Old Musical Styles in the Ellice Islands, Western Polynesia

Author(s): Dieter Christensen

Source: Ethnomusicology, Vol. 8, No. 1 (Jan., 1964), pp. 34-40
Published by: University of Illinois Press on behalf of Society for Ethnomusicology
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 OLD MUSICAL STYLESIN THE ELLICEISLANDS,
WESTERNPOLYNESIA*
Dieter Christensen

Polynesia in general has been both rapidly and severely affected by ac-
culturation under the impact of Western influence. This is true, too,
of the indigenous musical styles, which have been-except for those of the
Maoris of New Zealand, who have kept at least a part of their musical tra-
dition free from recent foreign influences-amalgamated with or even swept
out by secular and church music mainly of European-American origin, before
the beginning of ethnomusicological research. Although these well-known
facts did not allow much hope of tracing traditions of pre-European musical
styles, the Berlin anthropologist, Dr. Gerd Koch, was asked by the Berlin
Phonogrammarchiv to record folk music in his area of research when he un-
dertook the study of the culture of the Ellice Archipelago, Western Polynesia,
in 1960-1961.1
In preparation for the expedition, the collecting of musical examples was
planned by the collector in conjunction with the Berlin Phonogrammarchiv,
the latter providing the technical equipment for the trip. At the time of
planning, the following conditions were taken into account:
1. Facts regarding musical practice of the Ellice Islands are lacking.
In particular, nothing is known as to what extent music has been affected by
direct and indirect Western influence on the culture, nor is it known whether
some residue of Polynesian musical tradition has been retained.
2. The collector is an ethnologist without special ethnomusicological
training.
3. The collector would be staying for several months on several islands
with small population, but only a part of his time could be devoted to the
recording of musical examples.
Thus, in spite of the length of time available for the entire investigation,
only a limited time would be at the collector's disposal for the recording of
music, and therefore, the difficulty of the endeavor precluded the recording
of an entire musical repertoire of one ethnic group. Rather, it was neces-
sary for a selection to be made. Since there was no possibility of making
the selection on the basis of a musical stylistic frame of reference, a col-
lection of examples representing all types of music known to the ethnic
groups being investigated would have to be gathered together on the basis of
extramusical criteria; these examples would have to be furnished with anno-
tations in order that important questions regarding the music might be an-
swered.
To prevent the possibility of being influenced by island informants and
of taking on their biases, the collector proceeded to record a great number
of songs from which he could make a wide selection in the hope of including
everything that chance or bias might cause him to overlook. On this basis,
*Translated by Audrey Davidson, under a grant from Wayne State University.
34

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 CHRISTENSEN: STYLES IN THE ELLICE ISLANDS 35

the collection was a result of interrogation and observation systematically

organized and documented. At each recording session, a questionnaire was
filled out, indicating the answers of the informants as well as the collector's
own observations. In addition, the complete text of each song was noted
down, translated, and explained at the time of recording.
The collection of 209 recordings thus achieved by Gerd Koch is (because
of the thoroughness of documentation) the best which the Berlin Phonogramm-
archiv has received from ethnological hands. Its importance is increased by
the fact that the music, which performs a significant function in the Ellice
Islands, is here surrounded by findings from the general culture. The col-
lection includes music in sizeable quantity from three of the eight perma-
nently populated islands of the Ellice group. One hundred twenty recordings
come from Niutao, where Koch spent the longest amount of time-five months;
33 were collected on Nanumanga, and 49 on Nukufetau on which Koch spent
scarcely two months altogether.
In the following paragraphs the results of the analysis of the musical
styles of the examples are set forth, and some possible inferences made
from the results. The nature of the material makes it useful to begin with
a description of the music on Niutao and from thence to draw comparisons
with the music of Nanumanga and Nukufetau as well as with previously pub-
lished material from Western and Central Polynesia.
The long period of continuing direct and indirect contact with European
culture has strongly influenced the music of Niutao and has stimulated the
musical life of the island in many ways. At the same time, Western influ-
ence has had a destructive effect on the traditional musical values of the
pre-European song without actually obliterating them. The same generaliza-
tion holds true for Nanumanga and Nukufetau.
Of the 127 recordings from Niutao, somewhat over one-fourth show few
unequivocally European stylistic elements. Most of them have characteris-
tics considered by the informants to have been present before the beginning
of the missionary movement. These songs reveal their age through the con-
tent of the text and by the functional purpose they fulfill. This group of
recordings seems to be representative of the musical style of Niutao before
the beginning of the European influence, but there still remains the distinct
possibility of other early and recent non-European influences on the songs.
The remaining less than three-fourths of the recordings show increasing
degrees of unmistakably European stylistic elements. Along with part-songs
functionally harmonized in homophonic and polyphonic style (mainly hymns of
recent origin) are found numerous songs in which European and non-European
elements are combined. While to some extent the possibility of simple, un-
creative borrowing of musical styles from the Samoan secondary mission
cannot be ruled out here, the recordings along with the annotations give evi-
dence of the development of a mixed musical style on Niutao itself. It is
noteworthy that this mixed style extends to the texts of old types of game
songs, a type which frequently tends to preserve old musical material. This
-along with other evidence which cannot be presented here-leads us to the
conclusion that the changes in musical style on Niutao also included pre-
European musical tradition, although it cannot be debated that only a part of
the tradition has remained unchanged.
According to the observations of Gerd Koch, the youths and the middle-
aged people have rejected the old songs, which now no longer fulfill any real
function in the community. The dying out of the carriers of the present tra-
dition may bring about the disappearance of the old musical style.

