Terminology Guidance For Water Professionals (Or, What You Say Is Not What People Hear )

Terminology Guidance for Water
Professionals (or, What You Say Is

Not What People Hear…)
Project #4551A
Terminology Guidance for
Water Professionals (or, What
You Say Is Not What People
Hear…)

©2017 Water Research Foundation. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

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Terminology Guidance for
Water Professionals (or, What
You Say Is Not What People
Hear…)
Prepared by:
Gabriella Rundblad
King’s College London Strand, London WC2R 2LS
Jointly sponsored by:

Water Research Foundation
6666 West Quincy Avenue, Denver, CO 80235
and
UK Water Industry Research Limited

Room EA1, 1-7 Great George Street, Westminster, London SW1P 3AA
Published by:

DISCLAIMER
This study was funded by the Water Research Foundation (WRF). WRF assumes no
responsibility for the content of the research study reported in this publication or
for the opinions or statements of fact expressed in the report. The mention of trade
names for commercial products does not represent or imply the approval or
endorsement of WRF. This report is presented solely for informational purposes.
Copyright © 2017*
by Water Research Foundation
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

No part of this publication may be copied, reproduced
or otherwise utilized without permission.
ISBN 978-1-60573-303-6
Printed in the U.S.A.
*Although this document was published in 2017, it began to be circulated to, and used by, water utilities in 2015.
FOREWORD
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This publication is a result of a research project fully funded or funded in part by WRF
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Chair, Board of Directors Chief Executive Officer
Water Research Foundation Water Research Foundation


Introduction

The overall aim of WRF project #4551 was to develop successful communication tools. It is essential that
consumers can easily find tailored water quality information relating to CECs and risk from a reputable
information source. Our first objective was to identify what the key terms are and establish what these
terms mean. Next, we developed this guide on when and how to use key terminology in the context of
CECs. It is vital to note that the meanings of words often differ between water professionals and the
general public (which sometimes can be due to lack of expert knowledge). This guide focusses on the
general public and their understanding of the key terminology; by acknowledging lay meanings for these
terms, water professionals can utilize lay language to ensure that the general public can understand.

Risk communication is intricately complex, and even more so in the case of CECs. While the amount of a
CEC in finished tap water might not be a public health threat, the same CEC in much larger quantities
might significantly impact wildlife in river water. Consequently, we have two communication scenarios:
one where the general public needs to understand that the risk is extremely low, and one where it is high.
Water professionals, thus, need to be able to communicate different degrees of risk for contaminants. It
is a common misconception that there are words one should always use and words one must always
avoid. The choice of CEC term is highly context dependent, just as the phrase high risk would be wrong to
use in our example about tap water, but it would be right for river water.

All words are related to other words in various ways, e.g., synonyms have similar but not identical
meanings. Some words have negative associations, while others are more neutral. This allows
professionals to carefully craft their messages to the general public. So a high risk scenario is well advised
to use words with suitable negative associations as this might communicate high risk more strongly, while
neutral (or positive associations) are better in reassurances about low risk. Sections 1‐3 of this guide will
detail the differences and similarities between terms, and show how they can be used rhetorically to
create the clearest messages. In Sections 1‐3, the first column states the term, the second column briefly
explains how the term is understood by the general public, and communication advice is given in the third
column.

In addition, we revised texts, predominantly taken from the EPA Drinking Water Contaminants website
(https://www.epa.gov/dwstandardsregulations), for 127 contaminants. We divided the information into
four categories and for each category we devised short clear texts. The four category columns in Section
4 are: the term, a short description of what it is, a short explanation of how it might get into the water
system, and a short outline of any known health effects.

This guide has been divided into four sections:

1) how to refer to contaminants
2) how to refer to amounts
3) how to talk about risk and safety
4) 127 contaminant descriptions in lay language

1
1. Referring to Contaminants (Basis: Professional vs Media Texts, & Semantic Judgements by Consumers)
Terms How are they understood? What should you do when communicating with GP?
Contaminants of emerging concern, These expressions contain several words each that Avoid these expressions.
endocrine disrupting compounds, have very strong negative associations. There is
emerging contaminants, endocrine nothing good or acceptable about these If you must use them, then you must make it clear it is a
disruptors expressions to the general public, regardless of professional term and explain its relationship to terms
whether the public understands the science and that are likely to be more familiar to the reader.
risk behind them. In addition, these expressions are
rarely used in the media so the public may not even Example: You might have read about things like
be familiar with them. hormones and certain medicines in the water supply
having an effect on river wildlife and fish. In the water
industry, these are sometimes referred to as endocrine
disrupting compounds.

Do note that you should not persist using these terms;
it better to talk about e.g., hormones. Please recall that
hormones are naturally occurring, but there is nothing
natural sounding about endocrine disruptors.
EDCs, PPCPs, CECs Using jargon and acronyms is economical for Avoid acronyms. They do not save time or space if they
industry insiders, but these terms are alienating and cause confusion or concern.
unfamiliar for the average water consumer.
Contaminants The word contaminant has a strong negative If you are talking about something that is likely to cause
association for most consumers. harm, then this word is suitable to use. Also, if you are
discussing how you are treating the water to remove
contaminants that are regulated against, then this word
is appropriate.

Example: You should not drink the water even after
boiling it, since we have detected contaminants in it
that we can trace to an industrial spill in the river.

However, in the context of CECs that are unlikely to
impact human or environmental health, these negative
associations could have a negative and
disproportionate impact on risk perception. So avoid
this term unless the context warrants it.
3
Pollutants, toxins, impurities These words have strong negative associations. Avoid these words.

The word toxins is the worst word of them all.

Pollutants also have strong associations with air,
and impurities with metal.
Anomalies This word has strong negative associations. Further, Avoid this word.
it is weakly related to the other terms in this
section, meaning that consumers are unsure about
what anomalies mean.
Chemicals, compounds, substances The word chemicals is closely associated with toxins The word compounds is a suitable word that consumers
and pollutants. associate with man‐made things.

Compounds and substances are more neutral. Avoid chemicals and substances.

The word substances is commonly used in phrases
such as substance abuse.
Pathogens, microbes, organisms The word pathogens is closely associated with The word organisms is a suitable word that consumers
toxins, contaminants, and impurities. associate with living things.

Organisms and microbes are more neutral. (We did not test bacteria, but expect that it works well
for living things, but that consumers might have more
Although rather neutral, microbes is weakly related negative associations for this word compared to
to the other terms in this section, meaning that organisms).
consumers are unsure about what it means.
Avoid pathogens and microbes.

(We did not test animalcules, but expect that it works
well for living things, but that consumers might not fully
understand what an animalcule is).
Parameters, radiologics Although these words do not have negative Avoid these words.
associations, they are weakly related to the other
terms in this section, meaning that consumers are
unsure about what they mean.

