantageous that
sexual creatures are attracted to mates who possess predominantly common or average features, because it suggests the
absence of genetic or acquired defects.[24][40][41][42] There is also evidence that a preference for beautiful faces emerges
early in infancy, and is probably innate,[31][32][33][34][43] and that the rules by which attractiveness is established are similar
across different genders and cultures.[44][45][45]

A feature of beautiful women that has been explored by researchers is a waist–hip ratio of approximately 0.70.
Physiologists have shown that women with hourglass figures are more fertile than other women due to higher levels of
certain female hormones, a fact that may subconsciously condition males choosing mates.

People are influenced by the images they see in the media to determine what is or is not beautiful. Some feminists and
doctors have suggested that the very thin models featured in magazines promote eating disorders,[46] and others have
argued that the predominance of white women featured in movies and advertising leads to a Eurocentric concept of
beauty, feelings of inferiority in women of color,[47] and internalized racism.[48]

The black is beautiful cultural movement sought to dispel this notion.[49]

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Fatima Lodhi, a young diversity and anti-colorism advocate from Pakistan, claims that "Beauty comes in all shapes, shades
and sizes".[50]

The concept of beauty in men is known as 'bishōnen' in Japan. Bishōnen refers to males with distinctly feminine features,
physical characteristics establishing the standard of beauty in Japan and typically exhibited in their pop culture idols. A
multibillion-dollar industry of Japanese Aesthetic Salons exists for this reason.

Effects on society
Beauty presents a standard of comparison, and it can cause resentment and
dissatisfaction when not achieved. People who do not fit the "beauty ideal" may
be ostracized within their communities. The television sitcom Ugly Betty
portrays the life of a girl faced with hardships due to society's unwelcoming
attitudes toward those they deem unattractive. However, a person may also be
targeted for harassment because of their beauty. In Malèna, a strikingly
beautiful Italian woman is forced into poverty by the women of the community
who refuse to give her work for fear that she may "woo" their husbands. The
documentary Beauty in the Eyes of the Beheld explores both the societal
Chinese jade ornament with flower
blessings and curses of female beauty through interviews of women considered
design, Jin dynasty (1115–1234
beautiful. AD), Shanghai Museum

Researchers have found that good looking students get higher grades from
their teachers than students with an ordinary appearance.[52] Some studies
using mock criminal trials have shown that physically attractive "defendants"
are less likely to be convicted—and if convicted are likely to receive lighter
sentences—than less attractive ones (although the opposite effect was observed
The night sky in the Atacama
when the alleged crime was swindling, perhaps because jurors perceived the Desert. The concept of noctcaelador
defendant's attractiveness as facilitating the crime).[53] Studies among teens describes an emotional attachment
and young adults, such as those of psychiatrist and self-help author, Eva Ritvo, to, or adoration of, the night sky.[51]
show that skin conditions have a profound effect on social behavior and
opportunity.[54]

How much money a person earns may also be influenced by physical beauty. One study found that people low in physical
attractiveness earn 5 to 10 percent less than ordinary looking people, who in turn earn 3 to 8 percent less than those who
are considered good looking.[55] In the market for loans, the least attractive people are less likely to get approvals,
although they are less likely to default. In the marriage market, women's looks are at a premium, but men's looks do not
matter much.[56]

Conversely, being very unattractive increases the individual’s propensity for criminal activity for a number of crimes
ranging from burglary to theft to selling illicit drugs.[57]

Discrimination against others based on their appearance is known as lookism.[58]

Writers' definitions
St. Augustine said of beauty "Beauty is indeed a good gift of God; but that the good may not think it a great good, God
dispenses it even to the wicked."[59]

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Philosopher and novelist Umberto Eco wrote On Beauty: A history of a Western idea (2004)[60] and On Ugliness
(2007).[61] A character in his novel The Name of the Rose declares: "three things concur in creating beauty: first of all
integrity or perfection, and for this reason we consider ugly all incomplete things; then proper proportion or consonance;
and finally clarity and light", before going on to say "the sight of the beautiful implies peace".[62]

See also
Adornment
Beauty pageant
Body modification
Glamour (presentation)
Processing fluency theory of aesthetic pleasure
Unattractiveness

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External links
Sartwell, Crispin. "Beauty" (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/beauty/). In Zalta, Edward N. Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy.
Beauty (https://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu/idea/1998) at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project
BBC Radio 4's In Our Time programme on Beauty (http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_2005051
9.shtml) (requires RealAudio)
Dictionary of the History of Ideas: (https://web.archive.org/web/20050305091132/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/D
HI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-28) Theories of Beauty to the Mid-Nineteenth Century
beautycheck.de/english (http://www.uni-regensburg.de/Fakultaeten/phil_Fak_II/Psychologie/Psy_II/beautycheck/engli
sh/prototypen/prototypen.htm) Regensburg University – Characteristics of beautiful faces
Eli Siegel's "Is Beauty the Making One of Opposites?" (http://www.terraingallery.org/IsBeauty.html)
Art and love in Renaissance Italy (http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15324coll10/id/53033) ,
Issued in connection with an exhibition held Nov. 11, 2008-Feb. 16, 2009, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (see
Belle: Picturing Beautiful Women; pages 246-254).

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