Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
College of Engineering
Legazpi City
Properties of Metal
&
Machining and Finishing Processes
Submitted by:
Submitted to:
The chemical properties of metal refer to the characteristics and behavior of the
atomic structure in a metal. The structure of the atom, in particular the configuration of
the electron cloud, is responsible for the obvious physical differences between metals
and nonmetals. Metals have a characteristic luster, are opaque, can be hammered and
drawn into various shapes, and conduct electricity. Nonmetal elements, on the other
hand, are often gases, and, if solid, nonmetals are generally brittle, sometimes
transparent, and do not conduct electricity.
A. Physical Properties
These properties are related to the atomic structure and density of the
material.
1. Physical State
Most metals are solid at room temperature but some exceptions are there.
Gallium, mercury, cesium, and rubidium are the only metal elements that melt near
room temperature.
Melting Gallium
Gallium metal has a melting point of 30° C
(86° F), which is lower than our body
temperature. In this photo, a sample of
gallium melts in a person’s hand.
Lester V. Bergman/Corbis
3. Luster
Metals have lustrous surface. This is due to the presence of free electrons in
the atoms of metals. These free electrons absorb energy and jump to the higher
orbits. When these return, electrons radiates energy and this gives metals luster. It is
somewhat related to reflectivity, which is the ability of a material to reflect light or
heat.
6. Magnetic Susceptibility
7. Specific Gravity
Specific gravity is the ratio of weights between two objects of equal volume,
one of which is water.
B. Mechanical Properties
Metals are generally very strong and resistant to different types of stresses.
Though there is considerable variation from one metal to the next, in general metals
are marked by such properties as hardness, the resistance to surface deformation or
abrasion; tensile strength, the resistance to breakage; elasticity, the ability to return
to the original shape after deformation; malleability, the ability to be shaped by
hammering; fatigue resistance, the ability to resist repeated stresses; and ductility,
the ability to undergo deformation without breaking.
1. Strength
The strength of a material is the property of resistance to external loads or
stresses while not causing structural damage. Ultimate strength is the unit stress,
measured in pounds per square inch, developed in the material by the maximum
slowly applied load that the material can resist without rupturing in a tensile test. The
strength of metals and alloys depends upon two factors: the strength of the crystals
of which the metals are constructed, and the tenacity of adherence between these
crystals.
a. Tensile Strength
b. Shear Strength
c. Compressive Strength
Compressive strength is the ability of a material to withstand pressures acting
on a given plane (figure C).
2. Elasticity
Elasticity is the ability of material to return to its original size, shape, and
dimensions after being deformed (figure D). Any material that is subjected to an
external load is distorted or strained.
Elastically stressed materials return to their original dimensions when the load
is released, provided that the load is not too great. Distortion or deformation is in
proportion to the amount of the load, up to a certain point. If the load is too great, the
material is permanently deformed, and, when the load is further increased, the
material will break. The property of regaining the original dimensions upon removal
of the external load is known as elasticity.
(a) The elastic limit is the point at which permanent deformation begins.
(b) The yield point is the point at which a definite deformation occurs with little or no
increase in load.
(c) The yield strength is the number of pounds per square inch required to produce
deformation to the yield point.
3. Ductility
Ductility is the capacity of a material, such as copper, to be drawn or
stretched under tension loading and permanently deformed without rupture or
fracture. Specifically, the term denotes the capacity to be drawn from a larger to a
smaller diameter of wire. This operation involves both elongation and reduction of
area (figure E).
4. Malleability
5. Plasticity
6. Fatigue Resistance
Alternation of stress will produce failure more rapidly than repetition of stress.
Alternations of stress mean the alternate tension and compression on any material.
The definition of fatigue is the failure of metals and alloys that have been subjected
to repeated or alternating stresses too small to produce a permanent deformation
when applied statically.
7. Toughness
8. Hardness
9. Brittleness
13. Machinability
Machinability is the ease or difficulty with which a material lends itself to
being machined.
C. Chemical Properties
Metallic Bonding
Silver, a typical metal, consists of a regular array of silver atoms that have each lost an electron to form a
silver ion. The negatively charged electrons distribute themselves throughout the entire piece of metal and
form nondirectional bonds between the positive silver ions. This arrangement, known as metallic bonding,
accounts for the characteristic properties of metals: they are good electrical conductors because the electrons
are free to move from one place to another, and they are malleable (as shown here) because the positive
ions are held together by nondirectional forces. A force applied to a malleable substance shifts the positions
of the atoms without breaking the bonds that hold them together.
© Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.
1. High reactivity
Metals are highly reactive due to less ionization energy and bigger size of
atoms. The most reactive metal is francium (Fr).
Metals react with oxygen to form basic oxides which convert red litmus to blue
litmus for example
4Na + O2 → 2Na2O
Sodium oxygen sodium oxide
When these oxides are mixed with water these form bases.
3. Electropositive nature:
Na → Na+ + e-
Mg → Mg2+ + 2e-
2 Na + H2 → 2NaH
Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2
A. Boring
Boring is a process in which the internal surfaces of
revolution are generated using a traversing tool. It is used to
enlarge and finish holes accurately. This may be done on a
lathe or a milling machine.
Jig Boring
Jig boring machine is a vertical boring machine designed for precision boring
of components mainly used for tooling applications and for certain aero-engine
components such as casings.
