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Abstract: Laminated elastomeric bridge bearings are commonly used in areas with low-to-moderate seismicity, although the applications are
typically intended for service-level considerations such as thermal movements of the bridge superstructure. These components provide a po-
tential source of displacement capacity frequently neglected in seismic design. An experimental program was carried out to evaluate the behav-
ioral characteristics and performance of steel-reinforced, laminated elastomeric bearings, which had not been designed for seismic demands, as
the primary quasi-isolation components for seismic events by permitting slip at the interface of the bearing and substructure. The rubber at the top
of the bearing is vulcanized to a steel plate, which is bolted to the test frame to simulate a connection to the superstructure. At the base of the
bearing, the elastomer directly contacts concrete representing the substructure, with no restraint of horizontal motion other than friction. The
elastomeric bearings investigated during the experimental program displayed an approximately linear elastic response before sliding, with an
initial friction coefficient in the range of 0.25–0.5 (at a shear strain between 125 and 250%) depending on combinations of the contact surface
roughness, applied load, and bearing velocity. The friction coefficient decreased as a nonlinear function of the imposed vertical load. The maximum
elastomer shear strain prior to sliding exhibited nonlinear increases with vertical load, resulting from the influence of the variable friction coefficient.
Linear shear moduli were primarily influenced by the maximum shear strain imposed on the bearing, and showed shear stiffness reductions of
approximately 40–50% following multiple, large displacement slip cycles, compared with 15–25% after reaching 50% shear strain. Multiple cycles
of large displacement demands resulted in noticeable degradation in the friction coefficient over the duration of the tests. However, the bearings
possessed a high degree of resiliency, considering that the specimens retained load-carrying capacity through total cumulative slip travel demands
in the range of 3.5–4.5 m (140–180 in.). DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)BE.1943-5592.0000406. © 2013 American Society of Civil Engineers.
CE Database subject headings: Highway bridges; Earthquake resistant structures; Friction; Cyclic tests; Seismic effects; Laminated
materials; Shear resistance.
Author keywords: Elastomeric bearings; Quasi-isolation; Full-scale tests; Friction coefficient.
Introduction of the earliest patents dating back to the turn of the twentieth century
(Buckle and Mayes 1990). Extensive subsequent research efforts
Seismic isolation has been implemented as an effective means of have further developed seismic isolation design methods and related
earthquake damage mitigation in structural engineering, with some bearing technologies (e.g., Calvi and Pavese 1997; Kikuchi and Aiken
1997; Mayes and Naeim 2001; Buckle et al. 2002; Taylor and Igusa
1
Graduate Research Assistant, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engi- 2004). Structural isolation systems have typically been used in high
neering, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, 205 N. Mathews Ave., seismic regions (such as the west coast of the United States, as well as
Urbana, IL 61801. E-mail: jsteelm2@illinois.edu
2 Japan and New Zealand) where additional design and construction costs
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Univ. of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, 205 N. Mathews Ave., Urbana, IL are justifiable when balanced against the seismic hazard. However, for
61801 (corresponding author). E-mail: fhnstck@illinois.edu bridges outside of high seismic areas some commonly used structural
3 components that permit relative thermal superstructure displacements
Graduate Research Assistant, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engi-
neering, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, 205 N. Mathews Ave., with respect to the substructure can provide improved seismic perfor-
Urbana, IL 61801. E-mail: filipov1@illinois.edu mance. For example steel-reinforced, laminated elastomeric bridge
4
Associate Professor, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, bearings may inherently possess properties suitable for an isolation
Univ. of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, 205 N. Mathews Ave., Urbana, IL
system, even though elastomeric bearing designs in such regions are
61801. E-mail: jlafave@illinois.edu
5
Professor and Chair, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, nominally restricted to 50–70% shear strain to ensure satisfactory long-
Northeastern Univ., 360 Huntington Ave., Boston, MA 02115. E-mail: jf. term performance (AASHTO 2008a; Stanton and Roeder 1982). Re-
hajjar@neu.edu cently, Konstantinidis et al. (2008) investigated the behavior of such
6
Professor Emeritus, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, bearings, recognizing that they can sustain shear strains much larger than
Univ. of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, 205 N. Mathews Ave., Urbana, IL typically observed under nonseismic service-level conditions.
