Foundation Fieldbus

 The Fieldbus Foundation defines

fieldbus as “a digital, two-way,
multidrop communication link
among intelligent and control
devices.”
 It is a bidirectional, half-duplex, digital
process control and automation protocol.
 The Foundation Fieldbus has three layers:
 Physical layer (PHL)
 Data link layer (DLL)
 Application layer (APL).
 It has an additional layer—layer 8, called
the “user layer.”
 It has a two-level architecture consisting of
the lower level H1 and the upper layer
H2(HSE).
 H1 operates at 31.25 kbps, while H2
operates at 100 Mbps.
 It supports both scheduled and unscheduled
communications.
 It supports interoperability, i.e., devices from
different manufacturers can be seamlessly
connected.
 Boolean
 integer
 floating point
 unsigned
 octet string
 visible string
 date, time of day, time difference
 time value, bit string, null, and packed.
 Foundation Fieldbus has a two-level
architecture:
 H1 is the lower-level bus that connects the
field devices together
 H2 is the upper-level bus that interconnects
the different H1 bus segments.
 H1operates at a speed of 31.25 kbps, while
H2 (HSE) at 100 Mbps.
 An expanded view of the system from the
control room level to the field level is possible
by employing H1.
 Multivariables from each device can be
brought to the control room for trend
analysis, archival purposes, predictive
maintenance, asset management and report
generation, etc.
Huge reduction in
 number of wires
 marshaling panels,
 number of I/Os, IS barriers,
 control room size,
 number of equipments,
 number of power supplies,
 downtime.
1. Interoperability of subsystems
2. Function Blocks
3. Control Backbone
4. Standard Ethernet
 The communication process involves
transportation of data and messages from
one field bus device to another.
 The devices may reside on the same link or
other links joined by bridges.
 Devices must have a device tag for proper
device identification and a device network
address for properly delivering data at the
designated device.
 The Fieldbus model consists of three layers: PHL,
DLL and APL.
 For the Fieldbus model, the APL is divided into
two sublayers
Fieldbus Message Specification (FMS)
Fieldbus Access Sublayer (FAS)
 FAS maps FMS into the DLL.
 There is a layer above layer 7-called the “user
application layer.”
 Layers 2 to 7 are mostly implemented in software
and termed as the “communication stack.”
• Protocol Control Information
• Protocol Data Unit
• Frame Check Sequence
 Physical layer interests are signal and
waveform shapes, voltage levels, type of
wires, etc.
 The physical layer receives the DL PDU from
the data link layer to which are appended the
preamble, start delimiter, and end delimiter.
 This is then converted into physical signal
and transmitted on the field bus medium by
electrical or optical means.
Fieldbus signals are encoded using the Manchester Biphase-L
technique.
 Data is combined with the clock signal to create the
fieldbus signal.
 The Physical Layer receives messages from the
communication stack and converts the messages
into physical signals on the fieldbus transmission
medium and vice-versa.
 The receiver of the fieldbus signal interprets a
positive transition in the middle of a bit time as a
logical “0” and a negative transition as logical “1”.
 The signal is called “synchronous serial” because the
clock information is embedded in the serial data
stream.
 The preamble is used by the receiver to
synchronize its internal clock with the
incoming fieldbus signal.
 Special N+ and N- codes are in the start
delimiter and end delimiter.
 The receiver uses the start delimiter to find
the beginning of a fieldbus message.
 After it finds the start delimiter, the receiver
accepts data until the end delimiter is
received.
 The transmitting device delivers ±10 mA at
31.25 kbit/s into a 50 ohm equivalent load to
create a 1.0 volt peak-to-peak voltage
modulated on top of the direct current (DC)
supply voltage.
 The DC supply voltage can range from 9 to
32 volts.
 31.25 kbit/s devices can be powered directly
from the fieldbus and can operate on wiring
that was previously used for 4-20 mA
devices.
 Fieldbus network’s shared wiring carries
power to devices and signals between
devices.
 Fieldbus is a process control local area
network used for interconnecting sensors,
actuators, and control devices.
 When not transmitting, a device draws power
from the cable for its internal operation.
 It also draws an additional 10 mAmps that it
"wastes."
 When the device transmits a high signal, it turns
off this extra 10 mAmps. This increases the
voltage between the wires.
 When the device transmits a low signal, it draws
an extra 10 mAmps from the wires, resulting in a
voltage decrease.
 The signal is above and below the 24-volt non-
transmitting level on the network.
 The data link layer manages transfer of data
from one node to another.
 Addresses, data transfer, their priority, and
medium access control are all managed by
the data link control layer.
 DLL ensures that data is shared effectively
without collisions, i.e., when one device
transmits none other does.
 The data link layer supports transmitting data
as per urgency.
 There are three levels of urgency
 URGENT
 NORMAL
 TIME_AVAILABLE
 An urgent message overrides all other
message queues.
 Maximum data sizes belonging to the three
data types are 64, 128, and 256 bytes,
 The most important job of the data link layer is medium access
control of the field bus devices.
 A link or segment is the particular part that shares the physical
layer signal at the same time.
 A device, at a given instant of time, is allowed to use the
medium (link) by proper software programming.
 A link active scheduler (LAS) controls this medium access
in the data link layer.
 LAS and Device Types

