Chapter 13

Renewable and Clean Energy

by- Prof. Bharat Raj Singh1 and Prof. Sandeep Tiwari2
1Director General-Technical, School of Management Sciences, Lucknow-226501, UP
Mob: 9415025825, email: brsinghlko@yahoo.com
2
Institute of Science & Technology, Nims University Rajasthan, Jaipur-303121, India

13.1 Learning Outcome

It is learnt that energy which is collected from renewable resources, that are naturally replenished
on a human timescale, such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves, and geothermal heat is known
as Renewable Energy. Renewable energy often provides energy in four important areas:
electricity generation, air and water heating/cooling, transportation, and rural (off-grid) energy
services.

According to report published in 2016, renewable energy contributed 19.2% to humans' global
energy consumption and 23.7% to their generation of electricity in 2014 and 2015, respectively.
This energy consumption is divided as 8.9% coming from traditional biomass, 4.2% as heat
energy (modern biomass, geothermal and solar heat), 3.9% hydro electricity and 2.2% is
electricity from wind, solar, geothermal, and biomass. Worldwide investments in renewable
technologies amounted to more than US$286 billion in 2015, with countries like China and the
United States heavily investing in wind, hydro, solar and biofuels. Globally, there are an
estimated 7.7 million jobs associated with the renewable energy industries, with solar
photovoltaics being the largest renewable employer. As of 2015 worldwide, more than half of all
new electricity capacity installed was renewable and recently in 2017, India has planned to fetch
the energy requirement twice the renewable energy by 2020.

13.2 Introduction
Throughout history humans have both affected, and been affected by, the natural world. While a good
deal has been lost due to human actions, much of what is valued about the environment has been
preserved and protected through human action. While many uncertainties remain, there is a realization
that environmental problems are becoming more and more complex, especially as issues arise on a more
global level, such as that of atmospheric pollution or global warming.

The potential of Renewable Energy sources is enormous as they can in principle meet many times the
world‘s energy demand. Renewable energy sources such as biomass, wind, solar, hydropower, and
geothermal can provide sustainable energy services, based on the use of routinely available, indigenous
resources. A transition to renewable-based energy systems is looking increasingly likely as their costs
decline while the price of oil and gas continue to fluctuate. In the past 30 years solar and wind power

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systems have experienced rapid sales growth, declining capital costs and costs of electricity generated,
and have continued to improve their performance characteristics. In fact, fossil fuel and renewable energy
prices, and social and environmental costs are heading in opposite directions and the economic and policy
mechanisms needed to support the widespread dissemination and sustainable markets for renewable
energy systems are rapidly evolving. It is becoming clear that future growth in the energy sector will be
primarily in the new regime of renewable energy, and to some extent natural gas-based systems, not in
conventional oil and coal sources. Because of these developments market opportunity now exists to both
innovate and to take advantage of emerging markets to promote renewable energy technologies, with the
additional assistance of governmental and popular sentiment. The development and use of renewable
energy sources can enhance diversity in energy supply markets, contribute to securing long term
sustainable energy supplies, help reduce local and global atmospheric emissions, and provide
commercially attractive options to meet specific energy service needs, particularly in developing
countries and rural areas helping to create new employment opportunities there. Looking into the
Environmental damage due to use of conventional energy sources like fossil fuels, the ‗Clean energy' may
have a specific definition in our mind - we may think it's synonymous with 'renewable energy' (i.e.
wind energy, solar energy, hydro energy and geothermal energy) but to some, clean energy also means
nuclear energy that does not pollute the atmosphere while in use.

Renewable energy in India comes under the purview of the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
(MNRE). Newer renewable electricity sources are targeted to grow massively by 2022, including a more
than doubling of India's large wind power capacity and an almost 15 fold increase in solar power from
April 2016 levels. Such ambitious targets would place India amongst the world leaders in renewable
energy use and place India at the centre of its International Solar Alliance project promoting the growth
and development of solar power internationally to over 120 countries. India was the first country in the
world to set up a ministry of non-conventional energy resources, in the early 1980s. India's overall
installed capacity has reached 329.4 GW, with renewable accounting for 57.472 GW as of 14 June 2017.
61% of the renewable power came from wind, while solar contributed nearly 19%. Large hydro installed
capacity was 44.41 GW as of 28 February 2017 and is administered separately by the Ministry of Power
and not included in MNRE targets. From 2015 onwards the MNRE began laying down actionable plans
for the renewable energy sector under its ambit to make a quantum jump, building on strong foundations
already established in the country. MNRE renewable electricity targets have been upscaled to grow from
just under 43 GW in April 2016 to 175 GW by the year 2022, including 100 GW from solar power, 60
GW from wind power, 10 GW from bio power and 5 GW from small hydro power. The Ministry of
Power has announced that no new coal-based capacity addition is required for the 10 years to 2027
beyond the 50 GW under different stages of construction and likely to come online between 2017 and
2022. The ambitious targets would see India quickly becoming one of the leading green energy producers
in the world and surpassing numerous developed countries. The government intends to achieve 40%
cumulative electric power capacity from non fossil fuel sources by 2030.

In this chapter, we are going to study the Renewable and Clean Energy that includes solar, wind,
advanced hydro, certain types of biomass and geothermal energy and has the potential to replace
conventional fossil fuels and nuclear power. While non-hydro renewable presently provide just 2-3% of
electricity in the almost all the other developed countries including US, it is technically and economically
feasible for a diverse mix of existing renewable technologies to completely meet our energy needs.