61801. E-mail: dfoutch@illinois.edu Consequently, a quasi-isolated design that relies on thermal ex-
Note. This manuscript was submitted on August 26, 2011; approved on
pansion devices to also provide seismic energy dissipation could
April 24, 2012; published online on April 26, 2012. Discussion period open
until December 1, 2013; separate discussions must be submitted for in-
be an appealing pragmatic design approach for bridges in moderate
dividual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Bridge Engineering, seismic regions, providing the benefit of reduced force demands,
Vol. 18, No. 7, July 1, 2013. ©ASCE, ISSN 1084-0702/2013/7-612–623/ as long as the structural system can be designed to account for
$25.00. increased displacements associated with an isolated response
seismic response of a quasi-isolated system and greater damage is results presented in this paper provide new information to un-
expected, primarily constrained to the bearings. However, compared derstand how steel-reinforced, laminated elastomeric bearings that
with a conventional nonisolated system, a quasi-isolated system is have not been designed or fabricated to tolerate seismic demands
expected to sustain less damage at the substructures. For a quasi- will behave under simulated field conditions when subjected to large
isolated bridge, support surfaces at the substructures may need to displacement demands, which include both elastomer shear and
be enlarged to prevent unseating of bearings, and the bridge super- sliding components.
structure could be permanently offset following sliding of the bear-
ings. Calibration of the standards and guidelines recommended for use
when designing a quasi-isolated bridge are in development as part of Testing Program Background
the project in which the experiments reported here were performed.
The Illinois Center for Transportation (ICT), working in con-
Test Setup
junction with the Illinois Department of Transportation (IDOT), is
currently investigating the behavior of quasi-isolated bridge sys- The tests described in this paper were performed in the Newmark
tems, to calibrate and refine the IDOT earthquake-resisting system Structural Engineering Laboratory at the University of Illinois using
(ERS) design and construction methodology. The IDOT ERS phi- the experimental apparatus shown in Fig. 1, which was specifically
losophy relies in part on prescribed sequential fusing (i.e., slip, designed to realistically reflect field conditions for the full-scale
yielding, or rupture) of specific components to limit forces that can bridge bearing test specimens. Vertical loading was imposed on a
be transferred down through the bridge system (Tobias et al. 2008). bearing using a pair of 445 kN (100 kip) capacity actuators reacting
The specific feature of the IDOT ERS addressed in this paper is the against a steel frame secured to the laboratory strong floor with
use of Type I elastomeric bearings, which allow thermal expansion pretensioned anchors. The use of a pair of actuators allowed the
under typical service conditions, to accommodate much larger vertical load to be maintained at a specified target of simulated
earthquake-induced displacements and provide a significant elon- gravity load (and the loading beam to remain level) regardless of the
gation of the structural period (possibly in conjunction with fixed lateral displacement of the bearing. Concrete pads were cast to
bearing fusing). Bearings identified as Type I by IDOT are fabricated simulate typical bridge substructures, including a brushed finish as
with an external top steel plate vulcanized to a steel-reinforced specified by IDOT (2007), to ensure that the frictional response at the
elastomer block, and are differentiated from Type II and III elas- elastomer-to-concrete substructure interface appropriately reflected
tomeric bearings in that they lack a Teflon sliding surface and an expected field conditions. The concrete pads were secured to the
internal shear restrictor pin within the elastomeric block, re- strong floor using 10 pretensioned anchors around the perimeter of
spectively (IDOT 2009). Slip for Type I bearings is anticipated at the the pad.
interface of the bottom surface of the elastomer and the top surface of The primary objective of the testing program was to characterize
the concrete substructure. the structural performance and behavior of elastomeric bearings
The behavior of steel-reinforced, laminated elastomeric bearings subjected to large lateral deformations during seismic events. Based
has been studied extensively for shear strains up to about 75%, on preliminary systems analyses of full bridges, in conjunction with
which are consistent with typical service conditions (Stanton and a review of the literature documenting previous tests of similar
Roeder 1982; Roeder et al. 1987). Schrage (1981) investigated slip elastomeric bearings (Stanton and Roeder 1982; Roeder et al. 1987;
thresholds of neoprene bearings on concrete surfaces. Mori et al. Kulak and Hughes 1992; Mori et al. 1999; Konstantinidis et al.