 Foundation Field bus devices are classified into

 BASIC DEVICE (BD)

 LINK MASTER (LM)

 Bridge

 BASIC class devices cannot become LAS, while LM class

devices can. A Bridge class device can become LAS in
addition to its original functionality to connect different links.
 In a link, there can be more than one LM; however, only one
can act as LAS at any given time.
 When there are no LAS in a link, LM devices try to acquire
the LAS role, but the one with the least node address wins this
contention.
 Maintain a live list of devices
 Distributes time on the bus for scheduling
 Controls traffic on the bus (Bus master
function)
 Grants right to transmit to all devices
 Polling method – sequence according to
predefined schedule
 Time slot method – Fixed time interval
 Use free time for asynchronous
transfers
 CD schedule contains a list of activities that are carried out by
LAS in cyclic communication. The schedule is prefixed.
 Thus, at some precise point of time, LAS sends a CD message
to a specific field bus device to put its data on the bus.
 The device then publishes its data on the bus and it goes to the
subscribers.
 The CD schedule is the highest priority job of the LAS.
 The other jobs are carried out between the scheduled transfers.
 “Live list” refers to the devices on the bus that responds to the
PT issued by LAS.
 Devices may be added/deleted to/from the field bus as per the
requirement.
 A device may also go off the list, if it goes bad.
 It is the responsibility of LAS to maintain and update the list
of live devices on the list.
 LAS probes at least one node (i.e., one address) after it has
completed one cycle of sending PTs to all the devices residing
in the live list.
 A device may be added to the bus at any time. LAS
periodically sends a PN message to the addresses not on the
live list.
 If a device is detected at the node, it immediately sends back a
probe response message and the device is added to the live list
by the LAS.
 LAS also confirms the device by sending it a node activation
message.
 LAS removes a device from its live list if it does not respond
to the PT or returns the same to the LAS consecutively for
three successive tries.
 Whenever a device is added or removed from the live list,
LAS immediately broadcasts the changes in the live list to all
the devices on the bus.
 Thus, each link master on the segment maintains a current and
updated copy of the live list.
 A TD message is broadcast on the fieldbus by the LAS.
 This ensures that all the devices on the bus have exactly the
same data link time.
 Scheduled cyclic communication on the bus and scheduled
function block executions are based on such TD message
information so that exact time synchronization is always
maintained.
 A segment or link has more than one link master.
 In case one LAS fails, another link master will take over.
 This will ensure that communication on the bus is not
disturbed.
 Thus, the field bus is designed to be “fail operational.”
 Devices on a field bus are identified by a DL-address.
 It consists of three fields: link, node, and selector
 lengths—16, 8, and 8 bits.
 A link address identifies a link and if communication is
between the same link, the link address is omitted.
 When a message goes from one link to another, only then the
link address is inserted.
 The content of the node field (8 bits) gives the address of the
node in a link.
 The selector field gives the device an internal 8-bit address.
 It identifies a virtual communication relationship (VCR).
 When a VCR is connected to another VCR, it is identified
with Data Link Connection End Point.
 Data Link Service Access Point is used when a VCR is not
connected to another VCR but can send/receive messages.
 Foundation Field bus devices have node addresses in the range
of 0X10 to 0XFF, which are classified into Link Master (LM)
range, BASIC range, default range, and temporary range.
 LAS has a node address of 0X04, while a temporary device
such as a handheld communicator has address in the
temporary range. When a device loses its node address, it can
communicate by using one address from the default range.
 LAS is responsible for synchronizing scheduled
communication.
 Scheduled data transfers are used for regular
cyclic transfer of control loop data between
devices residing on the field bus.
 Scheduled communication takes place in a
synchronous manner.
 LAS issues a compel data (CD) to the device when
its turn comes to upload data on the bus. The
device then broadcasts or publishes its data in
the buffer of all the devices connected to the bus.
 Unscheduled communication takes place in
an asynchronous manner
 Unscheduled data transfer uses either a
client–server or a report distribution type of
reporting for transferring data. Usually, such
transfer scheme is undertaken for user-
initiated changes such as Alarm, Operator
Data Update, Trend Data Update, Set Point
changes , Controller Tuning .
 The application layer consists of two sub layers:
FAS and FMS.
 FAS manages data transfers
 FMS encodes and decodes user data
 The FAS provides services to the FMS with the help of
scheduled and unscheduled communications of the DLL. The
types of services provided by FAS are described by VCRs.