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36 CHRISTENSEN: STYLES IN THE ELLICE ISLANDS

The pre-European musical style, up to now only negatively defined as

that which is lacking in European stylistic elements, is represented in Gerd
Koch's collection by 34 recordings, five of which exhibit a practice, wide-
spread in Polynesia, of reciting in chorus on an indefinite pitch. This choral
parlando, halfway between speech and music, is found on Niutao as well as
on Nanumanga and Nukufetau in conjunction with songs in other styles. The
songs in this group end with a soloist reciting an incantation for the catch-
ing of Ruvettus fish.
Of the 28 sung (as differentiated from the parlando style) recordings
from Niutao which could be viewed as "old" according to musical style char-
acteristics, almost all are performed by a chorus and almost all have poly-
phonic passages in addition to numerous other stylistic elements in common.
The analysis of the melodies discloses characteristic differences which can
scarcely be explained on the basis of an undisturbed internal stylistic de-
velopment.
One group of ten songs is distinguished by using melody as an entirely
subordinate element. The text is recited mainly or entirely on one pitch,
with varying but frequently duple rhythmic pattern. The chorus sings a
minor or major third below the recitative. The dependence of the rhythm
on language or on musical principles varies from song to song. The near
freedom of some songs whose rhythm is dependent only on the accents of
speech, is countered by other songs having a fixed repeated rhythmic struc-
ture in which the text is made to fit in part through the dropping or repeti-
tion of syllables.
Example 1 gives the second strophe of a song in honor of a fisherman.
The two voices, a major third apart, do not deviate from their original
pitches. Within the inflexible, duple meter which is accentuated by regular
handclapping, there seems to be a flexible rhythm dominated by the accents
of the words. The four last syllables of the text are spoken in a descend-
ing portamento.

(y -mL L.
U L !f LLJ LJULLUl
+jAde-4 To o-nge ne tu-pu i-a Ki-oi-li ko-a nga-so-lo te ka-u o te pa-pa
-+- It- r f- t f T - -
~k?i. p

y L T ('-
Ln
ka-la-ve-
a-kacla-ve-ngi-na tau-ta-kokoTa-
e t ta-u-ta-i n
Ta- na- pa ko Ta- na- pa ko Ta- na- p
r fI f r r IrT
r r
Example 1. Koch 12: fakanau "Te onge ne tupu ia Kiolili" Niutao. Nine
women, hand clapping.

Five songs from Niutao show a melodic contour which is characterized

by the upper voice's outlining the intervals of a triad. In all five songs the
rhythm is clearly defined, the meter being duple or triple. This predomi-
nant form of polyphony is an interrupted drone which occasionally changes
to a lower tone at the cadence. All songs exhibit the spoken ending.
Example 2 shows the typical stylistic traits of this group. As observed
in Example 2, the triad is occasionally filled out tetratonically by passing
notes. This practice may have led to the development of the pentatonic

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 CHRISTENSEN: STYLES IN THE ELLICE ISLANDS 37

4 iL tt t i
7 . - l'-,g ,t
o, te o- la i
. H, 'It
to- na fe t-
1
To a la i lu- nga te a la i la [a]-pa,- ki- nga