(1999) performed experiments on the shear response of laminated 2008), a target of 400% shear strain was selected for the testing
rubber bearings, which were not bonded to top or bottom steel plates program. Actual displacements can include both elastomeric shear
and were thus free to roll, to approximately 200% shear strain, with deformations and frictional sliding because the bearings are posi-
and without stops to restrict slip. Konstantinidis et al. (2008) tested tively connected at their top surface but are not anchored at their base
similar bearing configurations as Mori et al. (1999), without top or against horizontal motion at the elastomer-to-concrete substructure
bottom steel plates, and concluded that the ultimate displacement interface. Thus, although the elastomer portion of the bearings tested
capacity was approximately 150–225% shear strain, limited by in the present research is similar to those tested by Konstantinidis
rollover of the bearing to the point where the originally vertical face et al. (2008), the overall behavior is quite different. The bearings
of the bearing becomes horizontal against the supports. It was noted tested by Konstantinidis et al. (2008) were not bonded to top or
that any further imposed displacement would cause slipping of the bottom plates, thus their large-displacement behavior was a com-
bearing, and that the bearing surface may be damaged by repeated bination of shear and rollover (without sliding).
slipping; however, the experimental results did not exhibit cyclic To homogenize descriptions of the testing protocols across
degradation. experiments with variable slip thresholds, deformations are referred
This paper describes laboratory testing of full-scale steel- to herein using the measure of equivalent shear strain (ESS), where
reinforced, laminated elastomeric bridge bearings to study their ESS is the average bearing shear strain that would have been de-
shear and friction response when subjected to simulated seismic veloped at a given displacement if no slip had occurred. The
demands. The objective of the tests is to determine the behavioral largest bearings in the testing program comprised five layers of
locations, respectively. All elastomeric bearings were furnished by except that in practice the four threaded steel studs are typically
Tobi Engineering, Inc., located in Glenview, Illinois. The dimen- 19 mm (3/4 in.) diameter (IDOT 2009). The stud size was increased
sions of the test specimens conformed to standards used by IDOT, as to ensure that the studs and surrounding material would remain
specified in their bridge manual (IDOT 2009); they are provided in elastic and that slip would occur only between the elastomer and
Table 1 (in units of mm) for the elastomer layers, steel reinforcing concrete, not between the top plate and the loading beam. Horizontal
shims, and the top steel plate. According to documentation supplied lines were drawn on the sides of the elastomer to indicate the
by the manufacturer, the elastomer used for the bearings was locations of the internal shims, and vertical lines were added to form
composed of polyisoprene (natural rubber) meeting the AASHTO a grid. The elastomer bore directly on the roughened concrete
thermal requirements of Grade 3. Specifications for bearings sup- surface, without any positive horizontal restraint at the simulated
plied to IDOT, require a Shore A hardness of 55 6 5, which cor- substructure interface (see Fig. 2).
responds to a range of estimated shear moduli from 655 to 1,380 kPa
(95 to 200 psi), according to AASHTO (2008a). All of the bearing
Test Procedure
specimens satisfied this hardness requirement. The manufacturer
reported a hardness of 54.3, and a shear modulus, according to All tests simulated longitudinal motion of a bridge superstructure.