The VCR can be thought of as equivalent to the speed dial

feature on a memory telephone.

Similarly, after configuration, only the VCR number is

needed to be communicated with another field bus device.

The VCR guarantees that message goes to the specific and

correct partner.
 When a message is transferred, it goes down through a
channel called VCR by adding protocol control
information (PCI) before going to the physical wire.
 A VCR is identified by a device-local identifier called “index”
specified in the application layer.
 A VCR can also be identified from other devices with a “DL-
address” specified in the data link layer.
 A VCR has a memory to save messages.
 Network management configures a particular VCR by
providing it with correct index and DL-address.
 Thus, no two VCRs can have identical index and DL-address.
 There are three different types of VCRs available:
 client–server VCR type

 source–sink (report distribution) VCR type

 publisher–subscriber VCR type

A fieldbus
device has
many VCRs
which enables
communicating
with various
devices and
applications
simultaneously
.
 It is a user-initiated one-to-one, queued, unscheduled,
prioritized communication between devices on the fieldbus.
 Queued means that messages are received as they are sent,
with message priorities remaining intact.
 In this method, messages are not overwhelmed as in the
publisher–subscriber type.
 The transfers in this VCR type is flow controlled and has a
retransmission scheme in case of corrupted message transfers.
 Operator-initiated messages such as set point change, alarm
acknowledge, tuning parameter change and access, and
device upload/download are done in client–server VCR type.
 A device, when it receives a request from the LAS
via PT, sends a request message to another device.
 The requester is the client, while device that received
the request is called a server.
 A typical example is a human–machine interface
(HMI) wanting to read data from a function block.
 The former is the client and the latter is the server.
 When the request reaches the server from the client,
the former sends the data to the client, which in this
case is the HMI.
 It is used for buffered, one-to-many communications to
transfer process critical data such as process variable.
 Buffering means the last published data on the network is
maintained and held until a new data overwrites it.
 The data producer is called a publisher and the data receiver is
called a subscriber.
 In this VCR type, data can be transferred on a purely periodic
basis by properly scheduling CD in the LAS.
 Unscheduled transmission of information is also possible.
 An attribute in the VCR would indicate which method is used.
 A typical example is to connect an output from an
analog input (AI) block with a process value input
of a PID control block.
 It is a one-to many, one-way communication without schedule.
It is used to broadcast or multicast event and trend reports.
 The destination address may be predefined or included
separately with each report.
 It is sometimes called the report distribution VCR type.
 Transfer in this mode takes place in a queued manner.
 Messages are delivered in the order in which they are
transmitted.
 The transfers are unscheduled and take place in between the
scheduled ones.
 This mode is typically used by field bus devices to send alarm
reports to operator consoles.
 Applications use FMS services to send
messages between themselves across the
field bus using a standard set of message
formats.
 Message formats, communication services,
and protocol behaviour are the services that
FMS provides for the user application layer.
 Virtual field device (VFD) and object
dictionary (OD) belong to this model
 Data communication over the field bus is
described by an “object description.” Such
descriptions are structured together in OD.
 Objects: Name of the apparatus, an address,
status variables and operating modes,
function blocks etc.
 The object description is identified by its “index”
in the OD.
 Index 0, called the object dictionary header,
provides a description of the dictionary itself,
and defines the first index for the object
descriptions of the User Application.
 The User Application object descriptions can
start at any index above 255.
 Index 255 and below define standard data types
such as Boolean, integer, float, bitstring, and
data structures that are used to build all other
object descriptions.
 VFDs are used to remotely view local device
data that are described in the object
dictionary.
 An identifier, maintained in a VCR, identifies
the VFD.
 A Foundation Field bus device will have at
least two VFDs
1.Management VFD
2.Function block VFD
Management VFD contains
 Network management functions