4
Constituents, components, moleculars These terms have no negative associations. Their We recommend that constituents is “the” word to use
main meaning is that they are a part of something when health impacts are unlikely.
larger.
Example: We routinely test for more than one hundred
The word components is less useful in that it (like natural constituents in the drinking water.
ingredients which was not tested) has a hint of
meaning of purposefulness that may be Avoid components and moleculars.
inappropriate or confusing.

The word moleculars is not appropriate to use for
man‐made things as it is strongly linked to living
things.

5
2. Referring to Amounts (Basis: We Asked Consumers to State a Number between 0 – 100 for Each Word)
Healthy, insignificant, marginal, These words are neither big nor small. Their meaning Avoid these words.
microscopic, modest, sizable, is not about size or effect. In short, these words are
undetectable exceptionally vague. Consequently, these words are
very likely to be misunderstood.
Catastrophic, undetectable, These words are vague and not very good for Avoid these words.
unmeasurable, infinitesimal amounts. Consumers varied in the amounts that they
assigned these words, i.e., some thought these words
stand for large amounts and others thought they
meant small amounts. Consequently, these words
are very likely to be misunderstood. Although not
statistically significant, it should be noted that
women seem to struggle a bit more with what
infinitesimal and unmeasurable mean.
Big, huge, large, vast, extensive These words mean a large amount and there are no There is only one word, huge, where there is less
implications about effect with regards to that variation between the values consumers gave the
amount. word. The average amount for huge is 89.6. So if you
need a word that very clearly means large and
However, all these words actually vary in which nothing more, use huge.
amount consumers give them, so choose carefully.
But if you want a mid‐range word for large, then big,
large, vast, extensive might be better.

Example: The oil spill is worse than first thought, with
huge amounts of benzene found in the river water.
Residents should not bathe or use the river water
until it has been cleaned.

Example: We have detected large amounts of
coliform bacteria in the waste water.

7
Massive, substantial, profound These words communicate a large amount that has a There is only one word, profound, where there is less
large effect, and the emphasis is much more on the variation between the values consumers gave the
effect than the size. word. The average amount for profound is 81.8. So if
you need a word that very clearly means large and
However, all these words actually vary in which above all has a large effect, use profound.
amount consumers give them, so choose carefully. Note that massive is a bit bigger (mean = 90.5) while
substantial is a bit smaller (mean = 76). But both
have more variation in consumer values assigned.

Example: The concentrations of mercury in salmon
are profound, and the general public should avoid
eating salmon until further notice.

Example: Experts have found substantial amounts of
mercury have in cat fish. The general public is advised
to not consume more than one cat fish per month.
Minute, low, tiny, small, minuscule, These words means very small. The focus is on size, The word miniscule is the smallest with a mean of
irrelevant, trace not effect. The amounts they stand for are very 3.8, but minute (mean = 7.9) is clearer in meaning
small, but consumers vary in the exact amount they (which we tested statistically). We recommend
associate them with. minute for CECs.

Example: We found minute amounts of estrogen in
the river water.

The words low and small are actually the largest little
words and therefore not good enough to use for very
small amounts, so avoid these for CECs and for
contaminants that are below the MCL threshold. Do
note that sticking very or extremely in front of these
words does not solve the problem.

The word trace is not as clear as it needs to be.
8
Negligible This word basically means that there is no effect. The Avoid this word.
word does mean small as well, but this is not the
primary meaning of the word.

In addition, it has associations that are unrelated to
size (e.g., negligibility and neglect), which may be
unhelpful.
Standard, average These words do not mean big or small. They mean These words are good to use if the emphasis is that
that the amount is as expected. The mean amount is the amount discovered is what we expect, and that it
47.7 (standard) and 48.5 (average). is below the MCL.

But be careful as there is no set amount associated
with these words.

9
3. Communicating Contamination and Health Risks (Basis: Survey & Semantic Judgements by Consumers)
Clear, understandable These words are extremely similar to each other; These are good words to communicate about facts
they are very positive words. and knowledge.

Example: Research has provided us with clear,
understandable evidence that the miniscule levels of
estrogen found in tap water are harmless.
Harmless, beneficial, safe, healthy, These words are similar and extremely positive These are good words to communicate that there is
natural words. no real risk or that something is good for you.

Example: The amount of fluoride in our tap water is
purely beneficial.

Example: The levels of magnesium in the tap water
are healthy and make the water tasty.
No regulations, regulations The phrase no regulations was deemed the most Avoid saying no regulations.
worrisome expression. The phrase implies that no
action has or is being taken by the water industry in Highlight all the actions that the water industry does
regards to these contaminants. Consumers do not do. Emphasize that there are a range of regulations,
associate regulations at with treatment. guidelines and rules about monitoring.

The word regulations has strong associations with Example: Water scientists regularly monitor the
positive notions such as safety, security, rules, and presence of these constituents and continue to
guidelines. investigate the implications of minute levels in the
water supply.
Regulated, reasonable, proven, reliable, These words are all positive. Both proven and standard are good words to use.
standard
Out of these five words, regulated, also has (weak) Example: Our filtration techniques are proven to
links to negative terms such as complex and remove even the smallest amount of Legionella.
complicated. It seems that while regulations and
something being regulated is positive, the complexity The term regulated needs to be used with very clear
of the science and/or the legal aspects can lessen the and easily comprehended language.
positive affect of the term somewhat.
Example: Uranium is a contaminant that is heavily
regulated against by EPA.
11
Dangerous, risky, hazardous These words are extremely similar to each other; These words should be used to communicate that
they are very negative words that contain the something is dangerous.
meaning severity.
Example: Swimming in large rivers is dangerous,
especially for children.

It is fine to add not to signal the opposite of
dangerous.

Example: The river water is not dangerous for dogs.
Unfounded, unwarranted The words unfounded and unwarranted are negative Both unfounded and unwarranted can be used to
terms. Both terms signal that something is in strongly signal that an action is not necessary.
opposition to knowledge.
Example: Additional filtering is unwarranted.
The term unfounded also has links with questionable.
Unknown, uncertain, questionable These terms are very similar to each other; they are Avoid these terms.
very negative words that stand for lack of knowledge.
Refer to the existing knowledge about risk
This also applies to the phrase not known and no
evidence. Having no evidence could be from not Example: We know from the best research to date
bothering to find out. that minute amounts of Estriol in tap water do not
pose a health threat to humans.
In combination with words like still or yet, there is
also an implication that someone is at fault for this You may also want to explain the ongoing process of
lack of knowledge. acquiring scientific knowledge.

Considering that scientific knowledge is constantly Example: As part of our ongoing efforts to ensure the
being accumulated, the contrasting of knowledge highest standards of water quality, our experienced
about particular risk contexts as unknown versus technical team will continue to monitor these
known is heavily simplified and misleading, and can constituents.
lead to confusion and concern.

In short, not knowing something is bad.

