Coherence and wakes in wind models for electromechanical

and power systems standard simulations

António P. Martins Paulo C. Costa Adriano S. Carvalho

Faculdade de Engenharia da
Universidade do Porto
Rua Dr Roberto Frias, 4200-465,
Porto - Portugal
Tel: +351225081816
ajm@fe.up.pt
Instituto Politécnico de
Viana do Castelo
Avenida do Atlântico, 4900,
Viana do Castelo - Portugal
Tel: +351258819700
pjc@ipvc.pt
Faculdade de Engenharia da
Universidade do Porto
Rua Dr Roberto Frias, 4200-465,
Porto - Portugal
Tel: +351225081818
asc@fe.up.pt

Abstract Essentially there are two simulation types: short

Time domain wind turbine simulation needs two
kinds of wind models: a detailed three-dimensional
vector field associated with computational fluid
dynamics in order to assess mechanical stress,
aerodynamic design, and an equivalent rotor wind
model for electromechanical behaviour and power
flow analysis. The paper focuses its attention in the
second class. The most important parameters to be
taken into consideration in wind modelling are: the
frequency spectrum model, gust occurrence
probability, operation under wakes and the coherence
inside the wind farm. From a single turbine operation
to a large wind farm different models are analyzed
and their validity is discussed.
Keywords: Wind models, coherence , wakes
1 Introduction
Wind power is becoming more and more important in
the generation of electrical energy. The power of a
single wind turbine is continuously growing reaching
several MW. At this level there is a need to know
rigorously its aerodynamic behaviour; in particular,
simulations of the complete wind conditions the wind
turbine will face during operation are needed, [1].
Complete and proved three dimensional wind models
are available for this purpose, [2] and [3]. This type of
simulation includes different aspects of the turbine
operation one of the most important being the turbine
blade fatigue load, [4], [5], [6] and [7].
The purpose of this paper goes to another
important aspect related to the wind turbine – the
conversion of wind energy into rotating mechanical
energy. To accomplish this objective it is needed wind
models in the form of time series to make the
simulations.
term simulation, usually with a 10 min run or less,
and long term simulation. In the first type it is studied
different tasks like control algorithms (for the turbine
and the generator), flicker analysis, wind farm
electrical production; in the second one, issues like
production scheduling and forecasting, and pay-back
time calculations are analyzed. Detailed time domain
wind speed models are only needed for the first
simulation type. However, the model used depends on
the simulation purpose since the computational effort
can be too high or unnecessary.
Two approaches can be followed: time domain
and frequency domain. Frequency domain
calculations are simpler and are preferable in
analysing phenomena like mechanical resonance,
flicker or stability; time domain is more general but
more demanding. Usually, the wind time series is
composed by the following main components:
average wind speed and gust, ramp, and turbulence
components. For short term simulations, average wind
speeds, gusts and ramps are deterministic
components; turbulence is a stochastic one.
Additionally, for wind farm studies it is necessary to
include other important parameters and characteristics
as operation under wakes and coherence between
different turbines.
Large wind farms can be simulated in three
modes, depending on the objectives:
1- each wind turbine is individually simulated,
with its own wind speed time series, turbine-generator
set and substation connection;
2- all wind turbines are aggregated in several
clusters;
3- the all wind farm is treated as a unique power
production element.
In all cases, it is needed to generate one or more
wind speed time series according to the number of
simulated “turbines”.
2 Single turbine wind speed model this component are the Kaimal spectrum and the von
Karman spectrum, in their original or adapted
formulations. Also widely used when the focus is in
A single wind turbine system simulation needs a
the low frequency spectrum is the Hojstrup PSD
generic wind speed time series that can be presented
function, [9].
in the form of (1):

u (t ) = U + u r (t ) + u g (t ) + ut (t ) (1)

where U is the average wind speed, ur(t) is a ramp

component, ug(t) is a gust component, and ut(t) is a
turbulent component.
The ramp and the gust components can have
different analytical expressions. The ramp is specified
by three parameters: initial time, Ti, stop time, Ts, and
amplitude, Ar, as in (2):