13.3 Renewable Energy

Renewable energy is the energy obtained from natural renewable resources such as sunlight, wind, rain,
tides, waves, microbial biomass and geothermal heat (Ellabban, 2014). These renewable resources are
naturally renewed constantly and thus cannot be exhausted. The renewable energy resources are found in

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rich amount in contrast to various other energy sources and considered to be environment friendly. These
are the cleanest sources of energy. The solar energy is used to generate electricity. The implementation of
renewable energy resources for energy generation showed significance by means of energy security,
climate change mitigation and economic advantages.

Non-renewable energy is energy obtained from those sources which are available in reserved quantity on
the earth and will be finished in next fifty-sixty years. The non-renewable energy sources are non eco-
friendly and can cause serious affect on human health. These resources cannot be re-generated within a
short period of time. Examples of non-renewable sources are form of fossil fuels, natural gas, Uranium, oil
and coal etc.

In an indication of growing appetite for electricity in India, the country’s per capita electricity
consumption has reached 1010 kilowatt-hour (kWh) in 2014-15, compared with 957 kWh in
2013-14 and 914.41 kWh in 2012-13, according to the Central Electricity Authority (CEA),
India’s apex power sector planning body. The per capita electricity consumption reached 1010
kWh some time back, said a senior government official, requesting anonymity. But experts are
far from enthused from the increasing consumption figure. “Per capita electricity consumption
crossing 1,000 units a year is certainly a milestone, but without much significance. One-fourth of
the households in the country still have no access to electricity, with some states in East and
North East having less than even 30% households with (electricity) access. Most significant
milestone that the nation must achieve is 100% households having 24x7 quality supply of
electricity, said Debasish Mishra, senior director, consulting, Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu India
Pvt. Ltd.

India’s per capita power consumption is among the lowest in the world. Around 280 million
people in the country do not have access to electricity. In comparison, China has a per capita
consumption of 4,000kWh, with developed nations averaging around 15,000kWh per capita.
Interestingly, while the peak shortage in the country was at 2.3% in May, many believe that the
demand still looks artificially suppressed as state electricity boards (SEBs) are not buying
power. SEBs have been unwilling to procure electricity because of their weak financials due to
low tariffs, slow progress in reducing losses, higher power purchase costs and crippling debt.
India has an installed power generation capacity of 272,503MW.

Table 13.3.1: Installed grid interactive renewable power capacity (excluding large hydropower)
in India as of 31 March 2017 (RES MNRE).

Sources Installed Capacity (MW) 2020 Target (MW)

Wind power 32279.77 60,000.00
Solid Waste to Power 114.08 10,000.00*
Solar Power 12288.83 1,00,000.00
Small Hydro Power 4379.85 5,000.00
Biomass & Gasification, Bagasse Cogeneration 8182.00 10,000.00
Total 57244.23 1,75,000.00

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13.3.1 Types of Renewable Energy

As we know that Renewable energy is now becoming an increasingly important issue in today‘s
world. In addition to the rising cost of fossil fuels and the threat of Climate Change, there has
also been positive developments in this field which include improvements in efficiency as well
as diminishing prices. All of this has increased the demand for alternative energy and accelerated
the transition towards cleaner, more sustainable methods of electrical power. However, it is
important to note that are many kinds – biomass, solar, wind, tidal, and geothermal power and
that each has its own share of advantages and drawbacks.

Geothermal power: The geothermal energy is extracted from heat, stored under the earth‘s crust.
This power source of energy is more cost effective, reliable, sustainable and environmentally
friendly. Historically, geothermal energy extraction was limited only to those areas near tectonic
plate boundaries but advancement in the technology has significantly extended range of viable
resources such as home heating. Geothermal electricity generation is currently used in 24 countries
(Geothermal Energy Association, 2010), while geothermal heating is in use in 70 countries
(Fridleifsson., 2009). Geothermal power is considered to be a sustainable and renewable energy
source because heat extraction is less as compared with the Earth's heat content (Rybach et al.,
2007). The greenhouse gas emissions of geothermal electric stations are on average 45 grams CO 2/
kilowatt hour of electricity or less than 5% of that of conventional coal-fired plants (Moomaw et
al., 2011).

Wind power: Wind power is use of air flow through wind turbines to mechanically power
generators for electric power. Wind power is a substitution alternative to burning fossil fuels
produces no greenhouse gas during operation; no water consumes, and uses little land (Fthenakis et
al., 2009). The environment affects very much less than that of nonrenewable power sources. The
power is growing at a rate of 30% a year and is harmless to the environment. The problems
associated with wind energy are:
 Wind is not always available in sufficient quantities at all the locations at all time.
 Turbine technology tends to be loud.
 The birds killed sometimes by propellers.

Solar power: Solar energy is being used by humans since beginning of mankind. Three types of
solar energy such as passive solar energy, active solar energy and solar energy are generated by
converting solar radiation into electricity using photovoltaic cells. Photovoltaic cells convert light
into an electric current using the photovoltaic effect (Energy Sources., 2011). This technique is the
fastest growing power generating technology globally now days. The electricity converted from
solar power by either photovoltaics or by concentrated solar power or a combination. The
concentrated solar power systems focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam by using lenses
or mirrors and tracking systems. It is a clean, non-polluting energy source. The problems associated
with solar power are:
 Solar panels are more costly.
 Amount of energy generated by the cells is a product of insulation, or how much sun reaches
the cells.
 Storage cell should be advanced to hold electricity long time for those days of little or no
sunshine.

Hydroelectric power: To produce electricity from Hydro-power, hydroelectric dams are used.
Hydro-power or water power is generated by power derived from falling water or fast running

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 water turning large turbines by moving water to generate electricity. In this technique, flowing
water move turbines that generate electricity. United States Geological Survey reported that
Hydropower provides 20 % of the world‘s energy needs. The problems associate with hydropower:
Rivers must be dammed, which can have a severe impact on the land and wildlife. This impact also
affects communities that rely on fish that must travel through the dams. The costs to build these
dams are huge, and the return is slow.