12
Complex, complicated These terms are negative. Use these terms with caution.

There is a strong emphasis on knowledge and science It is a bad idea to try to explain risk by saying that it is
– perhaps too much knowledge. complex.
Precautionary The term precautionary is slightly negative. It is Avoid this term if there is real risk of health effects.
definitely not a positive term.
If an action is necessary because the likelihood of
There is an element of knowledge here. Professionals health effects is significant, try using necessary,
seem to interpret the word to mean that knowledge required, compulsory, mandatory, and so on.
drives the need for an action; however in consumers,
the term does not have a close link to knowledge.
Rather, the term has links to unfounded.

Do note also that to a consumer, a precaution is
optional (i.e., It’s just a precaution, just in case).

13
4. Short Descriptive Texts for 127 Contaminants
Contaminant What is it? How does it get into water? Are there health effects?
1,1,1‐Trichloroethane 1,1,1‐Trichloroethane is an organic 1,1,1‐Trichloroethane could enter the Long‐term exposure to excessive
liquid, used for removing grease. water system through discharge from amounts of 1,1,1‐trichloroethane
metal degreasing sites and other could lead to liver, nervous system, or
factories. circulatory problems.
1,1,2‐Trichloroethane 1,1,2‐Trichloroethane, a volatile, 1,1,2‐Trichloroethane could enter the Long‐term exposure to excessive
organic liquid used in factories. water system through discharge from amounts of 1,1,2‐trichloroethane
industrial chemical factories. could lead to liver, kidney, or immune
system problems.
1,1‐Dichloroethylene 1,1‐Dichloroethylene is an organic 1,1‐Dichloroethylene can enter the Long‐term exposure to excessive
liquid. It is used in making adhesives water system through discharge from amounts of 1,1‐dichloroethylene could
and coating resins. industrial chemical factories. lead to liver problems.
1,2,3‐Trichloropropane 1,2,3‐Trichloropropane (TCP) is a man‐ 1,2,3‐Trichloropropane (TCP) is used as EPA has classified 1,2,3‐
(TCP) made compound typically found at an industrial solvent and as a cleaning trichloropropane (TCP) as "likely to be
industrial or hazardous waste sites. and degreasing agent. It can enter the carcinogenic to humans." Short‐term
water system through runoff from exposure to excessive amounts may
industrial factories or hazardous waste cause eye and throat irritation; long‐
sites. term exposure to excessive amounts
has led to liver and kidney damage and
reduced body weight in animal studies.
1,2,4‐Trichlorobenzene 1,2,4‐Trichlorobenzene is a colorless 1,2,4‐Trichlorobenzene could enter the Long‐term exposure to excessive
liquid, primarily used when making water system through discharge from amounts of 1,2,4‐trichlorobenzene
dye. textile finishing factories. could lead to changes in adrenal
glands.
1,2‐Dibromo‐3‐ 1,2‐Dibromo‐3‐chloropropane (DBCP) 1,2‐Dibromo‐3‐chloropropane (DBCP) Long‐term exposure to excessive
chloropropane (DBCP) is a dense, yellow, organic liquid. could come from runoff or leaching amounts of 1,2‐dibromo‐ 3‐
from soil fumigant used on soybeans, chloropropane (DBCP) could lead to
cotton, pineapples, and orchards. reproductive difficulties and increase
the risk of cancer.
1,2‐Dichloroethane 1,2‐Dichloroethane is a colorless, oily, 1,2‐Dichloroethane can enter the Long‐term exposure to excessive
organic liquid. It is used in making water system through discharge from amounts of 1,2‐dichloroethane could
plastics and synthetics. industrial chemical factories. lead to an increased risk of cancer.
1,2‐Dichloropropane 1,2‐Dichloropropane is a flammable 1,2‐Dichloropropane can enter the Long‐time exposure to excessive
liquid. It does not occur naturally in water system through discharge from amounts of 1,2‐dichloropropane could
the environment. industrial chemical factories. lead to an increased risk of cancer.
15
1,3‐Butadiene 1,3‐Butadiene is an industrial chemical 1,3‐Butadiene can enter the water Short‐term exposure to 1,3‐butadiene
used in making synthetic rubber. system through runoff from industrial can lead to irritation of the mucous
factories. membranes. Short‐term exposure to
excessive amounts of 1,3‐butadiene
can lead to blurred vision, fatigue,
headaches, and vertigo. Long‐term
exposure to excessive amounts has
been associated with cardiovascular
disease, leukemia, and other cancers.
1,4‐Dioxane 1,4‐Dioxane is a synthetic industrial 1,4‐Dioxane is used in many products, Short‐term exposure to 1.4‐dioxane
chemical. It is flammable. including paint strippers, dyes, greases, could lead to eye, nose and throat
varnishes, and waxes. It can enter the irritation. Long‐term exposure to could
water system through runoff from lead to kidney and liver damage.
manufacturing factories.
2,4,5‐TP (Silvex) Silvex is an organic powder, once used 2,4,5‐TP (silvex) could enter the water Long‐term exposure to excessive
as an insecticide. It has since been system through residue of banned amounts of 2,4,5‐TP (silvex) could lead
banned. herbicides. to liver problems.
2,4‐D 2,4‐D is a colorless, odorless powder. It 2,4‐D could come from runoff from Long‐term exposure to excessive
is used as an herbicide. herbicides used on row crops. amounts of 2,4‐D could lead to kidney,
liver, or adrenal gland problems.
4‐Androstene‐3,17‐dione Androstenedione turns into either Androstenedione is produced naturally Exposure to excessive amounts of
(androstenedione) testosterone or estrogen in the human in the adrenal glands and the gonads. androstenedione may lead to breast
body. Synthetic androstenedione is a banned development (in men), facial hair (in
steroid on the FDA list of controlled women), behavioral changes, and
substances. It can enter the water heart disease. The main psychological
system through urine. side effects of excessive
androstenedione are depression and
mood swings.
Acrylamide Acrylamide is an organic solid of white, Acrylamide can enter the water system Long‐term exposure to excessive
flake‐like crystals. during sewage/wastewater treatment. amounts of acrylamide could lead to
nervous system or blood problems and
an increased risk of cancer.
Aerobic spores Aerobic spores are asexual Aerobic bacteria or fungus spores can Aerobic bacteria or fungus spores all
reproductions of an organism that can enter the water system when water is have different effects on human
survive and grow in an oxygen‐rich exposed to air. health. For more specific information
environment. search each type individually.
16
Alachlor Alachlor is an odorless white solid. It is Alachlor could come from runoff from Long‐term exposure to excessive
used as an herbicide. herbicide used on row crops. amounts of alachlor could lead to eye,
liver, kidney or spleen problems. It
could lead to anemia and an increased
risk of cancer.
Alpha particles Alpha particles are emitted by Alpha radiation can enter the water Radiation can cause chemical changes
radioactive elements. system through the erosion of natural in cells and damage them. Long‐term
deposits of certain radioactive exposure to excessive amounts could
minerals. increase the risk of cancer. Very large
amounts can cause sickness and even
death.
Aluminum Aluminum is a lightweight metal that Aluminum can enter the water system Long‐term ingestion of aluminum
occurs naturally in the environment. through discharge from aluminum could increase kidney damage. Some
factories. speculate that it is linked to
neurological disorders (e.g.,
Alzheimer's Disease), but no studies
have proved a link.
Antimony Antimony is a metal found in natural Antimony could be discharged from Long‐term exposure to excessive
deposits such as ores containing other petroleum refineries. It could be found amounts of antimony could increase
elements. in fire retardants, ceramics, blood cholesterol and could decrease
electronics, and soldering material. blood sugar.
Arsenic Arsenic is a semi‐metal, chemical Arsenic can be found in erosion of Long‐term exposure to excessive
element. It is mostly used as a wood natural deposits. It can enter the water amounts of arsenic could increase skin
preservative. system from orchard runoffs and damage or problems with circulatory
runoff from glass and electronics systems. It may increase the risk of
production wastes. cancer.
Asbestos (fiber > 10 Asbestos is a mineral fiber that occurs Asbestos can enter the water system Long‐term exposure to excessive
micrometers) in natural deposits. from the decay of asbestos cement in amounts of asbestos could increase
water mains, and erosion of natural the risk of developing benign intestinal
deposits. polyps.
Atrazine Atrazine is a white, crystalline organic Atrazine can enter the water system Long‐term exposure to excessive
compound. It is used as an herbicide. through runoff from herbicides used amounts of atrazine could lead to
on row crops. cardiovascular system or reproductive
problems.
17
Barium Barium is a metallic element used in Barium can enter the water system Long‐term exposure to excessive
well drilling and in making a wide from drilling waste discharge or metal amounts of barium could increase
variety of electronic components. refinery discharge. It could come from blood pressure.
erosion of natural deposits.
Benzene Benzene is a highly flammable, organic Benzene can enter the water system Long‐term exposure to excessive
chemical. through discharge from factories. It amounts of benzene could lead to
could leach from gas storage tanks and anemia, a decrease in blood platelets,
landfills. and an increased risk of cancer.
Benzo(a)pyrene (PAHs) Benzo(a)pyrene is an organic Benzo(a)pyrene could leach from Long‐term exposure to excessive
compound in pitch. linings of water storage tanks and amounts of benzo(a)pyrene could lead
distribution lines. to reproductive difficulties and could
increase the risk of cancer.
Beryllium Beryllium is a rare, metallic, chemical Beryllium could come from discharge Long‐term exposure to excessive
element. It is used in making metal from metal refineries and coal‐burning amounts of beryllium could lead to
alloys. factories. It could come from discharge intestinal lesions.
from electrical, aerospace, and
defense industries.
Beta particles and photon Beta particles are high‐speed electrons Photons and beta radiation can enter Long‐term exposure to excessive
emitters emitted by radioactive elements. the water system through the decay of amounts of beta particles and photon
natural and man‐made deposits of emitters could increase the risk of
certain minerals. cancer in some people.
Bromate Bromate forms when ozone, used for Bromate is a byproduct of drinking Long‐term exposure to excessive
disinfecting water, reacts with water disinfection. amounts of bromate could create an
bromide. Bromide can be found increased risk of cancer.
naturally in water.
Bromomethane Bromomethane is a non‐flammable Bromomethane is manufactured for Bromomethane exposure could lead to
gas, once used as a pesticide. agricultural and industrial use. It is also respiratory, kidney, and neurological
used in fumigation. It can enter the effects. Toxic levels of short‐term
water system through runoff from exposure could lead to nausea,
agricultural land. abdominal pain, weakness, confusion,
pulmonary edema, and seizures.
Severe levels have led to death.