ASTM D4014, Annex A (ASTM 2007), of 855 kPa (124 psi) for the Two 127 cm (50 in.) cable-extension position transducers were
particular test, in units of ESS (where 100% 5 1). The displacement maintain the target simulated gravity load. Because the net vertical
record used for fully reversed cyclic testing, as shown in Fig. 3, was force on the bearing and its horizontal position are related in
determined after a review of documentation available for other a coupled fashion to both the horizontal and vertical actuator
prequalification and characterization tests of seismic isolation positions, particularly at large displacements, successive loops were
bearings [Shenton 1996; Highway Innovative Technology Evalu- performed within a substep to adjust the horizontal and vertical
ation Center (HITEC) 1996; AASHTO 2010]. The initial stages actuator positions until both of their target criteria had converged to
included seven cycles each to 25 and 50% shear strain, followed by within acceptable tolerances. The vertical force on the bearing varied
three cycles each at 100, 200, 300, and 400% ESS. The additional by as much as 6 8.9 kN (2 kip), from the target during vertical
cycles at the lower strain levels were imposed to investigate any control iterations of the QS tests.
effect of scragging (i.e., degradation in stiffness resulting from For the QS tests, the velocity of the top plate was determined
by the time required to sample signals and perform calculations
between iterations, and was generally low relative to the hydraulic
capacity of the testing equipment. For example, the average velocity
for Test 3-1 was approximately 0.068 mm/s (0.0027 in./s), or about
0.14% shear strain per second. For the ISR tests, the command
signals from a previous (slower) test were used to preestablish the
signals corresponding to converged states. Those signals were then
mapped to a sinusoidal waveform on a compressed time line so that
the bearing travel would meet a target velocity. Target velocities for
the ISR tests were selected based on the available hydraulic capacity
of the testing setup, and ranged from 1.5 to 6.3 cm/s (0.6 to 2.5 in./s),
or 32–80% shear strain per second. Although the velocities con-
sidered are smaller than expected for seismic demands, the ISR tests
do provide some insight into potential rate effects. Prior research
[Malaysian Rubber Producers’ Research Association (MRPRA)
1980] shows that a strain rate dependency does exist for natural
rubber with respect to the shear modulus but that the shear modulus
Fig. 2. Specimen 1 (Test 1-1) at incipient sliding
is more significantly influenced by peak shear strain than by strain
rate. More recent research by Konstantinidis et al. (2008) agreed
Fig. 5. Force versus displacement results for the cyclic tests: (a) Specimen 2 (Test 2-1); (b) Specimen 3 (Test 3-1); (c) Specimen 2 (Test 2-2);
(d) Specimen 4 (Test 4-1)
assumed based on historically observed correlations with hardness. when the range of the regression was considered together with
Quantification of shear stiffness varies between alternative recog- the loading rate, the increased stiffness was about 12–14% higher
nized standards, where both ASTM (2007) D4014 and AASHTO than would be obtained from AASHTO (2008b) or ASTM (2007)
(2008b) M251 constrain the range of shear strain imposed on test procedures.
specimens to the range of typical design limits but with maximum A general relationship has been recognized between compression
strain demands of 50 and 65%, respectively. and shear stiffness in the form of
When bearings are subjected to seismic demands, shear strains
can extend significantly beyond the nominal service load limits. The s
ɛ¼ (1)
tests performed for this experimental program indicate that elasto- aGS2
mer shear strains could be expected to reach approximately
125–250% before slip, depending on the vertical load. A pro- where ɛ 5 vertical strain, s 5 average vertical stress, G 5 shear
nounced, high-strain stiffening branch associated with crystalliza- modulus, S 5 shape factor, and a 5 constant (primarily influenced
tion was not observed because slip precluded such a phenomenon for by geometry and boundary conditions). Roeder et al. (1987) pre-
each bearing test. Therefore, the results provided herein focus on the sented an approximate equation for practical bridge bearings with
effective linear stiffness, accounting for softening that occurs at large shape factors, where the a term would be 6k and k is related
moderate strain levels that exceed typical service limits. to rubber hardness and can be estimated between 0.75 and 0.55 for
The compression and shear stiffness results from the testing 50 to 65 Shore A hardness elastomers. In the AASHTO (2008a)
program are summarized in Table 3, Kv represents the vertical specifications, the commentary provides this equation with a 5 6,
stiffness of the bearing determined from the experimental load- although a ballot has been proposed to modify the value from 6 to 4.8
deflection curve, as shown in Fig. 6. The values are linear regressions (Daniel H. Tobias, personal communication, 2012).