 0 t 〈Ti
 t − Ti
ur (t ) =  Ar Ti 〈t 〈Ts (2)
 Ts − Ti
 Ar t 〉Ts
Figure 1: Sinusoidal and IEC-type gusts included in a
standard wind speed time series with a 4 Hz sampling
This component is not of special interest since it frequency. Kaimal spectrum with: I=0.15; U=10 m/s;
introduces a change in the average wind speed, thus L1=150 m and Nf=100. Sinusoidal type parameters:
limiting the specified properties of a ten minutes Ti=20 s, Ts=30 s, Ag=7 m/s; IEC type parameters:
standard simulation, in which the average wind speed Tc=70 s, σg =20 s, Ag=7 m/s.
should be made constant. However, it can be used to
analyze the turbine controllers’ behaviour and the
generator controllers.
The gust component can have different
implementations. Until recently it was just a 2.1 The Kaimal model
deterministic function with several possible
definitions, being the sinusoidal function one of the The Kaimal spectrum model is, like other ones,
most used ones, [8], [4]. One possible definition is in usually presented under a PSD function. For the
(3), where Ag is the gust amplitude: longitudinal wind speed component, the model
defined by Kaimal relates frequency, length scale and
average wind speed, [1]:
 0 t 〈Ti
A   
 g t − Ti
u g (t ) =  ⋅ 1 − cos 2π   Ti 〈t 〈Ts (3)

fS ( f )
=
4 fL1 / U
(4)