18
Cadmium Cadmium is a metal element, primarily Cadmium could come from the Long‐term exposure to excessive
used for metal plating and coating corrosion of galvanized pipes or the amounts of cadmium could increase
operations. erosion of natural deposits. It could be kidney damage.
discharged from metal refineries.
Cadmium can enter the water system
through runoff from waste batteries
and paints.
Carbofuran Carbofuran is a white crystalline solid. Carbofuran can enter the water system Long‐term exposure to excessive
It is used as an insecticide. through leached soil fumigants used amounts of carbofuran could lead to
on rice and alfalfa. problems with the nervous system, the
reproductive system, or the blood.
Carbon tetrachloride Carbon tetrachloride is a clear, heavy, Carbon tetrachloride can enter the Long‐term exposure to excessive
organic liquid. water system through discharge from amounts of carbon tetrachloride could
chemical plants and other industrial lead to liver problems and an
activities. increased risk of cancer.
Chloramines (as Cl2) Chloramines are water additives that Chloramines are water additives used Long‐term exposure to excessive
react with ammonia. to control microbes. amounts of chloramines could increase
eye/nose irritation, stomach
discomfort, and anemia.
Chlorate Chlorate salt is a chemical used mainly Chlorate deposits can be found Drinking too much chlorate can lead to
in herbicides and in the manufacture naturally in arid regions. It is also used nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, seizures,
of matches and explosives. in industrial manufacturing. It can coma, enlarged liver, and kidney
enter the water system through runoff dysfunction.
of those areas.
Chlordane Chlordane, a synthetic organic Chlordane can enter the water system Long‐term exposure to excessive
chemical. through residue of banned amounts of chlordane could lead to
termiticides. liver or nervous system problems, and
could increase the risk of cancer.
Chloride Chloride is an ion used to form salts. It Chloride is used in industrial chemicals Chloride toxicity has not been
is corrosive to metals. and making fertilizers. It can enter the observed in humans except in the
water system through run‐off from special case of impaired sodium
fertilizers and road de‐icing salts. It chloride metabolism, e.g., in
could leach from landfills or septic congestive heart failure.
tanks.

19
Chlorine (as Cl2) Chlorine is a water additive. It is a Chlorine is a water additive used to Long‐term exposure to excessive
chemical element. control microbes. amounts of chlorine could increase
eye/nose irritation and stomach
discomfort.
Chlorine dioxide (as ClO2) Chlorine dioxide is an oxidizing agent Chlorine dioxide is a water additive Long‐term exposure to excessive
used in water treatment and in used to control microbes. amounts of chlorine dioxide could
bleaching. increase anemia. Some infants and
young children could experience
nervous system effects with long‐term
exposure.
Chlorite Chlorite is an inorganic salt. It occurs Chlorite is a byproduct of drinking Long‐term exposure to excessive
when chlorine dioxide breaks down. water disinfection and a bleaching amounts of chlorite could increase
agent. anemia. Some infants and young
children could experience nervous
system effects with long‐term
exposure. Pregnant mothers who drink
water with excessive chlorite may have
fetuses who experience nervous
system effects.
Chlorobenzene Chlorobenzene is a colorless organic Chlorobenzene can enter the water Long‐term exposure to excessive
liquid, used in insecticides and system through discharge from amounts of chlorobenzene could lead
manufacturing. chemical and agricultural chemical to liver or kidney problems.
factories.
Chloromethane Chloromethane is a flammable gas, Chloromethane are produced naturally Drinking excessive amounts of
once used as a refrigerant. in the ocean. All the chloromethane chloromethane could lead to nausea
used in industry is synthetic. It can and vomiting. Contact with the eyes
enter the water system through runoff could result in dim vision, and widely
from industrial factories. dilated pupils. Long‐term exposure to
chloromethane during pregnancy may
cause the fetus' lower spinal column,
pelvis, and legs to form incorrectly, but
this has not been conclusively
demonstrated.