of the experimental data for a region bounded by the first instance Kelly and Konstantinidis (2011) provide extensive treatment of
when the loading curve reached 50% of the target vertical load and compression stiffness for various geometric arrangements and
the end of the unloading/reloading cycle. Although the loading rate boundary conditions. If the relaxation permitted by friction is
used to determine Kv was roughly 20 times faster than that specified neglected, a for the bearings in this study would be 6.37 and 6.50 for
in AASHTO (2008b) M251 and ASTM (2007) D4014, an exper- the small and large bearings, respectively. If the lack of restraint
imental study of load rate sensitivity showed that the increase in provided by friction only at the bottom surface of the bearing is
vertical stiffness caused by the faster loading rate was only about 5% considered in accordance with Kelly and Konstantinidis (2009), and
when compared with the AASHTO (2008b) and ASTM (2007) the bearings are assumed to be infinite strips with the narrow di-
loading protocols. The reported Kv values are also larger than values mension used as the width of the strip, the vertical stiffness decreases
that would be obtained from AASHTO (2008b) or ASTM (2007) by 4.9% if the coefficient of friction, m, between the rubber and
procedures because the range of data used in the regression was concrete is as high as 0.5, or up to 13.0% if m is as low as 0.2.
restricted to a stiffer portion of the loading curve. Consequently, Reductions in a values were calculated for each specimen,
reflecting the frictional restraint observed during sliding in the re- Calculation of effective linear stiffness required identification
spective experiments, with a final value calculated for each specimen of slip initiation. To identify slip initiation, data from the sensors
by considering the individual layers of rubber as a series of springs measuring displacements at the two welded steel studs (dh,high in
(Kelly and Konstantinidis 2011). The resulting range of a factors Fig. 7) were compared with the average displacement measurements
was 5.80–6.02 for the small bearings and 5.92–6.10 for the large of four points near the base of the elastomer (dh,low in Fig. 7). Shear
bearing. Applying the relationship between compression and shear strain was estimated according to
stiffness, an estimate of shear modulus from a compression test is
obtained by substituting ɛ 5 dv =ERT, s 5 Fv =A, and Kv 5 Fv =dv , to
dh,high 2 dh,low
obtain gshear ¼ P (3)
h 2 tshim,incl
Kv hrt
GEst,Kv ¼ (2)
aAS2 where h 5 height from the lower P attachment points to the un-
derside of the top steel plate, and tshim,incl 5 total thickness of the
In addition to this estimated material stiffness parameter, several shims included in h. Slip corresponds to regions of measured
apparent shear moduli were also calculated from the experimental response with incremental Dgshear 0. Points identified as slip
results. initiations were used to bound ranges for linear regression of shear
the observed trend with respect to Schrage (1981) to the slip rate. The degradation as a function of cumulative slip in Test 2-2 was similar
ISR tests displayed marked increases in breakaway friction coef- to Test 2-1.
ficients over the QS test cases. For Specimen 1, the friction co- To put these cumulative slip values into perspective, the total
efficient rose from an average of 0.29 in QS Test 1-7 to an initial slip travel demands estimated from system analyses of full bridge
breakaway coefficient of 0.42 in ISR Test 1-8. Similarly, after models subjected to 2,500-year return period earthquake motions
Specimen 4 had exhibited sliding at an average friction coefficient for southern Illinois were 2.15 m (85 in.) (Filipov et al. 2011),
of 0.27 for the final slip excursion of QS Test 4-1, and 0.30 for QS compared with the total slip travel demands of about 4 m (160 in.)