 2   Ts − Ti  σ 2
(1 + 6 fL1 / U )5 / 3
 0 t 〉Ts
where S(f) is the auto-spectral density function, f is
However, in extreme wind conditions that wind the frequency, σ is the standard deviation, L1 is the
turbines must support, the gusts experienced in real length scale and U the average wind speed, all in the
situations are of stochastic nature and have a limited upwind direction.
spatial extension, not affecting the all wind park, [6]. The length scale is dependent on the surface
Somewhat different is the gust definition roughness, z0, as well as the height above ground, z.
included in the relevant IEC standard, [4]. This gust Standards used for wind turbine loading calculations
type includes an initial wind speed decreasing, thus specify different turbulence spectra and/or different
implying additional robustness in the turbine length scales to be used in different test conditions.
controllers. Figure 1 shows an example of the two The length scale dependence on the height above
gust types included in a one minute wind speed time ground can be simplified until a constant as is done in
series. the Danish standard DS472 or in the IEC standard
The turbulent component can have different 61400-1.
forms and is usually represented by a Power Spectral For the wind speed longitudinal component the
Density function, PSD. The most used ones to model standard deviation σ is approximately constant with
height. The standard deviation depends on the
turbulence intensity and the average wind speed, and
is given by (5):
I = σ /U
Other definitions are possible, especially for wind
turbine design calculations, [1].
This spectrum implies a relatively low terrain
roughness. Furthermore, the model applies for neutral
conditions only (strong winds), as convection is not
accounted for. However, these conditions are met in a
large number of applications like off-shore wind
farms. Also, because of its simple expression, the
Kaimal spectrum is widely used.
2.2 The von Karman model
The von Karman spectrum is also suitable for the
structure of the turbulence experienced by wind
turbines, particularly in complex terrain, [10], [11]. Its
power spectral density has the form of (6):
fS ( f ) 4 fL2 / U
= (6)
σ2 (1 + 70.8( fL2 /U )
2
)
5/6
In order to have the same high frequency
asymptotic limit as the Kaimal spectrum it must
be L2 = 1/2.329 L1.
Several experimental works (12) demonstrated
that the von Karman model and the Kaimal model
have the following main differences:
ƒ the Kaimal spectral expressions for the three
spatial wind components describe adequately the
experimental data as to the shape and peak
frequencies but not as to the power levels;
ƒ the von Karman model seems to fit the 3D
experimental data better than the Kaimal with
respect to the power levels. In the longitudinal
component, a power deficit at low frequencies is
observed.
These properties can also be verified in
simulation, as is shown in Figure 2, which shows the
PSD of the two wind models for an average wind
speed of 8 m/s and 15 m/s, respectively.
2.3 Rotational effects
The analysis of experimental data shows that constant
speed wind turbines produce periodic power
fluctuations as well as stochastic power pulsations
caused by the variations of the wind speed. The most
common are power pulsations at the same frequency
as the frequency with which the blades pass in front
of the tower. For a three-blade turbine, this frequency
is referred to as 3p.
(5)
Figure 2: Kaimal and Von Karman power spectral
density models for two average wind speeds, U1=8
m/s and U2=15 m/s. I=0.10; L1=150 m.
The origin of the rotation-based periodic power
pulsations has been discussed in several publications.
It has been suggested that these pulsations may be
caused by wind shear or by aerodynamic effects as the
blades pass in front of the tower. All the effects exist.
However, the main contribution to the power
pulsations comes from the wind turbulence as has
been demonstrated in different works ([13] and [14])
and is of stochastic nature. The tower shadow effect
and the wind shear or wind speed gradient only have a
small and deterministic contribution to the observed
output power variations.
In a variable speed wind turbine (e.g. equipped
with a double-output asynchronous generator) the
output power fluctuations are much smoother. The
variations in torque and thus power that affect the
turbine blades then will result in momentary
variations in the turbine speed, momentarily storing
active power. Due to the same reason, the variations
in power decrease when the induction generator slip is
increased, by controlling the power flow in the rotor
circuit.
2.4 Equivalent wind speed
The turbulent wind speed signal, u(t), just describes a
wind speed time series at one swept area point, e.g.
the hub wind speed anemometer measurement. For
calculating the influence of wind turbulence into the
turbine generated mechanical torque, it has to be
considered that the wind speed is not constant over
the swept area but different in every point. Therefore,
the wind speed in the swept area has to be described
by a vector field, [2]. Blade iteration techniques can
be applied for a detailed analysis of torques and forces ai τi s + 1
in the rotor, [15]. H 3 ( s) = (9)
τi s + 1
For global system analysis, with turbine and
generator dynamics simulation, and grid connection,
with power quality assessment and voltage ride- where ai > 1 and amplifies certain mid-range
through testing, the equivalent wind speed method frequencies.
described in [9], provides a very good compromise The time constant, τi, and the empirical parameter
between accuracy and calculation time. ai must be obtained through an identification method.
An alternative approach makes use of Omitting the induction lag filter has no detectable
aerodynamic filters, [16]. In the first step, it is impact on the power quality predictions, [17].
generated a time series of wind data with the required
properties and from the appropriate wind model, i.e.,
average wind speed and turbulence intensity, at one
point only (at the hub level). This signal is the input to
the aerodynamic filters, and the output signal is the
equivalent wind speed representing the wind field
impact in the whole rotor area.
The first filter is the spatial filter and has the
Laplace transfer function in (7):

2 + bs
H1 ( s ) =
( )(
2 + bs a 1 + b / a s ) (7)

where a=0.55, b=γR/U, R is the turbine radius, U is

the average wind speed at the hub height, and γ is the
decay factor over the disc (γ=1.3). Figure 3: Wind speed power spectral density before
The filter damps higher frequency components and after the application of aerodynamic filters.
present in the wind. In this way, the rotor blades (Other conditions: Kaimal spectrum, U=12 m/s,
filtering property is represented. L1=150 m, I=0.10, ωr=30 rpm, R=30 m, ωd=2 rpm).
The second filter represents the wind rotational
sampling by the turbine rotor and is called the
rotational sampling filter, with the general expression The above presented filters have parameters that
(8): depend on the turbine operating conditions,
particularly average wind speed and turbine rotational
speed. Also, the method described in [9] for wind
H 2 (s) =
ωr2 + ωd2
⋅
(s + ωr )2 (8) speed time series generation has the same
ωr2 (s + ωd + jωr )(s + ωd − jωr ) characteristic. Simulating time series with variable
wind speeds and/or variable speed turbines needs
filters with adaptive parameters in order to fulfil the
where ωr =N.n.2π/60, N is the number of blades, n operating conditions. Figure 4 shows the simplified
(r/min) is the rotor speed, and ωd is the rotor damping diagram of the farm wind model with the interaction
factor at rotational speed ωr. between the generated single point wind speed time
This filter amplifies the variations at a frequency series, usp, and the turbine rotational speed.
region around the blade passing frequency. In other
regions, this filter has a gain of nearly one. Figure 3
shows a typical power spectral density for U=12 m/s,
before and after the application of the aerodynamic
filters (7) and (8).
Other filter types can be applied in order to adjust
the high frequency components amplitudes. The
induction lag filter is one of them, resulting from the
induction lag that occurs when the blades react to a
change in wind speed and hence to a changing angle
of attack. This changing can be modelled as a lag
filter with a frequency response represented by (9): Figure 4: Adaptive wind model simulation inside a
wind farm.
 The resulting equivalent wind speed signal, u(t), extracted energy is converted into usable energy
can then be applied to the characteristic turbine curve depends upon the particular turbine design.
to determine the driving shaft torque and the Being ρ the air density, the rotor aerodynamic
associated dynamics. power, Pa, can be calculated by (13), [1]:

1
2.5 Wind and torque time series Pa = πρR 2u 3C p (λ, β) (13)
2
A technique is needed to synthesize wind speed
signals from the modelled one-dimensional power The power coefficient Cp(λ, β) is a turbine
spectrum with predefined turbulence flow conditions. specific function defining the turbine ability to
One of the most used is the Shinozuka method, which convert the wind kinetic energy into mechanical
allows generating a one-dimensional wind speed energy. Cp(λ, β) is a nonlinear function of the pitch
signal as a realization of a turbulent process, using the angle, β, and the tip speed ratio, λ.
model power spectrum as a target. Each point in the The tip speed ratio is given by:
time series is computed by summing weighted cosine
series with a random phase angle, as expressed in ωr R
λ= (14)
(10): ueq

Nf
Generally, the power coefficient is adequately
u (t ) = U + ∑ S ( f n )∆f cos(2πf n t + φ n + ∆φ) (10) described by (15), [15], in which coefficients c1 to c7
n =1
are turbine specific calculated:
In (10), S(fn) is the spectral density model, Nf is
c5
the considered discrete frequencies number (usually c  −
between 50 and 100), ∆f is the incremental frequency, C p (λ, β) = c1 2 − c3β − c4 e λ i (15)
fn is the frequency, φn its uniformly distributed  λi 
random phase angle and ∆φ is a random phase needed
to achieve non repetitiveness of each simulation run. 1 1 c
with = − 37 .
The generated synthetic signal is only one of the λ i λ + c6β β + 1
possible realizations of a process with the chosen flow
turbulence characteristics because of its random phase
In variable speed systems, and below nominal
angle. The inverse discrete Fourier transform can also
wind speed, the power coefficient is usually
be used to generate the time series, (11):
maintained at an optimum value in order to maximize
the extracted energy.
Nf N The rotor aerodynamic torque, (16), can easily be
u (t ) = U + ∑ An cos(2πf n t ) + ∑ B n sin( 2πf n t ) (11)
n =1 n =1
determined by dividing the rotor power by the rotor
shaft angular velocity:
Essentially, the random phase angle in (10) is
replaced by zero mean value independent normally 1
Ta = πρR 2u 3C p (λ, β) (16)
distributed random coefficients An and Bn. The 2ωr
variance of the process is maintained by imposing the
correct standard deviation in the random distribution, In the most important wind speed operating range
(12): (Region 2), a maximum Cp implies a constant tip
speed ratio and a fixed pitch angle. So, as can be
S ( f n )∆f deduced from (16) the reference aerodynamic torque
σ{An } = σ{Bn } = (12) becomes a wind speed quadratic function or a
2
rotational speed quadratic function.
The equivalent wind speed time series can then
Another approach to generate a wind speed time
be applied to a specific turbine type, in which the
series according to a selected power spectral density
power coefficient and the rotor speed are controlled
model is based on the AR (Auto Regressive) or
variables.
ARMA (Auto Regressive Moving Average) models,
The aerodynamic torque can now be used for
[18].
simulation purposes as the input to the, more or less
The turbine rotor blades sweep through a
complex, turbine-(gearbox)-generator set mechanical
complex three dimensional wind field which varies
model.
both in time and over the rotor disc. How much the
3 Wind farm operation increased dynamic loading on the downstream
machines.
In a wind farm turbine wakes can interact, and
For wind farm studies, the all wind turbines must be
some turbines may be affected by the wakes of
considered. In large wind farms, at least some sub sets
several machines located upstream. This influence
must be considered in order to obtain realistic
depends on several parameters as farm geometry,
simulated results especially in what respects to power
wind speed and direction, and is depicted in Figure 5,
fluctuations and grid disturbances rejection. The
where dLo and dLa the longitudinal and lateral turbine
electrical power characteristics fundamentally depend
separation respectively.
on the average wind speed and turbulence. So, these
Wind farm codes usually rely on the results of
two wind parameters inside the all farm must be
single wake calculations, and use velocity deficits
known.
with linear or quadratic superposition to take into
Three important aspects must be considered in a
account the combined effect of different wakes.
wind farm simulation: the existence of some degree of
Experimental measurements and detailed simulations,
correlation between the wind speeds in different
([19] and [20]), have shown that when there are many
points in the farm; the possible operation of a wind
turbines in a line while the first turbine produces full
turbine under the wakes of others; and the coherence
power, there is a power decrease in the downstream
spectrum between two wind farm points.
turbines.