20
Chromium (total) Chromium is a metallic, chemical Chromium can enter the water system Long‐term exposure to excessive
element. It is found naturally in rocks, via discharge from steel and pulp mills. amounts of chromium could increase
plants, soil and volcanic dust, and It could come through the erosion of allergic dermatitis.
animals. natural deposits.
Chromium‐6 (hexavalent Hexavalent chromium is chemical Hexavalent chromium can enter the Drinking too much hexavalent
chromium) compound used in textile dyes, wood water system through runoff from chromium can lead to irritation or
preservation, and anti‐corrosion manufacturing and textile factories. ulcers in the stomach and intestines.
coatings. Inhaling it from water vapor in a
shower might increase the risk of lung
cancer.
Cis‐1,2‐dichloroethylene Cis‐1,2‐dichloroethylene is an odorless, Cis‐1,2‐dichloroethylene can enter the Long‐term exposure to excessive
organic liquid. It is used as a solvent for water system through discharge from amounts of cis‐1,2‐dichloroethylene
waxes and resins. industrial chemical factories. could lead to liver problems.
Cobalt Cobalt is a metal used in glass and Cobalt can enter the water system Drinking excessive amounts of cobalt
ceramic dyes. through natural deposits in the may cause nausea and vomiting. Long‐
ground. term exposure to excessive amounts of
cobalt could lead to cardiomyopathy,
thickening of the blood, thyroid
problems, and possible nerve
problems.
Copper Copper is a metal widely used in Copper can enter the water system Short term exposure to excessive
household plumbing materials. through the corrosion of household amounts of copper could cause
plumbing system. It could be in erosion gastrointestinal distress. Long term
of natural deposits. exposure could cause liver or kidney
damage. People with Wilson's Disease
should consult their personal doctor if
the amount of copper in their water
exceeds the action level.
Copper Copper is a metal widely used in Copper can enter the water system Short term exposure to excessive
household plumbing materials. through corroded household amounts of copper could cause
plumbing. It could be in erosion of gastrointestinal distress. Long term
natural deposits. exposure could cause liver or kidney
damage. People with Wilson's Disease
should consult their personal doctor if
the amount of copper in their water
exceeds the action level.
21
Cryptosporidium Cryptosporidium are parasites that When an infected person or animal Cryptosporidium can cause diarrhea,
produce cysts. If a person ingests cysts excretes, Cryptosporidium cysts might vomiting, and cramps, mainly affecting
by drinking tap water, these cysts can enter the water system. children and immuno‐compromised
quickly infect the small intestine. adults.
Cyanide (as free cyanide) Cyanide is a highly toxic chemical Cyanide can enter the water system Long‐term exposure to excessive
compound. through discharge from steel/metal amounts of cyanide could lead to
factories or discharge from plastic and nerve damage or thyroid problems.
fertilizer factories.
Dalapon Dalapon is a colorless liquid. It is used Dalapon could come from herbicide Long‐term exposure to excessive
as an herbicide. runoff used on rights of way. amounts of dalapon could lead to
minor kidney changes.
Di(2‐ethylhexyl) adipate Di(2‐ethylhexyl) adipate is a light‐ Di(2‐ethylhexyl) adipate can enter the Long‐term exposure to excessive
colored, oily liquid. water system through discharge from amounts of di(2‐ethylhexyl) adipate
chemical factories. could lead to weight loss, liver
problems, or possible reproductive
difficulties.
Di(2‐ethylhexyl) phthalate Di(2‐ethylhexyl) phthalate is a Di(2‐ethylhexyl) phthalate can enter Long‐term exposure to excessive
colorless, viscous liquid. It is soluble in the water system through discharge amounts of di(2‐ethylhexyl) phthalate
oil, but not in water. from rubber and chemical factories. could lead to reproductive difficulties,
liver problems, and an increased risk of
cancer.
Dichloromethane Dichloromethane is a volatile, organic, Dichloromethane can enter the water Long‐term exposure to excessive
liquid chemical. system through discharge from drug amounts of dichloromethane could
and chemical factories. lead to liver problems and an
increased risk of cancer.
Dinoseb Dinoseb is a yellowish, organic solid. It Dinoseb could come from runoff from Long‐term exposure to excessive
is used as an insecticide and herbicide. herbicide used on soybeans and amounts of dinoseb could lead to
vegetables. reproductive difficulties.
Dioxin (2,3,7,8‐TCDD) Dioxin is an organic solid of white, Dioxin can enter the water system Long‐term exposure to excessive
crystalline needles. It is not produced through emissions from waste amounts of dioxin could lead to
or used commercially in the United incineration and other combustion. It reproductive difficulties and an
States. could come from chemical factory increased risk of cancer.
discharge.
Diquat Diquat is an organic solid of colorless Diquat could come from herbicide Long‐term exposure to excessive
or yellow crystals. It is an herbicide. runoff. amounts of diquat could lead to
cataracts.
22
Endothall Endothall is an organic solid. It is used Endothall could come from herbicide Long‐term exposure to excessive
as a defoliant and an herbicide. runoff. amounts of endothall could lead to
stomach and intestinal problems.
Endrin Endrin is an organic solid of white Endrin can enter the water system Long‐term exposure to excessive
crystals. through residue of banned amounts of endrin could lead to liver
insecticides. problems.
Enterococci Enterococci are bacteria, similar to Some enterococci are resistant to Exposure to enterococci can lead to
streptococci. some types of antibiotics. In bodies of urinary tract infections, bacteremia,
water, the acceptable level of bacterial endocarditis, diverticulitis,
enterococci contamination is very low. and meningitis.
It can enter the water system through
raw sewage.
Epichlorohydrin Epichlorohydrin is a colorless organic Epichlorohydrin can enter the water Long‐term exposure to excessive
gas. system through discharge from amounts of epichlorohydrin could lead
industrial chemical factories. It is an to an increased risk of cancer and
impurity of some water treatment stomach problems.
chemicals.
Equilin Equilin is an estrogen from horses. Equilin is used for hormone Excessive amounts of Equilin could
replacement therapy. It can enter the lead to increased risk of endometrial
water system through contact with cancer. Long‐term use of estrogen and
horse or affected human urine. a progestin may increase the risk of
strokes, heart attacks, blood clots, and
breast cancer.
Estradiol Estradiol is a sex hormone, produced Estradiol is manufactured for medical Excessive amounts of estradiol could
in both men and women. use. It could reach the water through lead to breast, ovarian and
urine and improper medical disposal. endometrial cancer. It could lead to
cardiovascular effects, stroke,
increased blood pressure, nausea,
vomiting, abdominal cramps, bloating,
diarrhea, and changes in weight and
libido.
Estriol Estriol is one of the three main Estriol, produced naturally by the Symptoms of estriol overdose include
estrogens produced by the human human body, is only made in large feeling sick and vaginal bleeding.
body. amounts during pregnancy.
23
Estrone Estrone is one of the three main Estrone is produced naturally by the Excessive amounts of estrone can lead
estrogens produced by the human human body. It can enter the water cancer in women. It can cause breast
body. system through urine. tenderness or pain, nausea, headache,
hypertension, and leg cramps. In men
it can lead to anorexia, nausea,
vomiting, and erectile dysfunction.
Ethinyl estradiol Ethinyl estradiol is a man‐made form Ethinyl estradiol is manufactured for Excessive amounts of ethinyl estradiol
(Ethinylestradiol) of the naturally occurring female medical use. It can enter the water could lead to stomach cramps,
hormone called oestrogen. system through urine and improper bloating, weight changes, breast
medical disposal. tenderness, fluid retention, rash,
changes in sexual desire, mood
changes, leg cramps, high blood
pressure, kidney stones, menstrual
bleeding or spotting.
Ethylbenzene Ethylbenzene is a colorless organic Ethylbenzene can enter the water Long‐term exposure to excessive
liquid. system through discharge from amounts of ethylbenzene could lead to
petroleum refineries. liver or kidneys problems.
Ethylene dibromide Ethylene dibromide is a heavy, Ethylene dibromide can enter the Long‐term exposure to excessive
synthetic, organic liquid. water system through discharge from amounts of ethylene dibromide could
petroleum refineries. lead to problems with the liver,
stomach, kidneys, and reproductive
system. It could lead to an increased
risk of cancer.
Fluoride Fluoride compounds are salts that Fluoride is an additive that promotes Long‐term exposure to excessive
form when fluorine combines with strong teeth. It can also enter the amounts of fluoride could lead to bone
minerals. water system through erosion of disease. Children could get pits in
natural deposits or discharge from tooth enamel.
fertilizer and aluminum factories.
Foaming agents Forming agents (surfactants) lower the Foaming agents can enter the water Some foaming agents are known to be
surface tension of water. system through industrial and toxic to animals. They interfere with
household waste. the lifecycles of some aquatic
organisms. Prolonged exposure to the
skin can cause chaffing.