Tidal power: Tidal power is a type of hydro-power. The rising tides fill a damned reservoir and
then as the tide lowers; water is then released through turbine that produces electricity.

Wave power: Wave power involves extracting energy from the surface motion of waves or from
the pressure fluctuations below the surface caused by waves. This technology is promising as well,
and is similar to that of wind energy, in that large turbines are used similar to wind turbines;
however they must be built stronger to sustain the pressures of being underwater, not to mention
shielding the electrical apparatus within them from the water.

Biomass: Biomass is biological material from recently living or currently living organisms such as
trees and landfill gasses and alcohol fuels creating from crops such as corn. Burning grease or
ethanol derived from corn to run a vehicle are two common examples of biomass energy
production. Here are the Biomass advantages and disadvantages to see more on this type of energy.

13.3.2 Global Production of Renewable Energy

The combined growth of all the renewables posted over the decade to 2012 of 4.7%, was higher
than that of the conventional sectors at 3.1%. The 2012 renewable share in the world's electricity
mix was 20.8%, compared to 19.9% in 2011 and 18.3% in 2002. Growth in renewable output
was particularly strong between 2011 and 2012 (6.2%), as it increased by 276.3 TWh in 2012,
rising to 4 699.2 TWh, and can be put down to the higher than expected rise in hydropower
output (3.8% or 132.7 TWh), primarily in China. It also reveals the vitality of the non-hydro
renewable sectors whose combined output increased by 16.1% between 2011 and 2012
(143.7 TWh). Wind power's expansion of 82.8 TWh in 2012 in absolute figures that gave a total
of 534.3 TWh, came second to that of hydropower, but solar power (photovoltaic and CSP) gets
the top prize for thrust with its 65.5% year-on-year increase (41.4 TWh), that took the combined
contribution past the 100 TWh line to 104.5 TWh. Biomass growth was on another scale
(18.6 TWh more for a total of 326.2 TWh), and geothermal power likewise (with 1 TWh more
for a total of 70.4 TWh).

The realignment of the global electricity mix is not over. "Renewable energy, medium term
market report 2013", published by the International Energy Agency (IEA), reckons the
renewable share could reach 25% in 2018. It forecasts that non-hydro renewable energies, driven
by wind and solar power investments could generate 8% of gross electricity output in 2018. The
IEA predicts that gross renewable electricity output will continue to pick up speed in the medium
term to 2018, rising by approximately 40% and forecasts installed renewable capacity increasing
from 1 580 GW in 2012 to 2 350 GW in 2018. While the main renewable energy source will be
hydropower, the other renewable sectors – namely biomass, wind power, solar photovoltaic,
concentrated solar power, geothermal power and marine energies – will expand much faster.
Two strong trends are behind this build-up… the market's geographic expansion and renewables'
competitive edge over conventional solutions.

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13.4 Clean Energy Technology

Several ambitious international initiatives that aim to deliver access to clean, modern energy services to
underserved populations in developing countries have recently taken root, including UN Sustainable
Energy for All initiative, the Energy+ Partnership, and Power Africa. The scale of the challenge is great:
today, 1.3 billion people lack access to electricity, yet extending the electrical grid is not a cost-effective
solution in many rural, low-income areas. The International Energy Agency estimates that to achieve
universal access to electricity by 2030, more than 50 percent of new electricity connections will be through
distributed energy solutions—from solar home systems with several watts of capacity to kilowatt-scale
biomass minigrids that serve entire communities—and 90 percent of those will use renewable energy
sources.

13.4.1 Biomass Energy and its Technology

Biomass is a term used to describe all organic matter produced by photosynthesis, existing on the earth‘s
surface. They include all water- and land-based vegetation and trees, and all waste biomass such as
municipal solid waste (MSW), municipal biosolids (sewage), and animal wastes (manures), forestry
and agricultural residues, and certain types of industrial wastes. The world‘s energy markets have
relied heavily on the fossil fuels. Biomass is the only other naturally occurring energy-containing carbon
resource that is large enough in quantity to be used as a substitute for fossil fuels (Donald Klass,
2017). Through the process of photosynthesis, chlorophyll in plants captures the sun's energy by
converting carbon dioxide from the air and water from the ground into carbohydrates, i.e., complex
compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. When these carbohydrates are burned, they turn
back into carbon dioxide and water and release the sun's energy they contain. In this way, biomass
functions as a sort of natural battery for storing solar energy.

The exploitation of energy from biomass has played a key role in the evolution of mankind. Until relatively
recently it was the only form of energy which was usefully exploited by humans and is still the main
source of energy for more than half the world‘s population for domestic energy needs (Michigan,
2017),. One of the simplest forms of biomass is a basic open fire used to provide heat for cooking, warming
water or warming the air in our home. More sophisticated technologies exist for extracting this energy
and converting it into useful heat or power in an efficient way. In the mid-1800s, biomass,
principally wood biomass, supplied over 90% of U.S. energy and fuel needs, after which biomass
energy usage began to decrease as fossil fuels became the preferred energy resources.

This eventuality of fossil fuel and the adverse impact of fossil fuel usage on the environment are expected
to be the driving forces that stimulate the transformation of biomass into one of the dominant energy
resources. Unlike fossil fuels, biomass is renewable in the sense that only a short period of time is needed
to replace what is used as an energy resource. Biomass is the only renewable energy source that releases
carbon dioxide in use. However the release is compensated by the fact that the biomass grown uses the
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to store energy during photosynthesis. If the biomass resource is being
used sustainably, there are no net carbon emissions over the time frame of a cycle of biomass

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production. Fig. 13.4.1(a) shows a biomass energy cycle and the way biomass is utilized for energy
generation in an environmentally friendly scheme.