 System management functions

 NMIB data includes Virtual Communication Relationships

(VCR), dynamic variables, statistics, and Link Active
Scheduler (LAS) schedules (if the device is a Link Master).
 SMIB data includes device tag and address information, and
schedules for function block execution.

Information Base (IB)

 FMS provides different services to access
different FMS objects.
 variable access
 event management
 context management
 domain management
 program invocation
 OD services
A variable is a place where a data is stored.
An event is used for notifying that an application has detected
something important. Failure, data update, and alarms are
examples of events.
They are used to establish and release VCRs with
and determine the status of, a VFD.
A continuous memory area is referred to as a domain which is a
program area or a data area. A client can download a data to a
domain or upload a domain content via FMS services.
A data processing function to be managed from other applications is
referred to as a program. It is designed for PLC ladder programs
USER LAYER BLOCKS
 The Fieldbus Foundation has defined a standard
User Application based on “Blocks.
 Blocks are representations of different types of
application functions.
 Resource block
 Function block
 Transducer block.
 Devices are configured using Resource Blocks
and Transducer Blocks.
 The control strategy is built using Function
Blocks.
 The Resource Block describes characteristics
of the fieldbus device such as the device
name, manufacturer, and serial number.

 There is only one Resource Block in a device.

 The algorithm within the resource block

monitors and checks the device hardware
performance.
 Function Blocks (FB) provide the control
system behaviour.
 The input and output parameters of Function
Blocks can be linked over the fieldbus.
 The execution of each Function Block is
precisely scheduled.
 There can be many function blocks in a single
User Application.
 Functional blocks are classified as

 Basic: A standard block as specified by

fieldbus foundation
 Extended: An enhanced block for
including additional parameters
 Custom type (Flexible): An open block or
vendor specific block meeting the needs
of specific process requirements
 A flexible Function Block (FFB) is a user
defined block.
 The FFB allows a manufacturer or user to
define block parameters and algorithms to
suit an application that interoperates with
standard function blocks and host systems
 Function blocks can be built into fieldbus
devices as needed to achieve the desired
device functionality.
 For example, a simple temperature
transmitter may contain an AI function block.
 A control valve might contain a PID function
block as well as the expected AO block.
 Thus, a complete control loop can be built
using only a simple transmitter and a control
valve
Ten standard basic Function Blocks for process
control and measurement
Enhanced Function Blocks for advanced control
I/O interface to the outside world
 A schedule building tool is used to generate
function block and Link Active Scheduler
(LAS) schedules.
 The schedules contain the start time offset
from the beginning of the “absolute link
schedule start time.”
 The absolute link schedule start time is
known by all devices on the fieldbus.
Relationships between the absolute link schedule start time, LAS
macrocycle, device macrocycles, and the start time offsets.
 A “macrocycle” is defines as a single iteration
of a schedule within a device.
 System Management in the transmitter will
cause the AI function block to execute at
offset 0.
 At offset 20 the Link Active Scheduler (LAS)
will issue a Compel Data (CD) to the AI
function block buffer in the transmitter and
data in the buffer will be published on the
fieldbus.
 At offset 30 System Management in the valve will
cause the PID function block to execute followed
by execution of the AO function block at offset
50.
 The pattern exactly repeats itself assuring the
integrity of the control loop dynamics.
 Note that during the function block execution,
the LAS is sending the Pass Token message to all
devices so that they can transmit their
unscheduled messages such as alarm
notifications or operator setpoint changes.
 For this example, the only time that the
fieldbus can not be used for unscheduled
messages is from offset 20 to offset 30 when
the AI function block data is being published
on the fieldbus.
 Foundation Field bus supports an application
clock distribution function.
 It is usually set and adjusted to local time of
the day or to some Universal Coordinated
Time.
 System management contains a time
publisher that periodically sends an
application clock synchronization schedule
message to all connected field bus devices.
 The data link scheduling time is sampled and
sent with the application clock message so
that the receiving devices can adjust their
local application time.
 Between synchronization messages,
application clock time is independently
maintained in each device based on its own
internal clock.
 Application Clock synchronization allows the
devices to time stamp data throughout the
fieldbus network.
 If there are backup application clock
publishers on the fieldbus, a backup
publisher will become active if the currently
active time publisher should fail.
 A basic requirement of process control
applications is that precise cyclic updates of
process variables should be possible, to
ensure good quality continuous control.
 Generally the number of such tasks in the
system remains more or less fixed.
 Apart from these, communication tasks
related to sporadic events, such as alarm
reporting and operator changes of set points,
must be scheduled.
 The LAS therefore organizes its overall
schedule communication tasks in the system
in “Macro Cycles”.
 The duration of each Macro Cycle is further
subdivided into a number of “Elementary Cycles”.