24
Giardia lamblia Giardia lamblia are parasites that When an infected person or animal Giardia lamblia can cause diarrhea,
produce cysts. If a person ingests cysts excretes, Giardia lamblia cysts might vomiting, and cramps.
by drinking tap water, these cysts can enter the water system.
quickly infect the small intestine.
Glyphosate Glyphosate is an organic solid of white Glyphosate can enter the water system Long‐term exposure to excessive
crystals. through herbicide runoff. amounts of glyphosate could lead to
kidney problems and reproductive
difficulties.
Haloacetic acids (HAA5) Haloacetic acids are compounds where Haloacetic acids are a byproduct of Long‐term exposure to excessive
halogen takes the place of hydrogen in drinking water disinfection. amounts of haloacetic acids could
an acid. cause an increased risk of cancer.
Halon 1011 Halon 1011 was once used in fire Halon 1011 can leach into the water Halon 1011 vapors may cause dizziness
(bromochloromethane) extinguishers. system through old fire extinguishers. or suffocation. They could lead to
abdominal pain.
HCFC‐22 HCFC‐22 is a propellant and refrigerant HCFC‐22 can enter the water system Short‐term exposure to HCFC‐22 could
that is no longer still being used for through leaching from old refrigerant lead to irritation of the respiratory
environmental reasons in developed systems. system, sore throat, nausea, headache,
countries. confusion, drowsiness, dizziness,
muscular weakness, numbness,
tinnitus (ringing in ears), blurred vision,
heart palpitations, cardiac
arrhythmias, asphyxia, and
unconsciousness. Excessive amounts of
HCFC‐22 exposure could lead to
respiratory, cardiovascular, central
nervous system, liver, kidneys, and
spleen effects.
Heptachlor Heptachlor is a waxy, organic solid. Heptachlor can enter the water system Long‐term exposure to excessive
through the residue of banned amounts of heptachlor could lead to
termiticides. liver damage and could increase the
risk of cancer.
Heptachlor epoxide Heptachlor epoxide is a break down Heptachlor epoxide can enter the Long‐term exposure to excessive
heptachlor. It was once used as an water system through insecticide amounts of heptachlor epoxide could
insecticide. runoff. lead to liver damage and could
25
Heterotrophic plate count HPC is a method of measuring many These bacteria are naturally present in HPC has no health effects itself, but it
(HPC) different types of bacteria. the environment. does indicate other possibly harmful
bacteria.
Hexachlorobenzene Hexachlorobenzene is a synthetic, Hexachlorobenzene can enter the Long‐term exposure to excessive
organic chemical that does not occur water system through discharge from amounts of hexachlorobenzene could
naturally in the environment. metal refineries and agricultural lead to liver or kidney problems. It
chemical factories. could lead to reproductive difficulties
and an increased risk of cancer.
Hexachlorocyclopentadiene Hexachlorocyclopentadiene is an oily, Hexachlorocyclopentadiene can enter Long‐term exposure to excessive
yellow‐green, organic liquid. the water system through discharge amounts of
from chemical factories. hexachlorocyclopentadiene could lead
to kidney or stomach problems.
Iron Iron is a naturally occurring metal that Iron bacteria can build up in water Persons with the disease
can be absorbed by water. Although pipes. Iron bacteria are most hemochromatosis could be affected by
iron is safe to ingest, the iron commonly problematic in wells, where excessive amounts of iron in their tap
sediments may contain harmful water has not been chlorinated. water. Organs commonly affected by
bacteria. haemochromatosis are the liver, heart,
and endocrine glands. Short‐term
exposure to toxic amounts of iron
could lead to stomach pain, nausea,
and bloody vomiting.
Lead Lead is a naturally occurring, toxic Lead can enter the water system Long‐term exposure to excessive
metal that was used for many years in through the corrosion of household amounts of lead, by infants and
products found in and around homes. plumbing systems or the erosion of children, could lead to delays in
natural deposits. physical or mental development and
children could show slight deficits in
attention span and learning abilities.
Long‐term exposure to excessive
amounts of lead, in adults, could lead
to kidney problems and high blood
pressure.
Legionella Legionella is a bacterium that can Legionella is found naturally in water. Legionella can cause Legionnaire's
cause infections. It is airborne and can It can multiply in heating systems. Disease, a type of pneumonia
be inhaled when showering.
26
Lindane Lindane is a white, crystalline, organic Lindane could leach from insecticides Long‐term exposure to excessive
solid. used on cattle, lumber, or gardens. amounts of lindane could lead to liver
or kidney problems.
Male specific phage Male specific phages are types of Phages, including the male specific All phages have different effects on
viruses that infects bacteria and phage, are commonly found in sea human health. For more specific
transfer genetic material through their water. information search for the type
“male” appendages. individually.
Manganese Manganese is a metal often used as an Manganese could reach water through Chronic exposure to excessive
alloy in stainless steels. runoff from industrial factories. It is manganese levels can lead to a variety
also a fuel additive. of psychiatric and motor disturbances.
Neurological symptoms include
reduced response speed, irritability,
mood changes, and compulsive
behaviors.
Mercury (inorganic) Mercury is a liquid metal found in Mercury can enter the water system Long‐term exposure to excessive
natural deposits. through discharge from refineries and amounts of mercury could lead to
factories, runoff from landfills and kidney damage.
croplands, and the erosion of natural
deposits.
Methoxychlor Methoxychlor is a colorless, organic Methoxychlor could leach from Long‐term exposure to excessive
solid. insecticide used on fruits, vegetables, amounts of methoxychlor could lead
alfalfa, or livestock. to reproductive difficulties.
Molybdenum Molybdenum is a metal used in making Molybdenum can enter the water In animals, excessive long‐term
steel alloys. system through runoff from exposure can lead to diarrhea, growth
manufacturing factories. retardation, infertility, low birth weight
and gout. It can also affect the lungs,
kidneys and liver.
Nitrate (measured as Nitrate is a compound containing Nitrate can enter the water system Small infants who drink more tap
nitrogen) nitrogen. The greatest use of nitrates is through runoff from fertilizer use, water than allowed could become
as a fertilizer. leaks from septic tanks, and sewage. It seriously ill and, if untreated, may die.
could come from the erosion of Symptoms include shortness of breath
natural deposits. and blue‐baby syndrome.