4 , et0 ,iri ,fr^'t

1,, 1, 1a 1,^
n&
> ,1,r -i11 11-ng)
fe a- la i 1- na te a- la i la . te a- la i to- na fe--- t'-pa-- ki-nga
to f < t; Y t

Example 2. Koch 4: fakanau "Te ala i lunga, te ala i lalo" Niutao. Nine men,
beating of fans.
scale in which the interval of the third prepared the way for the fourth to
become a structural interval. Although the melodic style of the example
above may have originated from the triadic melody type it is also entirely
possible that the style developed independently from it.
Two lines of a song (Example 3) based on the myth of Nautoka and
Tapualiki illustrate this style. While the upper voice moves up and down
within the entire tonal range, the second voice remains on the principal pitch
or tonic, holding to a pedal point which is similar in rhythm to that of the
first voice.

^ Vw+e OJ W-LrL ri
Ko-a po- ko a- i to-na *a- no
r
ngi
v r v v * r

k -r trtkrC N '- r (" tR

ko a--- u- to- ka ko Na---- u- to- ka Ta- pu- a- li------- ki
t r r Y t TRr-
Example 3. Koch 1: fakanau "Neutuakina te vao i napanapa" Niutao. Nine men,
slit drums "pate."

A fourth type of melody, which is related to the basically different poly-

phonic form, is encountered in five dance-songs from Niutao, which accord-
ing to the content of the text and the testimony of informants probably origi-
nated before the first half of the nineteenth century (Example 4). Decending
melodic contour, wide ambitus, abundant melismas, and sharply punctuating
rhythms in combination with a contrapuntal melody in the lower voice at a
wide distance from the first voice, mark this very distinctive type. In place
of the parlando or portamento ending of the song, there is a seemingly sud-
den breaking off of the song, as a rule in the middle of a phrase.
A comparison of this sketch of the music on Niutao in one stylistic as-
pect with the recordings from Nanumanga indicates that the melodic styles
of Examples 2 and 4 are found to be non-existent on Nanumanga. Instead of
these, two types of melody are encountered on Nanumanga which have not
been described hitherto. Example 5 is representative of a group of three
songs from Nanumanga in which the melodic line climbs from a minor third

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38 CHRISTENSEN: STYLES IN THE ELLICE ISLANDS

n ntfv.i.OT ^g(77
LA] te fa-- le ka-- u- ta - ka mo to--- na ka----u-pu- a---pu-a---- . Te

fa- le ka-- u- ta - ka o to--- na ka----u-pu-e--pu-a---

f, z ^m m ri: n
-'l60
A- ku mu-na ko ta- ku no- a

Example 4. Koch 5: mako fakaseasea "Te fale kautaka. . Niutao. Nine men.

to a fourth, while the lower voice sings in an interrupted pedal point on the
principal tone. This type is also found in one song from Niutao:

2i b t. t- '7.
v-r r ui
r f.:~L a-la
r" ..uu.r
sau-e sau-e sau-e i-a__ Te
A-so-ta---si tu ma--i ma-------i
LfaL rC-tE
i u e

$vn m:r
tj
Lr L r tuL- rsa---a f r" us- rr
-h

a- pa ka-a-va-tu o --ki la sau-e sau-e i - a ; Ta .....

Example 5. Koch 116: viki "Asotasi tu mai ala mai"2 Nanumanga. Nine men,
slit drum "nafa," beating of straw.

The regular alternation of short responsorial phrases is shown in only two

recordings from Nanumanga. These recordings contrast with other choral
songs from the Ellice Islands, in that the appearance of polyphony is con-
fined to occasional overlapping of the precentor and choral phrases. In Ex-
ample 6, a dance-song which refers to fishing, there is a regular creation
of polyphonic sound through such overlapping.

So+
LoJ J j
oru- a-
J tJ
ke a- mao-a-
r Ti- a-
;
ke
Tf r
a- no- a- ke
ke,

a- o-a- ke te ku-pe- nga o tu-ku i te va- i,

_n.; lUt r- ?<^

a- oo-a- ke te ku-pe- nga o tu-ku i t va- i, .....

LI LtU l'e

Example 6: Koch 113: pututanga "Tiake amoake" Nanumanga. Nine men, slit
drum "nafa."