Figure 13.4.1(a): Biomass Energy Cycle

13.4.1.1 Methods of Extracting Biomass Energy

Biomass can be converted to thermal energy, liquid, solid or gaseous fuels and other chemical products
through a variety of conversion processes. Biopower technologies are proven electricity-generation options
in the United States, with 10GW of installed capacity (NREL, 2017). All of today‘s capacity is based on
mature, direct-combustion technology. Future efficiency improvements will include co-firing of
biomass in existing coal-fired boilers and the introduction of high-efficiency gasification, combined-
cycle systems, fuel cell systems, and modular systems. Generally, the prominent biopower
technologies are comprised of direct combustion, co-firing, gasification, pyrolysis, anaerobic digestion,
and fermentation.

a). Direct Combustion: This is perhaps the simplest method of extracting energy from biomass. Industrial
biomass combustion facilities can burn many types of biomass fuel, including wood, agricultural
residues, wood pulping liquor, municipal solid waste (MSW) and refuse-derived fuel. Biomass is burned to
produce steam,the steam turns a turbine and the turbine drives a generator, producing electricity.
Because of potential ash build-up (which fouls boilers, reduces efficiency and increases costs), only
certain types of biomass materials are used for direct combustion.

b). Gasification: Gasification is a process that exposes a solid fuel to high temperatures and limited
oxygen, to produce a gaseous fuel. The gas produced by the process as shown in Fig.13.4.1 (b), is a
mixture of gases such as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen, and methane. The gas is
then used to drive a high-efficiency, combined-cycle gas turbine. Gasification has several advantages over

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burning solid fuel. One is convenience – one of the resultant gases, methane, can be treated in a
similar way as natural gas, and used for the same purposes.

Figure13.4.1 (b): Gasification Process

Another advantage of gasification is that it produces a fuel that has had many impurities removed and
could therefore cause fewer pollution problems when burnt. Under suitable circumstances, it can also
produce synthesis gas, a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen which can be used to make
hydrocarbon (e.g., methane and methanol) for replacing fossil fuels. Hydrogen itself is a potential fuel
without much pollution which can conceivably substitute oil and petroleum in a foreseeable future
(Biomass, 2017).

c). Pyrolysis: In its simplest form, pyrolysis represents heating the biomass to drive off the volatile matter
and leaving behind the charcoal. This process has doubled the energy density of the original material
because charcoal, which is half the weight of the original biomass, contains the same amount of energy,
making the fuel more transportable. The charcoal also burns at a much higher temperature than the original
biomass, making it more useful for manufacturing processes. More sophisticated pyrolysis techniques
are developed recently to collect volatiles that are otherwise lost to the system. The collected
volatiles produce a gas which is rich in hydrogen (a potential fuel) and carbon monoxide. These
compounds are synthesized into methane, methanol, and other hydrocarbons. The steps involved in this
process are illustrated in Fig. 13.4.1(c).

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 Figure 13.4.1(c): Pyrolysis Process

Flash pyrolysis is used to produce bio-crude, a combustible fuel. Heat is used to chemically convert
biomass into pyrolysis oil. The oil, which is easier to store and transport than solid biomass material, is then
burned like petroleum to generate electricity. Pyrolysis can also convert biomass into phenol oil, a chemical
used to make wood adhesives, molded plastics, and foam insulation.

d). Digestion: Biomass digestion works by utilizing anaerobic bacteria. These microorganisms usually live
at the bottom of swamps or in other places where there is no air, consuming dead organic matter to produce
methane and hydrogen. We put these bacteria to work for us. By feeding organic matter such as animal
dung or human sewage into tanks, called digesters, and adding bacteria, we collect the emitted gas to use as
an energy source. This process is a very efficient means of extracting usable energy from such biomass.
Usually, up to two thirds of the fuel energy of the animal dung could be recovered. Another related
technique is to collect methane gas from landfill sites. A large proportion of household biomass waste, such
as kitchen scraps, lawn clipping and pruning, ends up at the local tip. Over a period of several decades,
anaerobic bacteria at the bottom of such tips could steadily decompose the organic matter and emit
methane. The gas can be extracted and used by capping a landfill site with an impervious layer of clay and
then inserting perforated pipes that would collect the gas and bring it to the surface.

e). Fermentation: For centuries, people have used yeasts and other microorganisms to ferment the
sugar of various plants into ethanol. Producing fuel from biomass by fermentation is just an extension of
this process, although a wider range of plant material from sugar cane to wood fiber can be used. For
instance, the waste from a wheat mill in New South Wales is used to produce ethanol through fermentation.
Ethanol is then mixed with diesel to produce diesehol, a product used by trucks and buses in Australia.
Technological advances will inevitably improve the method. For example, scientists in Australia and the
U.S. have substituted a genetically engineered bacterium for yeast in the fermentation process. The
process has vastly increased the efficiency by which waste paper and other forms of wood fiber is
fermented into ethanol.

 Biofuels: Biomass is converted into transportation fuels such as ethanol, methanol, biodiesel and
additives for reformulated gasoline. Biofuels are used in pure form or blended with gasoline.
 Ethanol: Ethanol, the most widely used biofuels, is made by fermenting biomass in a
process similar to brewing beer. Currently, most of the 1.5 billion gallons of ethanol used in the

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 U.S. each year is made from corn and blended with gasoline to improve vehicle performance and
reduce air pollution.
 Methanol: Biomass-derived methanol is produced through gasification. The biomass is
converted into a synthesis gas (syngas) that is processed into methanol. Most of the 1.2
billion gallons of methanol annually produced in the U.S. are made from natural gas and used
as solvent, antifreeze, or to synthesize other chemicals. About 38 percent is used for
transportation as a blend or in reformulated gasoline.
 Biodiesel: Biodiesel fuel, made from oils and fats found in micro-algae and other plants is
substituted for or blended with diesel fuel.