27
Nitrate (measured as Nitrate is a compound containing Nitrate can enter the water system Small infants who drink more tap
nitrogen) nitrogen. The greatest use of nitrates is through runoff from fertilizer use, water than allowed could become
as a fertilizer. leaks from septic tanks, and sewage. It seriously ill and, if untreated, may die.
could come from the erosion of Symptoms include shortness of breath
natural deposits. and blue‐baby syndrome.
Noroviruses The norovirus is a common cause of The norovirus is transmitted by fecally Exposure to the norovirus could lead
viral gastroenteritis in humans. contaminated food or water, by to nausea, projectile vomiting,
person‐to‐person contact, and diarrhea, abdominal pain, and in some
contaminated of surfaces. cases, loss of taste. General lethargy,
weakness, muscle aches, headache,
and low‐grade fever may occur. The
disease is usually self‐limiting, and
severe illness is rare.
O‐dichlorobenzene O‐dichlorobenzene is a colorless O‐dichlorobenzene can enter the Long‐term exposure to excessive
organic liquid, used for making water system through discharge from amounts of o‐dichlorobenzene could
herbicides. industrial chemical factories. lead to liver, kidney, or circulatory
system problems.
Oxamyl (Vydate) Oxamyl is a highly toxic, white, Oxamyl (vydate) leach from insecticide Long‐term exposure to excessive
crystalline solid. used on apples, potatoes, and amounts of oxamyl (vydate) could lead
tomatoes. to slight nervous system effects.
P‐dichlorobenzene P‐dichlorobenzene is an organic solid P‐dichlorobenzene can enter the water Long‐term exposure to excessive
of white crystals. It is used as an system through discharge from amounts of p‐dichlorobenzene could
insecticide. industrial factories. lead to liver, kidney or spleen damage.
It could lead to anemia and changes in
the blood.
Pentachlorophenol Pentachlorophenol is an organic solid Pentachlorophenol could enter the Long‐term exposure to excessive
with needle‐like crystals. water system through discharge from amounts of pentachlorophenol could
wood preserving factories. lead to liver or kidney problems. It
Perfluorononanoic acid Perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) is a Perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) is an Perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) is an
(PFNA) carboxylic acid that reduces the environmental contaminant. immune system toxicant.
surface tension of water.
Perfluorooctanesulfonic PFOS is a perfluoralkyl sulfonate that is PFOS is resistant to decomposition. As PFOS accumulate mainly in the serum,
acid (PFOS) commonly used as a simple salt. a result, it is widely distributed and can kidney, and liver. Studies on animals
be found in soil, air and groundwater show potential developmental,
across the United States. reproductive and systemic effects.
28
Perfluorooctanoic acid PFOA is a perfluoralkyl carboxylate PFOA is resistant to decomposition. As PFOA accumulate mainly in the serum,
(PFOA) that is produced synthetically as a salt. a result, it is widely distributed and can kidney and liver. Studies on animals
be found in soil, air and groundwater show potential developmental,
across the United States. reproductive and systemic effects.
pH pH is a measure of the acid or base in a Water exposed to air (tap water) is pH itself is a measuring tool and is
liquid. Pure water is a neutral. mildly acidic. Strong acid or base harmless.
indicates some other presence in the
tap water.
Picloram Picloram is a synthetic, organic solid. Picloram could enter the water system Long‐term exposure to excessive
through herbicide runoff. amounts of picloram could lead to liver
problems.
Polychlorinated biphenyls Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are Polychlorinated biphenyls could come Long‐term exposure to excessive
(PCBs) viscous, organic liquids. from runoff from landfills or discharge amounts of polychlorinated biphenyls
of waste chemicals. could lead to skin changes, thymus
gland problems, and immune
deficiencies. It could lead to
reproductive or nervous system
difficulties, and could increase the risk
of cancer.
Radium 226 and radium Radium is a chemical element with Radium 226 and Radium 228 can enter Long‐term exposure to excessive
228 (combined) highly active isotopes. the water system through the erosion amounts of radium 226/228 could
of natural deposits. increase the risk of cancer in some
people.
Scariest toxin Made‐up for demonstration only Made‐up for demonstration only Made‐up for demonstration only
Selenium Selenium is a metal found in natural Selenium can enter the water system Long‐term exposure to excessive
deposits. through discharge from petroleum amounts of selenium could lead to hair
refineries or mines. It could come or fingernail loss. It could lead to
through the erosion of natural numbness in fingers/toes and
deposits. circulatory problems.