Test 4-2, the initial breakaway coefficient rose to 0.46 in ISR Test imposed on the bearing specimens during the tests. When the
4-3. The friction coefficients obtained from the QS tests appear to be expected total slip travel during major earthquakes is taken into
consistent with the kinetic slip coefficients in the ISR tests. account, the data from these tests suggest bearings that were not
Similar increases in the static friction breakaway coefficient designed to tolerate seismic demands can be expected to survive
relative to the kinetic friction coefficient have been observed for large slip travel demands with minor visible abrasions, while
tests of rubber on concrete, with a kinetic friction coefficient of 0.8 maintaining reliable strength to support vertical loads and pro-
and a static friction coefficient of at least 1 (Serway and Beichner viding stable hysteretic shear sliding response to dissipate seismic
2000). Friction tends to reach a peak and then drop off at higher energy.
velocities, where the velocity at which the peak occurs is a function
of the hardness of the mating surfaces and the size of the surface
asperities (Persson 2001). Recent tests reported by Guo et al. (2006) Summary and Conclusions
indicate that maximum friction coefficients tend to occur around slip
velocities of 1 m/s for rubber tires on dry concrete. Therefore, for Tests were performed to characterize the elastomeric shear de-
large earthquakes the coefficient of friction could be higher than the formation and slip response of steel-reinforced, laminated bearings
values observed in this testing program. unrestrained against horizontal translation atop concrete sub-
For the QS tests, the observed friction coefficient degraded with structures. All bearings were composed of steel-reinforced natural
increasing cycles. For example, during Test 4-1 Fig. 9 shows the rubber, vulcanized to top steel plates. The tests included various
coefficient of friction varying from a maximum of about 0.45 to combinations of bearing size, vertical stress, and shearing rate, with
a minimum of about 0.25, and Fig. 10 shows that the general trend is monotonic and fully reversed cyclic loading protocols. Two vertical
to degrade with increasing cumulative slip imposed on the bearing. actuators and a horizontal actuator were used to impose target hor-
Generally, visible damage was limited to chamfered corners and izontal displacements in a range of 6 400% of total rubber thickness,
abrasions on the base of the bearing, with portions of elastomer that while maintaining an approximately constant vertical load. The
had been ground off remaining on the concrete surface after com- bearing specimens reacted at their base against concrete test pads
pletion of the tests. The most severe damage was observed in with roughened surfaces conforming to standard specifications
Specimen 2. That specimen was first subjected to about 3.05 m used by IDOT.
(120 in.) of total slip travel at a normal force of approximately 75 kN The experimental program has produced test data indicating that
(16.8 kip) during Test 2-1. The bearing was then further subjected to typical bearings used by IDOT can generally be characterized with
an additional slip travel of about 1.02 m (40 in.) with a normal force linear elastic response for low-to-moderate loads, even at large
of approximately 300 kN (67.2 kip). At the end of Test 2-2, abrasion displacement demands on the order of 250% shear strain. Addi-
of the elastomer base edges was sufficient to expose the edge of the tionally, the elastomer compound demonstrated appreciable damp-
lowest internal shim. Despite this damage, the rate of slip coefficient ing as an unintentional consequence of the measures taken to
defining a reliable value for dynamic shear stiffness at strain levels AASHTO. (2010). Guide specifications for seismic isolation design,
expected during large earthquakes. AASHTO, Washington, DC.
Repeated monotonic tests on a single bearing, along with cyclic ASTM. (2007). “Standard specification for plain and steel-laminated
tests incorporating multiple reversed cycles up to 400% equivalent elastomeric bearings for bridges.” D4014-03, West Conshohocken, PA.
shear strain, indicate that the bearings are remarkably resilient. Buckle, I. G., and Mayes, R. L. (1990). “Seismic isolation: History, ap-
Scragging effects on stiffness appear minor in relation to the more plication, and performance—A world view.” Earthquake Spectra, 6(2),
significant influence of maximum shear strain demand. The bottom 161–201.
Buckle, I., Nagarajaiah, S., and Ferrell, K. (2002). “Stability of elasto-
surface of the elastomer is visibly worn and roughened by abrasion
meric isolation bearings: Experimental study.” J. Struct. Eng., 128(1),
with the concrete through multiple cycles of large displacements; 3–11.
however, this visible damage appears to have only a minor influence Calvi, G. M., and Pavese, A. (1997). “Conceptual design of isolation systems
on the force-displacement response. Additionally, delamination for bridge structures.” J. Earthquake Eng., 1(1), 193–218.
was not observed externally, and the only visible damage extend- Filipov, E. T., et al. (2013a). “Seismic performance of highway bridges
ing to the internal shims was for the case of the highest tested with fusing bearing components for quasi-isolation.” Earthquake En-
vertical load. gineering and Structural Dynamics, in press.
