I'll try to add a framework around my answer to help put things in context.

There are really four major steps to making spirits. (Drinks like wine and beer that
are not "spirits" skip the distilling step):

1. Sourcing the initial ingredient.

2. Fermenting the sourced material (that is, adding yeast which breaks down
the sourced material to create alcohol). Ending product is a drink with 4-
15% alcohol.
3. Distilling the fermented wash from step 2 (that is, boiling the liquid to
separate out the alcohol and increase the alcohol content to >40% alcohol).
Distilling is a required step to make spirits. Wine and beer are not distilled;
hence are not called spirits and have lower alcoholic content than spirits.
4. Aging of the distilled spirit. This is an optional step, but storing the spirit in
oak barrels will add some flavor and gold/red/yellowish coloring. For
example, whether or not a Tequila was stored in oak barrels determines
whether the Tequila is white (not stored in oak barrels), or gold (was stored
in oak barrels). This is also how whiskey gets much of it's color and flavor.
Additionally, flavoring drinks at various steps may in turn make different spirits
(gin is vodka that has been flavored with juniper berries during distillation). Mixing
different drinks also results in new drinks (for example, wine + brandy
= vermouth).

Ok, so what are the various drinks?

Non-sprits:

 Beer: Grains (barley, wheat, corn) -> fermentation

o "Hops" are added for bitter flavoring.
 Wine: Grapes (sourcing) -> fermentation -> aging
o Whether or not grape skin was present during fermentation determines
whether the wine is a white wine (grape juice without skin was
fermented), or a red wine (skin was included during fermentation).
o Carbonated wine is called sparkling wine. Carbonated wine specifically
from the Champagne region of France is called Champagne.
Spirits:

 Whiskey: Grains (malted barley, wheat, corn) -> fermentation -

> distillation -> aging
o Note that whiskey is basically made by distilling beer.
o Aging in oak barrels is what gives whiskey the distinct color. Prior to
storage, the distilled liquid is clear.
o Some whiskey tends to be very smokey/peaty in flavor. This is because the
grain was dried in a peat powered kiln prior to being fermented, and the
smoke from the peat imparts flavor. Islay scotch tends to have an extremely
strong smokey flavor and smell.
o Scotch is any whiskey made in Scotland (usually uses malted barley,
though may also use wheat and rye). Bourbon is an American whiskey
made specifically from corn.
 Brandy: Grapes (sourcing) -> fermentation -> distilling
o Basically distilled wine.
o Cognac is a variety of brandy from the Cognac region in France.
 Rum: Sugarcane or Molasses -> fermentation -> distilling
o Like you'd expect out of something made from sugarcane or molasses, rum
tends to be on the sweeter side.
 Vodka: Pretty much anything (grapes, grains, potatoes) -
> fermentation -> distilling
o In making vodka, the liquid is distilled to 90%+ alcohol to remove most
taste and aromas of the source material. It is then diluted with water to 40%
alcohol.
 Tequila: Blue Agave plant -> fermentation -> distillation -> aging
o White/silver tequila has not been aged in oak barrels. Gold tequila is aged in
oak barrels (hence the color).
 Gin: Vodka with juniper berries added during distillation.
 Liqueur or cordials (not liquor, which is simply another word for
spirits) is a generic term for a spirit with added sugar (or some other
sweetener) and flavored with fruit, cream, herbs, spices, flowers or nuts.
Examples of common liqueurs include Fireball, Fernet-Branca, and
Jagermeister.