29
Silver Silver is a naturally occurring metal. Silver can enter the water system Long‐term exposure to excessive
through runoff from hazardous waste amounts of soluble silver compounds
sites. It is also found naturally in the may lead to liver and kidney damage,
ground. irritation of the eyes, skin, respiratory,
and intestinal tract, and changes in
blood cells. Long‐term ingestion or
inhalation of excessive amounts of
colloidal silver can lead to argyria in
the skin and other organs, turning
them blue.
Simazine Simazine is an organic, white Simazine can enter the water system Long‐term exposure to excessive
crystalline solid. It is used in through herbicide runoff. amounts of simazine could lead to
herbicides. problems with your blood.
Somatic phage A Somatic phage are types of viruses One of the densest natural sources for All phages have different effects on
that infects bacteria and replicates phages and other viruses is sea water. human health. For more specific
within the body. Up to 70% of marine bacteria may be information search for the type
infected by phages. individually.
Strontium Strontium is a metal that was used in Strontium can enter the water system Strontium may be beneficial and
producing cathode ray tubes. through mining and manufacturing increase bone density. But the
runoff. radioactive isotope of strontium,
strontium‐90, can lead to various bone
disorders and diseases, including bone
cancer.
Styrene Styrene is an oily, organic liquid. It is Styrene could enter the water system Long‐term exposure to excessive
used in making synthetic rubbers and through discharge from rubber and amounts of styrene could lead to liver,
plastics. plastic factories. It could leach from kidney, or circulatory system
landfills. problems.
Sulfate Sulfate is a salt that occurs naturally in Sulfate occurs naturally in tap water. Ingestion of water containing high
tap water. levels of sulfate could lead to diarrhea,
particularly with a drastic change in
levels.

30
Testosterone Testosterone is a steroid hormone Testosterone is produced naturally by Excessive amounts of testosterone can
found in humans and other the human body. It can enter the lead to heart attacks, thickened blood,
vertebrates. water system through urine. and blood clots. It may increase the
risk of in prostate cancer. In children, it
may advance bone age, lead to early
puberty and aggressive behavior.
Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloroethylene is a colorless, Tetrachloroethylene could enter the Long‐term exposure to excessive
organic liquid. water system through discharge from amounts of tetrachloroethylene could
factories and dry cleaners. lead to liver problems. It could
Thallium Thallium is a metal found in natural Thallium can enter the water system Long‐term exposure to excessive
deposits. through discharge from electronics, amounts of thallium could lead to
glass, and drug factories. It could leach kidney, intestine, or liver problems. It
from ore‐processing sites. could lead to hair loss and changes in
blood.
Toluene Toluene is an organic liquid. Toluene could enter the water system Long‐term exposure to excessive
through discharge from petroleum amounts of toluene could lead to
factories. nervous system, kidney, or liver
problems.
Total coliforms (including Coliforms, fecal coliforms and E. Coli Coliforms are naturally present in the Coliforms are not a health threat
fecal coliform and E. Coli) are bacteria. Total coliforms is a environment. Fecal coliforms and E.coli themselves, but they can indicate if
A19 method of measuring the quality of are excreted by infected humans and other harmful bacteria are present. A
food and water. animals and might enter the water few types of E. Coli can cause diarrhea,
system. vomiting, and cramps.
Total dissolved solids Total dissolved solids (TDS) is a water Total dissolved solids (TDS) is a Total dissolved solids (TDS) do not
quality measurement. measurement of the particles affect health in themselves. They are
suspended in water. used to measure the cloudiness of tap
water and to indicate of the presence
of contaminants.
Total trihalomethanes Trihalomethanes are formed when Trihalomethanes are a byproduct of Long‐term exposure to excessive
(TTHMs) natural materials in the water react drinking water disinfection. amounts of trihalomethanes could
with chlorine and chloramine. lead to liver, kidney or central nervous
system problems, and could increase
the risk of cancer.
31
Toxaphene Toxaphene is a synthetic organic solid. Toxaphene could leach into the water Long‐term exposure to excessive
It was once used as an insecticide, but system from insecticide used on cotton amounts of toxaphene could lead to
has since been banned. and cattle. kidney, liver, or thyroid problems. It
Trans‐1,2‐dichloroethylene Trans‐1,2‐dichloroethylene is an Trans‐1,2‐dichloroethylene can enter Long‐term exposure to excessive
odorless organic liquid. the water system through discharge amounts of trans‐1,2‐dichloroethylene
from industrial chemical factories. could lead to liver problems.
Trichloroethylene Trichloroethylene, a volatile, organic Trichloroethylene could reach the Long‐term exposure to excessive
liquid, used for removing grease. water system through discharge from amounts of trichloroethylene could
industrial degreasing operations. lead to liver problems. It could
Turbidity Turbidity is caused by water particles. Turbidity generally comes from soil Higher turbidity levels indicate the
It is used to indicate water quality and runoff. presence of viruses, parasites and
whether disease‐causing organisms some bacteria. These can cause
are present. nausea, cramps, diarrhea, and
headaches.
Uranium Uranium is a naturally occurring, Uranium could reach the water Exposure to uranium in tap water
radioactive element. It is used in through the contaminated waste from could lead to toxic effects to the
nuclear power generation. mining. kidney. Long‐term exposure to
excessive amounts of uranium may
increase the risk of cancer in some
people.
Vanadium Vanadium is a metal harder than steel. Vanadium is a byproduct of uranium Excessive exposure to vanadium could
It is mainly used to produce specialty mining. It can enter the water system lead to anemia, intestinal cramps,
steel alloys. through runoff of manufacturing diarrhea, and irritation of the
factories. respiratory tract. Long‐term excessive
exposure could affect the digestive
system, kidneys, and blood.
Vinyl chloride Vinyl chloride is a colorless, organic gas Vinyl chloride could enter the water Long‐term exposure to excessive
used in manufacturing. system through discharge from plastic amounts of vinyl chloride could
factories or leaching from PVC pipes. increase the risk of cancer.
Viruses (enteric) If a person ingests enteric viruses by When an infected person or animal Enteric viruses can cause diarrhea,
drinking tap water, these can quickly excretes, the enteric viruses might vomiting, and cramps.
infect the stomach and intestines. enter the water system.
32
Xylenes (total) Xylenes is one of a group of similar Xylenes can enter the water system Long‐term exposure to excessive
liquids, often used as solvents. through discharge from petroleum amounts of xylenes could lead to
factories and chemical factories. nervous system damage.
Zinc Zinc is a naturally occurring metal Zinc can enter the water system Appropriate amounts of zinc are
necessary for human health. through runoff from manufacturing essential to human health. Excessive
and mining factories. It could erode amounts of zinc can lead to damage to
from natural deposits. the nerve receptors in the nose, which
can cause anosmia. Ingesting toxic
amounts of zinc can cause damage to
the stomach lining.

33

Terminology Guidance For Water Professionals (Or, What You Say Is Not What People Hear )

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Terminology Guidance For Water Professionals (Or, What You Say Is Not What People Hear )

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Terminology Guidance for Water

Professionals (or, What You Say Is

©2017 Water Research Foundation. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

The Water Research Foundation (WRF) is a member-supported, international,

More information about WRF and how to become a subscriber is available at

©2017 Water Research Foundation. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

Jointly sponsored by:

UK Water Industry Research Limited

©2017 Water Research Foundation. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

Printed in the U.S.A.

The Water Research Foundation (WRF) is a nonprofit corporation dedicated to the

Charles M. Murray Robert C. Renner, P.E.

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