13.4.1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Biomass Energy

a) Benefits of Biomass Energy
Some of the advantages of using biomass as a source of energy are illustrated below.
i. Biomass energy is an abundant, secure, environmental friendly, and renewable source of
energy. Biomass does not add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere as it absorbs the same
amount of carbon in growing as it releases when consumed as a fuel.
ii. One of the major advantages of biomass is that it can be used to generate electricity with the
same equipment or in the same power plants that are now burning fossil fuels.
iii. Biomass energy is not associated with environmental impacts such as acid rain, mine spoils,
open pits, oil spills, radioactive waste disposal or the damming of rivers.
iv. Biomass fuels are sustainable. The green plants from which biomass fuels are derived fix
carbon dioxide as they grow, so their use does not add to the levels of atmospheric
carbon. In addition, using refuse as a fuel avoids polluting landfill disposal.
v. Alcohols and other fuels produced by biomass are efficient, viable, and relatively clean
burning.
vi. Biomass is easily available and can be grown with relative ease in all parts of the world.

b). Constraints to Biomass Energy Use:

i. Biomass is still an expensive source of energy, both in terms of producing biomass
and converting it into alcohols, as a very large quantity of biomass is needed.
ii. On a small scale there is most likely a net loss of energy as a lot of energy must be used
for growing the plant mass; biomass is difficult to store in the raw form.
iii. One of the disadvantages of biomass is that direct combustion of biomass can be harmful
to the environment as burning biomass releases carbon dioxide, which contributes to the
warming of the atmosphere and possible climatic change. Burning also creates soot and
other air pollutants.
iv. Over-collecting wood can destroy forests. Soils bared of trees erode easily and do not hold
rainfall. Increased run-off can cause flooding downstream.
v. When plant and animal wastes are used as fuel, they cannot be added to the soil as
fertilizer. Soils without fertilizer are depleted of nutrients and produce fewer crops.
vi. Biomass has less energy than a similar volume of fossil fuels.

13.4.2 Wind Energy and its Technology

Wind technologies convert the energy of moving air masses at the earth's surface to rotating shaft power
that can be directly used for mechanical energy needs (e.g., milling or water pumping) or converted to
electric power in a generator. Two major types of turbines exist and are defined based on the axis of
blade rotation: horizontal-axis (which currently dominate commercial markets) and vertical-axis turbines.
Wind energy has proven the most cost-competitive renewable electricity technology for the bulk power
market to date; however, its use is also very well-suited to remote and distributed applications. Hybrid

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applications, in which a wind turbine is coupled with another renewable energy source (e.g., PV) and/or a
conventional back-up unit (e.g., diesel generator), are attracting much interest in the remote power
market. For example, the fishing village of Xcalac in Mexico uses a hybrid system composed of six 10
kW wind turbines, an 11.2 kW PV array, and a diesel backup generator to provide 100% of its power.

Five nations – Germany, USA, Denmark, Spain and India – account for 80% of the world‘s
installed wind energy capacity. Wind energy continues to be the fastest growing renewable energy
source with worldwide wind power installed capacity reaching 14,000 MW. In March‘2000, India ranks
5th in the world with a total wind power capacities of 1080MW out of which 1025Mw have
been established in commercial projects. In India the states of Tamilnadu and Gujarat lead in the field
of wind energy. A study undertaken to re-assess the potential, Indian Wind Energy Association places it
at about 1, 00,000 MW in 2017 as against assessed 65,000 MW in 2006. Assuming a grid penetration of
20%, a technical potential of about 13,000 MW is already available for exploitation in the potential
States. Today, the capital cost of wind power projects range between Rs. 4 to 5 crores per MW.
This gives a levelised cost of energy generation in the range of Rs. 2.00 to Rs. 2.50 KWh, taking into
consideration the fiscal benefits extended by the Government. The Indian wind energy sector had an
installed capacity of 6280 MW (as on December 31, 2006) and current installed capacity of 32,380 MW
(as on March 31, 2017). In terms of wind power installed capacity. India is now ranked 4th in the world.
Keeping in view of current scenario, India would be one of major player in the global wind energy
market. .

Table-13.4.2(a): Top 10 World Countries contributing Wind installed Energy

Country MW % Share
PR China* 168,690 4.7
USA 82,184 16.9
Germany 50,018 10.3
India 28,700 5.9
Spain 23,074 4.7
United Kingdom 14,543 3.0
France 12,066 2.5
Canada 11,900 2.4
Brazil** 10,740 2.2
Italy 9,257 1.9
Rest of the world 75,577 15.5
Total Top 10 411,172 84
World Total 486,749 100
Source-GWEC

13.4.2.1 History of Wind Machines

Since ancient times, people have harnessed the winds energy. Over 5,000 years ago, the ancient
Egyptians used wind to sail ships on the Nile River. Later, people built windmills to grind wheat and
other grains. The earliest known windmills were in Persia (Iran). These early windmills looked like large
paddle wheels. Centuries later, the people of Holland improved the basic design of the windmill. They
gave it propeller-type blades, still made with sails. Holland is famous for its windmills. American
colonists used windmills to grind wheat and corn, to pump water, and to cut wood at sawmills.
As late as the 1920s, Americans used small windmills to generate electricity in rural areas
without electric service. When power lines began to transport electricity to rural areas in the 1930s,
local windmills were used less and less, though they can still be seen on some Western ranches.