 Each EC within an MC begins with the set of

periodic tasks that is to be scheduled within that
EC according to its update time period.
 The EC is chosen to be of such a duration that
even after processing of the periodic tasks some
time is left for servicing aperiodic tasks, should it
be necessary, due to the occurrence of some
event in the system.
 Simple example of a system containing two
devices requiring cyclic updates.
 The update requirements of the two devices
are 1 sec. and 0.5 sec. respectively.
 The LAS sets the EC period as equal to the
shortest update time requirement (0.5
Second. in this case).
 Similarly, the longest update time sets the MC
period (1 Second. in this case).
 The CD for Device 1 is generated at the
beginning of each Elementary Cycle and the CD
for Device 2 at the second time slot of alternate
Elementary Cycles.
 In the 'free time' in each Elementary Cycle the LAS
transmits PT's to devices on the Fieldbus
segment in turn, allowing them to transmit
unscheduled information.
 This is the unscheduled portion of the
Elementary Cycle.
 There may be insufficient free time for all Devices
to receive a PT before the end of the Elementary
Cycle.
 In this case the LAS continues from where it left
off in subsequent cycles.
 Note that the time available for unscheduled
traffic varies from one Elementary Cycle to
another.
 For example in the first EC of an MC in the
example, both periodic updates takes place,
while in the second EC only one does, since
the update requirement of device 2 is lower.
 For a device to work properly on a field bus,
two requirements must be met
 The device must have a unique network
address and a physical device tag.
 Network address assignments are done
by the configuration tool using system
management services.
 Assignments of network address follow these
steps:
 Unconfigured (new to the network)
devices join the network at one of the four
special default addresses.
 A configuration tool chooses a used
permanent address and assigns the same
to the device using system management
services.
 The same configuration tool will then
assign a physical device tag to the device
using system management services.
 The above procedure is followed for all new
devices that want to have their entry into the
network.
 These newly entered network devices store
their physical device tag and node address in
non-volatile memory.
 This procedure ensures the devices retain
their separate identifications even in case of
power failure or system shutdown.
 A device or a variable can be traced with the
help of tag service. System management
supports such a service.
 When a “find tag query” is broadcast to all the
connected field devices, each of them starts
searching its VFD for the requested tag and
returns back all the required information.
 In case the tag is found (it includes network
address, VFD number, VCR index, and OD
index), the complete path is known and the
host or maintenance device can then access
data from the tag.
 The transducer block knows the details of I/O devices and
how to actually read the sensor or change the actuator and
switches.

 The transducer block provides the sensor value to the

function blocks and/or makes the change in the output as
dictated by the function block.

 Transducer blocks can also perform calibration and

linearization.