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 CHRISTENSEN: STYLES IN THE ELLICE ISLANDS 39

The eight recordings of old music from Nukufetau conform stylistically

to Examples 1, 4, 5, and 6 from Niutao or Nanumanga. Corresponding to
Example 1, the incantation for catching fish is taken by a solo singer. An-
other song with the same function is recited on three adjacent pitches.
The six non-European melodic styles described in the preceding para-
graphs, and numbered as in the examples, are found on the three islands in
the distribution given in the following table.
Niutao Nanumanga Nukufetau
1 + + +
2 +
3 + +
4 + +
5 + + +
6 + +

The table seems to indicate certain cultural differences among the three
islands; however, any conclusions regarding the musical practice before mis-
sionary contact must be drawn only with the greatest caution. Of course, it
must be realized that acculturation may have affected the tradition of the old
song in various ways. Also, we must wait for the conclusions under consid-
eration to be verified by the field notes of the collector as well as by the
hybrid materials which are yet to be studied.
Finally, the question of the relationship of the music of the Ellice
Islands to the music of the islands surrounding them must also be taken up.
Of course, answering this question is made more difficult by the small
amount of material available for comparison. With the exception of the Sa-
moan Islands, source material for Eastern Micronesia and Eastern Melanesia
is generally lacking. For the Western and Central Polynesian area, source
studies are available only for Uvea and Futuna (Burrows 1945) and for one
island of the Tuamotu Archipelago (Burrows 1930; Schneider 1934, Vol. I,
Ex. 109-120). One study from the Marquesa Islands (Handy-Winne 1925)
contains transcriptions which are not entirely reliable. For purposes of
comparison, this extremely fragmentary material permits us to establish the
fact that the majority of the stylistic elements found on the Ellice Islands
are encountered also in Tuamotu, in Samoa, in Uvea, and in Futuna. Some
of these elements are the predominantly recitative style with frequently re-
peated notes, the interrupted and rhythmic drone as the prevailing basis of
polyphony, and the cadential pattern of shouted or spoken syllables, or
portamenti.
In particular there results a more intensive basis for stylistic compari-
son, which cannot be gone into extensively here; however, two indications of
possible direct cultural relations within the Polynesian area can be men-
tioned:
1. According to already published material, only on Samoa3 is there a
corresponding polyphonic style with descending melodic line and very inde-
pendent contrapuntal lower voice as described in Example 4.
2. The recitative style without change of pitch described in Example 1
is also known on Uvea and Futuna; however, its typical appearance in con-
junction with a parlando cadence plays a dominant role on Tuamotu4 as it
does on the Ellice Islands.
Taking into consideration the fragmentary state of the materials avail-
able for comparison,5 we can draw tentative conclusions regarding the

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40 CHRISTENSEN: STYLES IN THE ELLICE ISLANDS

existence of direct musical contact between Samoa and Central Polynesia.

In addition, it must be seriously and urgently recognized that it is still pos-
sible to add to the modest source material of pre-European musical tradi-
tion through field work. As the examples from the Ellice Islands show, a
residue of old musical traditions does survive on the remote islands. Every
possible endeavor should be made to preserve this vanishing data.

Museum fuir Volkerkunde

Berlin

REFERENCES CITED

Burrows, E. G.
1933 Native music of the Tuamotus. Honolulu: B. P. Bishop Museum Bull. 109.
1945 Songs of Uvea and Futuna. Honolulu: B. P. Bishop Museum Bull. 183.
Handy, E. S. C. and J. L. Winne
1925 Music in the Marquesas Islands. Honolulu: B. P. Bishop Mueseum Bull.
17.
Koch, Gerd
1961 Die materielle Kultur der Ellice-Inseln. Berlin: Veroffentlichungen des
Museums fur Volkerkunde Berlin, N.F. 3.
1962 "Alte Glaubensvorstellungen und Magie auf den Ellice-Inseln (Westpoly-
nesien)," Baessler-Archiv, N.F. 10:45-62.
Kolinski, Mieczyslaw
1930 "Die Musik der Primitivstamme auf Malaka und ihre Beziehungen zur
samoanischen Musik," Anthropos 25:585-648.
Schneider, Marius
1934 Die Geschichte der Mehrstimmigkeit, Vol. 1. Berlin: J. Bard.

FOOTNOTES

1. For cultural background, see Koch 1961 including bibliography, and Koch 1962.
2. Because of the influence of Samoan missionaries, the words of this song
represent a mixture of Nanumanga and Samoan dialects.
3. See Kolinski 1930, examples 39-43.
4. See Burrows 1933.
5. Hawaiian and Maori materials have not been considered in this limited study.

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