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13.4.2.2 Types of Wind Turbines and its Technical Aspects

We are now well conversant that if a rotating machine converts the wind kinetic energy into Mechanical
Energy, thereafter to electricity, the machine is called a wind generator or wind turbine. Wind turbines
can be classified into two types based on its axis in which the turbine rotates as Horizontal Axis Wind
Turbines (HAWT) and Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWT) as shown in Fig. 13.4.2 (a).

Figure 13.4.2 (a): Schematic Diagram of Horizontal Axis

and Vertical Axis Wind Turbines

Further it is categoried on the basis of technology: Onshore Wind Turbines are a mature technology.
Improvements in power output, reliability and connection to distribution networks are still being made but
there are over four decades of operational experience to draw on.. Offshore wind is less mature with early,
shallow water turbines being mainly onshore turbines adapted for the marine environment. As moves are
made into deeper water and harsher conditions, newer, offshore-specific designs are being developed that
are easier to install, operate and maintain. However, the marine environment will always be demanding
and, as a result, offshore wind energy is likely to remain more challenging and expensive than onshore.
Moreover, there remain a number of important issues affecting offshore transmission connections that
need to be resolved. The payoff with offshore wind is a better wind resource and higher load factors with
greater space to exploit and less impact on local communities. However, it is important to note that any
offshore wind developments must be integrated carefully with close cooperation and sensitivity to
existing industry and ecosystems.

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 Figure13.4.2 (b): NEG Micon 1.5 MW with 68M Rotor Diameter and Tubular Steel Tower.

Table 13.4.2(b): Rotor Design Diameters for Wind Turbine

of varying Power rating

Power Rating (kW) Rotor Diameter(m)

300 27-33
500 33-40
600 40-44
750 44-48
1000 48-54
1500 54-64
2000 64-72
2500 72-80

i).Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWTs)

Horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) get their name from the fact that their axis of rotation is
horizontal. They have the main rotor shaft and electrical generator at the top of a tower, and are pointed
into the wind. The variability of wind distribution and speed brings up the requirement of a gear system
connected to the rotor and the generator. The gear system enables a constant speed of rotation to the
generator thus enabling constant frequency generation. The rotor diameter is chosen according to varying

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power rating as shown in Table13.4.2 (b). Turbine blades are made stiff in order to prevent the blades
from being pushed into the tower by high winds. Downwind machines have also been built, as they no
longer require a yaw mechanism to keep them facing the wind, and also because in high winds the blades
can turn out of the wind thereby increasing drag and coming to a stop. Most of the HAWTs‘ are upwind
as downwind systems cause regular turbulence which may lead to fatigue.

Advantages and Disadvantages of HAWT

HAWT Advantages
• Variable blade pitch, which gives the turbine blades the optimum angle of attack. Changing
the angle of attack provides greater control over power generated and enables maximum
efficiency.
• As wind energy increases with height, the tall tower in the HAWT gives access to higher
wind speed. In some cases increase of even 10m height leads to increase in wind speed by
20%
 In HAWTs‘ the blades move horizontally those is perpendicular to the wind and hence have
minimum drag and they receive power throughout the rotation.

HAWT Disadvantages
 Due to inherent large structures, construction costs are very high and so are transportation
costs.
 Civil construction is costly due to erection of large towers.
 Wind turbine operation often leads to production of electronic noise which affects radar sites.
• In case of downwind HAWTs‘ the regular turbulence produced leads to structural failure.
HAWTs require an additional yaw control mechanism to turn the blades toward the wind.

ii). Vertical Axis Wind Turbines

Vertical-Axis Wind Turbines (or VAWTs) have the main rotor shaft arranged vertically as the
plane of rotation is vertical. Blades are also vertical in this arrangement as shown in Fig. 13.4.2 (c). The
biggest advantage of VAWTs is they don‘t require a yaw control mechanism to be pointed into the wind.
Thus, these are useful in sites where wind direction is random or there is presence of large obstacles like
trees, houses etc. Also VAWTs‘ don‘t require a tower structure and can be placed nearby a ground
enabling access to electrical components. Some drawbacks are the low efficiency of wind production and
the fact that large drag is created for rotating the blades in a vertical axis. It consists of 2 or 3 convex
blades with airfoil cross section. The blades are mounted symmetrically on a vertical shaft and
mechanical brakes are incorporated to control speed of rotation. Those brakes consist of steel discs and
spring applied air released calipers for each disc.

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 Figure 13.4.2(c): Wind Terra ECO1200 VAWT

Advantages and Disadvantages of VAWT

VAWT Advantages
 A massive tower structure is not required, as VAWTs‘ are mounted closer to the ground
 They don‘t require yaw mechanisms.
 These are located closer to the ground and hence easier to maintain.
 These have lower startup speeds than their horizontal counterparts. These can start at
speeds a slow as 10Kmph.
 These have a lower noise signature.

VAWT Disadvantages
 VAWTs‘ have lower efficiency as compared to HAWTs‘ because of the additional
drag produced due to rotation of blades.
 Even though VAWTs‘ are located closer to the ground, the equipment now
resides at the bottom of the turbines structure thus making it inaccessible.
 Because of their low height they cannot capture the wind energy stored in higher
altitudes.