3.1 Correlation
In a wind farm with a large number of wind turbines
interconnected, smoothing effects are of great
importance for evaluating their output power
fluctuation, especially in variable speed turbines.
These smoothing effects are basically dominated by
the wind characteristics spatial correlation.
Since wind energy is a function of wind speed,
the establishment of a model for wind speed
correlation in a region is of great importance in the
management of wind energy resources for power
generation. The information obtained by this process
can be used to predict the wind power at some crucial
places of a wind farm in order to feed forward control
of the wind turbines for maximum performance or to
terminate its operation in case of an extreme gust.
Power quality measurements of wind turbines
connected to public grids are under the IEC 61400-21
standard, which specifies that the maximum 200 ms
average power as well as the maximum 1 min average
power must be measured. For the analysis of a wind
farm connection IEC 61400-21 assumes that the
turbulence of the wind at the different wind turbines is
uncorrelated. A more accurate measurement can be
obtained if it is considered the existence of a
correlation factor between the wind turbines in a farm.

3.2 Operation in wakes
A wind turbine extracts kinetic energy from the wind
and, in doing so, creates a wake. The wake has two
important characteristics: reduced mean wind speed
and increased turbulent energy. The reduced mean
wind speed will result in a reduced energy output of
wind turbines operating in the wakes of others, [19].
The increased turbulence intensity results in an
Figure 5: Turbine wakes in a wind farm with dLa=4D,
dLo=6D: a) predominant wind direction, b) one
dimensional wake superposition and, c) two
dimensional wake superposition.
The wake velocity deficit decreases non-linearly
with the distance; it is minimal beyond 10 rotor
diameters downstream of a machine. Thus, the
commonly accepted practice in wind farm 0.32
D
arrangement is to space turbine rows between 6 and ∆I = 0.73a 0.83 I ∞− 0.0325   (20)
10 rotor diameters apart in the predominant wind x
direction and between 3 to 6 rotor diameters spacing
in the crosswind direction. where I ∞ is the ambient turbulence and a is a
A conservative spacing practice due to space parameter.
limitations or interconnection costs results in more
important wind power losses due to wake effects; its
influence should be considered.
Complete and detailed wake models are
necessary for structural and mechanical related
studies. For economic and grid connection assessment
more simple models can be used. Analytical
expressions characterizing the changes in the average
wind speed and in the turbulence are usually
considered.
The average wind speed change in the far wake
can be generally expressed in function of the distance,
(17), or in function of the transport time, (18).
The reduced wind speed in function of the
distance is given by:

n
∆U D Figure 6: Single wake average wind speed decrease in
= A  (17)
Uh x the far wake for a range of parameters (rotor
frequency, fr, and thrust coefficient, Ct).
where Uh is the wind speed at hub height, x is the
downstream distance and D is the turbine rotor
diameter; A and n are constants. Constant A depends The actual turbulence intensity, I, is then given
on the turbine characteristics (thrust coefficient, Ct, by (21), [23]:
and the induced velocity factor, a), increasing with
both. These constants are in the range 1<A<3, and I = ∆I 2 + I ∞2 (21)
0.75<n<1.25.
The wind speed reduction related to the transport
time is given in [21] as: In dense arrangements the whole wind farm can
create its own inside ambient turbulence. Considering
the case of an infinitely large wind farm that perturbs
∆U t 
= C2 ln 0  + Ct (18) the whole boundary layer, the estimated value of the
Uh  t  added turbulence intensity deep inside the wind farm
is obtained in [24] as:
where C2 is a constant and t0 is the transport time
where the near wake ends. Its expression is: 0.36
∆I = (22)
1 + 0.2 d r' d c' / Ct
1 H D
t0 = C1 ln  (19)
f r  z0  2 H where dr’ is the normalized (by the rotor diameter)
row distance and dc’ the normalized column distance.
where C1 is a constant, fr is the rotational frequency, The changes in turbulence intensity and average
z0 is the roughness height and H is the hub height. wind speed can be dealt with different expressions. Its
As a short example, Figure 6 shows the average applicability essentially depends on the considered
wind speed decrease in the far wake, obtained with distances, leading to near or far wakes.
(18) for two thrust coefficients and two rotational Distances between rows and between turbines in
speeds, considering C1=1.0, C2=0.4, H=55,z0=0.04, a row are other variables conditioning the increased
D=40. turbulence expressions validity, [22]. Also, complex
The added turbulence intensity created by a wind terrains introduce additional difficulties in wind
turbine can have different expressions, almost all modelling.
fitted from experimental measurements, [22]. One of Wind direction is other parameter influencing the
those expressions, (20), is presented in [23]: wind turbines operation in wakes, [19]. Ultimately,
the wind farm itself originates modifications in the in the separation distance. This other general three-
environment namely changing the roughness length dimensional exponential model is expressed in (25):
and thus creating a wind farm wake, [20].
− a ( fd / U ) 2 + (bd / Lc ) 2
γ2( f ) = e (25)
3.3 Turbulence inside a wind farm
where a=8.8 and b=0.12. Parameter Lc must be
The electrical power characteristics at the output of a
determined experimentally.
wind farm depend on all the individual wind turbines.
However, as demonstrated in [9] and [26], a large
Active power, flicker, feed forward control, and
wind farm needs a more accurate coherence model in
production forecasting accurate estimations all depend
order to get results with a high confidence level. In
on the wind farm behaviour as a whole and on each
modern wind farms the most important coherence
turbine operation. So, a wind speed time series is
factors are the longitudinal and the lateral ones.
needed at the input of each simulated turbine.
Generalization of (24) to obtain the coherence in a
A frozen turbulence hypothesis is a reasonable
plane can be done including the angle, α, between the
one for simulations where the simulated time series
wind direction and the line connecting the (i, j)
only pass the object once, like a wind turbine rotor.
reference points, (26):
For wind farm simulations, this condition is not
realistic, especially when the wind direction is along a
fd
line of wind turbines. In this case, simulations with a −σ (au / U cos(α) )2 + (av sin(α ) )2
frozen turbulence will generate wind speed time series γ2 ( f ) = e U (26)
which are identical for all wind turbines in the line,
with only a time delay associated with the travel time where au and av are the decay factors relative to the
between the two turbines. The assumption of a frozen longitudinal and lateral directions, respectively.
turbulence means that the coherence between the An example of the coherence factor evolution,
turbulence in two points on a line in the wind according to (26), is shown in Figure 7 for typical
direction will be one, which is not usually true. One wind speed characteristics (average speed, standard
important consequence of a frozen turbulence is that deviation and direction).
the summation of the power variations from the wind
turbines will be affected, [25].
The original Davenport empirical coherence
model used to calculate the cross power spectrum was
extended to the three directions. For the longitudinal
wind turbulence component it is described by an
exponential function, (23), with a decay parameter, au:

γ u2 ( f ) = e − au ( fd / U ) (23)

where f is the frequency, d is the separation distance,

and U is the mean wind speed at a specified height.
This model has a limited application since it does not
give accurate results in situations where the spatial
separation, in either direction, becomes large and the
frequency range includes low frequencies. In both
cases, the model gives just a rough approximate of the Figure 7: Coherence factor, from (26), with: U=10
coherence value. Of particular importance in a wind m/s, I=0.1, α=10º, au=25, av=15.
farm simulation is the longitudinal coherence. A quite
more valid expression, (24), is deduced in [26]:
3.4 The cross spectral method
σ
− au ( fd / U ) To avoid the assumption of a frozen turbulence the
γ u2 ( f ) = e U (24) cross spectral matrix method is usually used in the
simulation of wind farms, [9].
The IEC adopted model ([4]) is also empirical The method makes use of the coherence function
and contains an additional term involving the ratio of between two stationary random processes. The
separation d to the coherence scale parameter, Lc, so squared coherence between wind speeds at different
allowing for a reduction in coherence with an increase points (i, j) is defined by (27):
 2 The time series of each wind turbine is obtained by
2
Sij ( f
γ (f)=
Sii ( f ) S jj ( f )
where Sii(f) is the auto power spectral density of wind
speed at point i and Sij(f) is the cross spectral density
between wind speeds at points i and j.
According to the cross correlation function
definition, the cross spectral density is a complex
quantity and can be expressed as in (28):
− j 2 πfτij
Sij ( f ) = Sij ( f ) e
where τij is the orthogonal wind travelling time
between points i and j. So, the complex cross power
spectrum can be obtained from (29):
− j 2 πfτij
Sij ( f ) = γ ( f ) Sii ( f ) S jj ( f ) ⋅ e
The cross spectral matrix, S, becomes complex as
a result of the time delay between points with
longitudinal components of their separation.
Knowing the farm geometry (distances between
turbines, surface roughness, heights, …) and the wind
parameters in a single point (average wind speed,
direction, turbulence, probability distribution, …) the
complex cross spectral matrix can be obtained.
Matrix S can be written as the product of a
transformation matrix, H, and the transpose of its
complex conjugate, H*T:
 S11 ( f ) S1i ( f ) ... S1N ( f ) 
S (f) S (f) ... S Ni ( f ) 
S( f ) =  i1 ii
. (30)
 ... ... ... ... 
 
 S N 1 ( f ) S Ni ( f ) ... S NN ( f )
Matrix H can be determined by a simple and
efficient method, [2], resulting in a lower triangular
matrix. For simulation purposes, H is discretized in Nf
frequencies. Each frequency will be affected by a
random phase angle, θ, uniformly distributed in the
interval [0, 2π] rad by the N turbines.
U( f ) = H ( f ) W ( f )
For each frequency index the vector U(f) will
contain the Fourier coefficients of all turbines. So, the
wind speed time series of turbine j will have a
frequency component f given by:
j
jθ k
U j ( f ) = ∑ H jk ( f )e
k =1
joining in an array all Fourier coefficients and taking
(27)
the inverse Fourier transform.
4 Conclusion
Wind models for wind turbine electromechanical
behaviour and for wind farm output power standard
simulations are presented in this paper. To build a
wind farm wind model different parameters must be
included and analyzed: frequency spectrum model,
(28) operation under wakes and coherence inside the wind
farm.
Frequency spectrum models are discussed in the
paper along with the more demanding gust
phenomena. High confidence level wind farm
simulations are only reached considering the possible
wind turbine operation in wakes and the coherence
(29) between two points inside the farm.
Wakes create a wind speed reduction thus
influencing the wind farm power production. Also,
the added turbulence intensity implies additional
turbine mechanical stress and power fluctuations.
Wind farm output power smoothing is dependent on
the power spectrum coherence inside the farm.
Coherence models for inflow turbulence are presented
and evaluated. Their wide ranges of applicability are a
guarantee of high quality simulation results.
Acknowledgments
The second author would like to thank
PRODEP (Programa de Desenvolvimento
Educativo para Portugal) for the support of
this work.
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