Transducer blocks are defined to decouple function blocks
from the local input/output functions required to read
sensor hardware and command effector hardware.
 This permits the transducer block to execute
as frequently as necessary to obtain good
data from the sensors without burdening the
function blocks that use the data.
 It also insulates the function block from the
manufacturer specific characteristics of an
I/O device.
 It provides the local input/output functions
needed to read sensors and to command
actuators, displays, or other output hardware.
 It's the link between the physical world of
sensors and actuators and the "data world" of
process control.
 The transducer block contains information
such as calibration data, sensor type,
materials of construction, and in many cases
the health and operating status of actuators
and sensors.
 The following additional objects are defined
in the User Application:
 Link Objects define the links between
Function Block inputs and outputs
internal to the device and across the
fieldbus network.
 Trend Objects allow local trending of
function block parameters for access by
hosts or other devices.
 Alert Objects allow reporting of alarms
and events on the fieldbus.
 Multi-Variable Container (MVC) Object serves
to “encapsulate” multiple Function Block
parameters in order to optimize
communications for Publisher-Subscriber and
Report Distribution transactions.
 View Objects are predefined groupings of
block parameter sets that can be displayed by
the human/machine interface. The function
block specification defines four views for
each type of block.
 In Foundation Field bus technology, a device
is provided with three device support files to
ensure interoperability.
 Two DD files and one capability file.
 DDs are platform and operating system
independent.
 The DD provides an extended description of
each object in the Virtual Field Device (VFD).
 The DD provides information needed for a
control system or host to understand the
meaning of the data in the VFD including the
human interface for functions such as
calibration and diagnostics.
 Thus, the DD can be thought of as a “driver”
for the device.
 DDs are written in a standardized Programming
language called Device Description Language
(DDL).
 Device functionality and data semantics can be
described by DDL.
 This is then compiled with “tokenizer” Software
to generate “DD binary” files.
 A DD binary has two files.
 a DD binary with extension “.ffo”
 The second one is a DD symbol list with
extension “.sym”.
 A DD tokenizer is a software tool that
converts the DD source input files into DD
output files by replacing keywords and
standard strings in the source file with fixed
tokens.
 Device Description Services (DDS) is a
software for HMI.
 On the host side, library functions called
Device Description Services (DDS) are used to
read the device descriptions.
 A device can be added to the system, and it
would work nicely if the DD of this device is
added to the host or control system.
 Note that DDS reads descriptions, not
operational values.
 The operational values are read from the
fieldbus device over the fieldbus using FMS
communication services.
 DDS technology allows operation of devices
from different suppliers on the same fieldbus
with only one version of the host human
interface program.
 There are four levels in the hierarchy
 universal parameters
 function block parameters,
 transducer block parameters,
 manufacturer-specific parameters.
 The capabilities file tells the host about the
resources a device has in terms of function
blocks and VCRs. This enables the host to
configure a device offline.
 A capabilities file has an extension “.cff”.
 A capabilities file is often called “CFF,” which
stands for Common File Format
 A device on the field bus can be identified in
one of the three following ways
 device identifier (ID) – 32Byte Unique no. –
Manufacturer – canot be changed
 physical device (PD) tag – 32 byte unique
name – user –identify a device for specific
purpose
 node (physical) address – unique 1 byte no –
user – configuring the network
 Redundancy is included in the system at different levels to
ensure availability of resources in times of breakdown.
 Redundancy can be added at host level, device level, media
level, and network level.
 Decentralization of operations is another measure of fault
tolerance.
 Decentralization of operations of the loops would ensure a
small part of the plant to be out of order in case of single
controller failure.
 Another major advantage of decentralization is localizing the
fault.
 Redundancy at the host or central level is used to ensure high
availability and thereby prevent disruption in production and
consequent downtime and heavy losses.
 Host level ties the network and the field level devices together,
and any breakdown here may be life threatening for the entire
plant.
 There can be various methods to achieve host-level
redundancy:
 media redundancy,
 network redundancy, and
 network and media redundancy.
 Sensor redundancy is achieved by employing at least two
sensors to measure the value of a process variable at a single
point.
 The two sensor outputs are connected to the two input points
of the transmitter.
 With the help of the standard selector block in the Foundation
Field bus programming language, the better of the two sensor
outputs is selected.
 In case of failure of the “good” sensor, the other sensor takes
over, thereby obviating the need of shutdown.
 Thus, redundant sensors result in less numbers of shutdowns.
 Only if both the sensors fail would it result in shutdown.
 This is an example of two-out-of-two (2oo2) configuration.
 Transmitter redundancy involves employing several transmitters
for accessing the same process point.
 Foundation Fieldbus uses status bytes for each process variable
to select the “good” transmitter output and reject the others.
 Foundation Fieldbus takes the help of standard selector block for
the above.
 Such a selector block can handle three or even more inputs.
 When four such transmitters are so used for accessing and
connecting the same process point, this is called four-out-of-four
(4oo4).
 Transmitters from different manufacturers are used to eliminate
identical types of transmitter failures, thereby increasing
transmitter redundancy.