13.4.3 Solar Power and its Technology

Solar power generation technologies can be classified into two broad categories:

• Solar Photovoltaic Technologies

• Solar Thermal Power Plants

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13.4.3.1 Solar Photovoltaic (SPV) Power Generation / Roof Top Generation-Grid Connection

Solar photovoltaic (PV) system is like any other electrical power generation systems in terms of the
output except for the source of the power is Solar radiation. The conversion of Solar radiation to the
electrical power is based on the photovoltaic principles. Photovoltaic converters are semiconductor
devices that convert part of the incident solar radiation directly into electrical energy. The most common
PV cells are made from single crystal silicon but there are many variations in cell material, design and
methods of manufacture. Solar PV cells are available as crystalline silicon, amorphous silicon cells such
as Cadmium Telluride (Cd-Te), Copper Indium dieseline, and copper indium gallium dieseline (CIGS),
dye sensitised solar cells DSSC and other newer technologies such as silicon nano particle ink, carbon
nanotube CNT and quantum dots.

However, the principles of operation of the connected load and interfacing with other electrical
systems remain the same. Though solar PV array produces power when exposed to sunlight, a number
of other components are required to properly conduct, control, convert, distribute, and transform the
energy produced by the array. Solar power generating by the system shall be utilized for powering
various office loads like Computer, Lighting loads, fans etc. for specified hours of sun shine
operation.

Figure 13.4.3(a): Solar Photo Voltaic Power generation

Difference between On-grid and Off-grid Solar Power are given below:

On-grid means your solar system is tied to your local utility company‘s system. This is what most
residential homes will use because you are covered if your solar system under or over-produces in regard
to your varying energy needs. All this means for you is that your utility system acts as your battery space
as shown in Fig. 13.4.3(b). If you are producing more energy with your solar panels or system than you
are using, the excess energy is sent to your grid‘s power company, allowing you to build credit that you

16
can cash out with at the end of the year, in a process called net metering. Being grid-tied is beneficial
because you don‘t have to buy an expensive battery back-up system to store any excess energy.

Figure 13.4.3(b): Solar Photo Voltaic On and Off line Power Generation
Being off-grid means you are not connected in any way to your grid‘s power system or utility company.
This is appealing because you are 100% self-sustaining your energy use. However, there are
disadvantages because off-grid systems require you to purchase back-up battery which can be expensive,
bulky, and not very environmentally friendly which defeats the purpose of going solar (save money and
live greener) as shown Fig. 13.4.3(b).
The system is designed to generate the energy in an eco friendly manner with the source from solar
radiation which is available in abundance. The system designed is for 20.00KWp Solar Power Generation
Grid Connecting System. The system does not have any storage for standby power. The solar PV array
will have 80 no‘s of 250Wp crystalline solar modules. These modules will be connected in series /
parallel combination through Optimizers to the desired string configuration as per the design
parameters of the PCU. The PCU is of 17KVA capacity with three phases AC Output. Grid power supply
is provided to support the loads and to reduce the grid power consumption when solar power is available.

The power generated from solar array is fed into the PCU through Optimizer and being inverted
by the PCU (Vac). This voltage is being combined with standard grid supply to the phases (R/Y/B)
and will lead the power factor of the inverter supply by comparing the grid power factor. So the
solar generated power will always be preferred by the leading power factor and rest of the power
will be used from the grid as required by the load. If the load demand is lesser than the solar power
generated, the balance power may be exported to grid and customer may get feed-in benefit as per the
policies of the local electricity board. This system is working in the principal of power factor
comparison and the system will feed the power either to load or grid through grid power supply.
That means loads will be indirectly connected with the solar system. So, if the grid supply is not
available at any moment the solar system will shut OFF immediately. We can only use sunlight
directly to the load whenever the grid power is available. The system will shuts OFF at the time of low
intensity or no sun light and restarts automatically when the sunlight is available. The proposed
system does not required any dedicated loads or separate wiring to work on. At the time of power failure
if the customer turns ON the diesel generator (DG), the solar system will run and pushes the energy back
to the DG. To avoid this reverse current situation, the DG rating should be atleast be 4 to 5 times higher
rating than the proposed solar power plant rating.

The above technologies are mainly used on roof tops of commercial and residential buildings, and as
large scale grid connected power plants. For optimum output, larger installations use tracking devices

17
which change the orientation of the panels to correspond with the trajectory of the sun to focus sunlight
directly onto the panels.

System Details:

i). Solar PV Modules: PV PowerTech, ECO 250Wp

– Polycrystalline Quantity: 80 Nos. (80 x 250 = 2000kWp).
- Solar PV Module exposed to the sunlight converts it into DC energy.

ii). Optimizer: Solar Edge Power Optimizer (OP MV 600W)– 600W Quantity - 40 Nos.
- The power optimizer is a DC/DC converter connected to Solar PV modules to increase the
energy output from PV systems by constantly tracking the maximum power point (MPPT) for one
or more modules individually

iii). PCU / Inverter: Solar Edge SE17K-ER-01 Grid connected system, 3 Phase -AC Output- 1
No
- The inverter responsible for DC to AC inversion

iv). The output of the inverter is connected to the AC Panel through a proper AC Protection.
v). Inter connecting cables are used to interconnect solar PV components like Solar Modules,
Junction Boxes, & Inverter.