B. Broaching
Broaching is an operation that completes the cutting
in one stroke or cut. Metal is removed by a rotating multiple
tool cutter called a broach, against the workpiece surface.
The cutter is pushed through or pulled through a hole or
across a surface.
C. Drilling
Drilling is a process of producing holes,
countersinking and spot facing. It is an economical way
of removing large amounts of metal to create semi-
precision round hole or cavity. The cutting tool, called
drill is usually held in the machine rotating spindle and
the drill is forced into the workpiece. Drilling allows a
person to make holes through boards, metals, and other
materials. It is used for the last removal of stock on
preparation for other operations like boring, reaming or
tapping.
The drill press is a machine used to hold drill bits which will
produce cylindrical holes. It is used for producing cylindrical holes
as well as reaming, boring, counter-boring, counter-sinking, honing,
lapping and tapping. There are three major types:
D. Facing
Facing is a lathe operation in which the cutting tool
removes metal from the end of the workpiece or a shoulder.
It is a machine operation where the work is rotated against a
single point tool. A workpiece may be held in a 3, 4, or 6 jaw
chucks, collets or a faceplate.
E. Shaping
It is an operation used to produce flat surfaces. When
the cutting tool reciprocates while the work is fed towards
the tool removing material on each stroke, it is called shaping.
Shaper
F. Milling
In this, metal is removed by
rotating a multiple tool cutter. The
cutting action is intermittent unlike in
turning or boring. The workpiece is
clamped to the table of the machine
and the milling cutter is fixed to the
rotating spindle. Milling operations are
used for machining flat surfaces or cubic components, and
curved surfaces of complex shapes.
Milling Machine
G. Tapping
Tapping is the process of cutting a thread inside a
hole so that a cap screw or bolt can be threaded into the
hole. Also, it is used to make threads on nuts. Tapping is
done with a tool called a "Tap". Tapping may be done by:
hand
lathe machine
milling machine
tapping machine
H. Turning
Turning is a lathe operation in which the cutting tool
removes metal from the outside diameter of a workpiece. A
single point tool is used for turning. A workpiece may be
held in a 3, 4, or 6 jaw chuck, collets or may also be held
between centers.
Lathe
J. Grinding
It is a metal cutting process that uses an
abrasive tool called grinding wheel. Grinding
processes remove very small chips in very large
numbers by cutting the action of many small
individual abrasive grains. The cutting elements
of grinding wheel are grains of abrasive material
having high hardness and high heat resistance.
They have sharp edges and are held together by bonding materials. Grinding
provides high accuracy and good surface finish. Therefore it is used as finishing
operation. This process removes comparatively little material usually from 0.25 mm
to 0.5 mm. Tolerances as small as 0.0025 mm can be obtained by commercial
grinding.
During grinding temperature rises with the increased wear of grains which
may lead to distortion of work piece structural changes and crack formation in the
ground surface. Hence an abundant flow of coolant is commonly used in grinding.
The coolant also slows down softening of wheel bond which is due to heating.
Non-precision Grinding
Precision Grinding
Grinding Machine
Grinding machine machines metal parts with an abrasive wheel which can
grind to close tolerances. Grinding machines can produce parts of the identical size,
shape, and finish quality. There are various types of grinding machines:
Plain Surface grinders
Rotary Surface grinders
Tool & Cutter grinders
Universal grinders
Internal grinders
K. Honing
Honing is an abrading process mostly used for finishing
internal cylindrical surface such as drilled or bored holes.
Removal of metal by honing involves the use of a number of
bonded abrasives stones called hones. Honing stones are
formed by bonding abrasives like aluminum oxide or silicon
carbide in vitrified or resinoid bond.
L. Lapping
Lapping is the process of producing an extremely
accurate highly finished surface. Lapping is carried out by
means of lapping shoes called laps. The laps are made
up of soft cast iron, copper, lead and brass. The lap
material is always softer than the material to be finished.
N. Polishing
It is surface finishing process by which scratches
and tool marks are removed with a polishing wheel. The
work piece is brought in contact with the revolving wheel
that has been charged with a very fine abrasive. Polishing
wheels are made of canvas, leather or paper. Tolerances
of 0.025mm or less can be obtained in machine polishing.
Bibliography
Chang, R. (1991). Chemistry (4th Ed.) (p. 822). USA: McGraw-Hill Inc.
"Chemistry." Microsoft® Student 2009 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2008.
"Hardness." Microsoft® Student 2009 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2008.
Gaus, Paul L. "Metals." Microsoft® Student 2009 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft
Corporation, 2008.
"Grinding and Polishing." Microsoft® Student 2009 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft
Corporation, 2008.
"Machine Tools." Microsoft® Student 2009 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation,
2008.
US Army, The Army Institute for Professional Development. Metal Properties, Characteristics,
Uses and Codes. Retrieved March 10, 2010, from
http://www.scribd.com/doc/24882886/Metal-Properties-Characteristics-Uses-and-Codes
Ahmed, U. Surface Finish Processes. Scribd. Retrieved March 10, 2010, from
http://www.scribd.com/doc/23312175/Surface-finish-Processes
How Polishing, Buffing, and Burnishing Work. Platers and Anodizers Online. Retrieved March
13, 2010, from http://platers.org/polishing_buffing.php
Metal Polishing. Taylor Made Publication. Retrieved March 13, 2010, from
http://www.taylormadefabrication.co.uk/index.php?p=17&pp=4&i=