The bearing slip response gradually transitioned through a range Filipov, E. T., Fahnestock, L. A., Steelman, J. S., Hajjar, J. F., LaFave, J. M.,
of shear strains, from shear dominant to slip dominant. Therefore, and Foutch, D. A. (2013b). “Evaluation of quasi-isolated seismic bridge
even when displacements arise primarily from shear deformations, behavior using nonlinear bearing models.” Eng. Struct., 49(14), 168–
181.
a bearing may experience an accelerated walking phenomenon
Filipov, E. T., Hajjar, J. F., Steelman, J. S., Fahnestock, L. A., LaFave, J. M.,
for long duration earthquakes. The observed slip coefficients varied and Foutch, D. A. (2011). “Computational analyses of quasi-isolated
significantly with vertical load, following a nonlinear inverse re- bridges with fusing bearing components.” Proc., ASCE/SEI Structures
lationship. Deterioration of slip resistance is also noticeable over Congress, ASCE, Reston, VA, 276–288.
significant accumulations of slip for a constant vertical load. Guo, K.-h., Zhuang, Y., Chen, S.-k., and William, L. (2006). “Experimental
The stiffness and slip characteristics obtained from this series of research on friction of vehicle tire rubber.” Front. Mech. Eng. China,
experiments have been incorporated into full bridge system analyses 1(1), 14–20.
to evaluate the global response resulting from the use of bearings Highway Innovative Technology Evaluation Center (HITEC). (1996).
such as those in this paper (Filipov et al. 2013a; Filipov et al. 2013b). Guidelines for the testing of seismic isolation and energy dissipating
The global system analyses provide a comprehensive estimation of devices, ASCE, Reston, VA.
Illinois Department of Transportation (IDOT). (2007). Standard specifi-
seismic peak and residual displacements, accounting for the in-
cation for road and bridge construction, IDOT, Springfield, IL.
fluence of the abutments in the longitudinal direction, the stiffened Illinois Department of Transportation (IDOT). (2009). Bridge manual,
angle retainer brackets anchored to the concrete substructure in the IDOT, Springfield, IL.
transverse direction, as well as the bearing performance charac- International Concrete Repair Institute (ICRI). (1997). “Concrete surface
teristics observed from these experiments. Supplementary to the profile chips.” Æhttp://www.icri.org//bookstore/launchCatalog.asp?
experiments reported in this paper and the global bridge system ItemID=PCæ (Apr. 14, 2010).
analyses, additional tests incorporated in the full scope of the testing Kelly, J. M., and Konstantinidis, D. (2009). “Effect of friction on unbonded
program will provide further information regarding how the bearings elastomeric bearings.” J. Eng. Mech., 135(9), 953–960.
described in this paper behave under alternate situations and con- Kelly, J. M., and Konstantinidis, D. A. (2011). Mechanics of rubber
figurations, such as when transverse retainers are included, and bearings for seismic and vibration isolation, Wiley, Chichester, U.K.
Kikuchi, M., and Aiken, I. D. (1997). “An analytical hysteresis model for
together with three-dimensional systems models will offer insight
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Division of Highways, and the U.S. Department of Transportation, of bridge bearings.” Research Report No. ICT-13-002, Illinois Center for
Federal Highway Administration (FHwA). The content of this paper Transportation, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL.
reflects the view of the authors, who are responsible for the facts and Malaysian Rubber Producers’ Research Association (MRPRA). (1980).
the accuracy of the data presented herein. The content does not “Natural rubber engineering data sheet.” EDS 16, Malaysian Rubber
necessarily reflect the official views or policies of the ICT, IDOT, or Research and Development Board Organization, Hertford, U.K.
Reston, VA.
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Roeder, C. W., Stanton, J. F., and Taylor, A. W. (1987). “Performance of and Chaput, R. J. (2008). “Overview of earthquake resisting system
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