13.4.3.2 Solar Thermal Power Plants

Solar Thermal Power plants produce electricity by converting the solar radiation into high temperature
heat using mirrors and reflectors. The collectors are referred to as the solar-field. This energy is used to
heat a working fluid and produce steam. Steam is then used to rotate a turbine or power an engine to drive
a generator and produce electricity. All CSP plants are based on four basic essential systems which are
collector, receiver (absorber), transport / storage and power conversion. Parabolic Trough, Solar towers,
Parabolic Dishes and Linear Fresnel Reflectors are the four main technologies that are commercially
available today. The details are shown in Fig. 13.4.3(b).

i).Parabolic Trough: Parabolic trough shaped mirrors collect and reflect the solar energy onto
receiver tubes positioned along the focal line of parabolic mirrors. The troughs are usually
designed to track the Sun along one axis, predominantly north–south. Heat transfer fluids, such as
synthetic thermal oil suitable for temperatures up to 400 °C, circulating through the tubes are
used to generate steam through heat exchangers and steam generators and drive turbine to
generate electricity through a steam cycle. This is a well established and proven CSP technology.

ii).Solar Towers: A circular array of heliostats concentrates sunlight on to a central receiver

mounted at the top of a tower. The heliostats tack the sun on two axes. The central receiver can
achieve very high concentrations of solar irradiation thus resulting in extremely high temperature
for the operating fluid. A heat-transfer medium in this central receiver absorbs the highly
concentrated radiation reflected by the heliostats and converts it into thermal energy, which is
used to generate superheated steam for the turbine through the Rankine cycle. Brayton cycle
systems are also under testing because of the higher efficiencies. Spain has several solar tower
systems operating or under construction, up to 20 MW capacity.

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 Figure 13.4.3(b): Solar Thermal Technology

iii).Parabolic Dish: The parabolic shaped dish tracks the sun, through a two axis movement, onto
a thermal receiver mounted at the focal point. The concentrated beam radiation is absorbed into a
receiver to heat a fluid or gas to approximately 750°C. This fluid or gas is then used to generate
electricity in a small piston or Stirling engine or a micro turbine.

Dish technology produces relatively small amount of electricity compared to other CSP
technologies – typically in the range of 10 to 25 kW which results in high capital costs.

iv).Linear Fresnel Reflectors: Use reflectors made of several slices of mirrors with small
curvature approximating a parabola. Mirrors are mounted on trackers and configured to reflect
sunlight onto elevated linear reflectors. Water flows through the receivers and is converted into
steam and the intermediate heat transfer fluid is not required. These systems have lower
investment costs and also lower optical performance as compared to parabolic trough collectors.
This technology is still in the developmental stage.

13.5 Summary
From the study of the chapter, it is found that energy which is collected from Renewable
Resources:
i.) Such as: sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves, and geothermal heat, that are naturally
replenished on timescale.
ii.) Renewable energy often provides energy in four important areas: electricity generation,
air and water heating/cooling, transportation, and rural (off-grid) energy services.
iii.) More than 80% power energy will be replenished from Renewable energy by 2050
globally.
iv.) Solar Power generation in India has biggest source of Renewable Energy and in near
future India will be surplus for Power energy as India is blessed with sunshine 300 days
in year and has bigger plan to cater 300-400 GW by 2050.
v.) Wind Energy globally has also tremendous scope in many country by adopting latest
technology.

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13.6 Key terms with Definition
Renewable Energy: Renewable energy is the energy obtained from natural renewable resources such as
sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves, microbial biomass and geothermal heat.

Clean Energy: Clean energy may have a specific definition in our mind - we may think it's synonymous
with 'renewable energy' (i.e. wind energy, solar energy, hydro energy and geothermal energy) but to
some, clean energy also means nuclear energy that does not pollute the atmosphere while in use.

Geothermal Power: The geothermal energy is extracted from heat, stored under the earth‘s crust. This
power source of energy is more cost effective, reliable, sustainable and environmentally friendly.

Wind Power: Wind power is use of air flow through wind turbines to mechanically power generators for
electric power. Wind power is a substitution alternative to burning fossil fuels produces no Greenhouse
Gas during operation; no water consumes, and uses little land.

Solar Power: Solar energy is being used by humans since beginning of mankind. Three types of solar
energy such as passive solar energy, active solar energy and solar energy are generated by converting
solar radiation into electricity using photovoltaic cells. Photovoltaic cells convert light into an electric
current using the photovoltaic effect.

Hydroelectric Power: To produce electricity from Hydro-power, hydroelectric dams are used. Hydro-
power or water power is generated by power derived from falling water or fast running water turning
large turbines by moving water to generate electricity. In this technique, flowing water move turbines that
generate electricity.

Tidal Power: Tidal power is a type of hydro-power. The rising tides fill a damned reservoir and then as
the tide lowers; water is then released through turbine that produces electricity.

Wave Power: Wave power involves extracting energy from the surface motion of waves or from the
pressure fluctuations below the surface caused by waves. This technology is promising as well, and is
similar to that of wind energy, in that large turbines are used similar to wind turbines; however they must
be built stronger to sustain the pressures of being underwater, not to mention shielding the electrical
apparatus within them from the water.

Biomass: Biomass is biological material from recently living or currently living organisms such as trees
and landfill gasses and alcohol fuels creating from crops such as corn. Burning grease or ethanol derived
from corn to run a vehicle are two common examples of biomass energy production. Here are the Biomass
advantages and disadvantages to see more on this type of energy.

13.7 Review Questions

1. What is Renewable and Clean Energy? Describe the both separately, if any thin difference is there.
2. What are the different types of Renewable Energy and how much contribution each adding in
Power Generation?
3. What about geothermal energy and how it adds to Green Energy-Explain?

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 4. Describe the advantages of Renewable Energy over fossil fuels in detail?
5. What is Wind Energy and how it functions. Explain its technology.
6. How the Solar Energy works-Explain? Describe the types of Solar Energy.
7. What is the difference between off and on grid solar power generations?
8. Give some high-lights on Tidal and Wave power generation.

13.8 Projects / Team Assignments

1. Prepare a Project on Solar Power generation adding Photovoltaic and Solar Heating? Find out the
efficiency of each model separately.
2. Prepare a Project which can be utilized mini-hydro-generation using canal.
3. Prepare a team assignment for the effectiveness of Wind Power smart cities.

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