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2
■ Tighter dimensional tolerances than avoid non-standard production and
industry standards are difficult to erection tolerances
achieve. Connections which require ■ Plan for the shortest possible crane
close-fitting parts without provision for hook-up time
Arrows indicate
adjustment should be avoided. possible freedom
■ Provide for field adjustment
■ Inserts used for lifting should not be of movement ■ Use connections that are not susceptible
easily confused with inserts of a lesser in fixings to damage in handling
capacity used as tiebacks or other (in plane of panel) ■ Ensure the panel has stability when the
purposes. crane is unhooked and allow for late
■ Precast concrete manufacturers should No adjustment for correct alignment
movement
be allowed to use alternative details, ■ Locate connections so that they may be
methods or materials, provided the Joints between installed on a single floor and don’t
design requirements are met. These will panels require work parties on two floors at
often result in the most economical and once.
best-performing connections. ELEVATION
CLADDING PANEL CONNECTIONS
Construction Simplicity Much of the Figure 1 Typical panel fixings There are a number of important principles
advantage of precast, prestressed concrete that should be followed in the design of
construction is due to the possibility of connections for precast cladding units:
rapid erection of the structure. To fully Adjustment in the field is accomplished ■ Panel connections must resist the self-
realize this benefit, and to keep costs through the use of slotted or oversize weight of the panel in combination with
within reasonable limits, field connections holes for bolts and dowels, field welding, the external forces imposed on it. The
should be kept as simple as possible. The shims and grout. primary external forces arise from wind
following is a list of items that should be ■ Connections should be planned so that and earthquake. Induced forces may also
considered during the selection, design they are accessible either from the arise from movement of the building
and detailing of connections to facilitate completed structure or a stable deck or frame and panel creep or shrinkage.
speedy and safe erection: platform. The type of equipment Temperature variation will also cause
■ Hoisting the precast elements is usually panels to bow and move axially, giving
necessary to perform such operations
the most expensive and time-critical as welding, post-tensioning, or pressure rise to restraint forces. All these forces
process of erection. Connections grouting should be considered. can be calculated with reasonable
should be designed so that the element Operations which require working under accuracy and resisted or dispersed by
can be lifted, set, and unhooked in the a deck in an overhead position should simple detailing. Generally bowing and
shortest possible time. Before the crane be avoided, especially for welding. axial movement nearly compensate for
can be unhooked, the precast element Room to place wrenches on nuts and each other and the small dimensional
must be in its final position, stable and swing them in a large arc should be change is absorbed by the fixing.
secure. Precast elements such as provided for bolts. Dry-packing column ■ The panel should be attached to the
double tees and hollow-core slabs are or wall panel bases in a narrow building frame so as to reduce the effects
inherently stable and require no excavation is difficult. of any induced forces. This means that
additional connections before releasing ■ the panel should be supported in a
Materials such as grout, dry-pack,
the crane. Others, such as columns, statically determinate manner. Thus
cast-in-place concrete, and epoxies
deep beams, wall panels and single tees there should be no more than two
need special provisions if they are to be
usually require some supplementary supports and two restraints. Supports
placed in cold weather. Welding will
shoring, guying, or fastening before the and restraints should be as far apart
require special precautions when the
crane can be unhooked. Pre-planning vertically as the panel dimensions and
ambient temperature is low. Connections
for the fewest and quickest possible structure permit; small lever arms allow
should be designed so that delays due
operations that must be performed out-of-plane rotation.
to inclement weather are avoided.
before releasing the crane will greatly ■ The entire weight of the unit is carried
■ Reinforcing bars, steel plates, dowels,
facilitate erection. at the one level. The restraint fixings
and bolts that project from the precast
In some cases, it may be necessary to should preferably be accessible from
element can be damaged if care is not
provide temporary fasteners or levelling this level for ease of erection. The panel
taken during handling and require
devices, with the permanent connection fixings should be carried in direct
repair. Anchor bolts that project from
made after the crane is released. These bearing if possible. The preferred fixing
cast-in-place footings should be at least
temporary devices must be given system to a building frame consists of
24 mm in diameter so that there is less
careful attention to ensure that they will two concrete haunches and two steel
chance of them being bent. Threads on
hold the element in its proper position restraint angles. This gives a robust but
projecting bolts should be protected
during the placement of all elements flexible attachment of the panel to the
from damage and rust.
that are erected before the final structure. Dowels in the haunches
connection is made. These production and construction resist lateral loads. Clearance holes and
■ A certain amount of field adjustment at considerations can be summarised as: packing at the restraint fixings absorb
the connections is always necessary. ■ Standardise products, details and building tolerances and isolate the
Normal fabrication tolerances will hardware panel from differential movement of the
preclude the possibility of a perfect fit ■ Avoid reinforcement and hardware structure. Other support methods
in the field. This is true not only when congestion substitute steel fabrications for the
the precast elements adjoin each other, ■ Avoid penetration of forms haunch and clips for the restraint angle.
but, even more so, when the precast ■ Reduce post-stripping work ■ Units should be provided with fixings as
elements must interface with insitu ■ Be aware of material sizes and limitations shown in Figure 1. The arrows show
construction. ■ Consider clearances and tolerances and the freedom to movement that can be
3
1 Transfer dead load provided at each of the fixings in the
directly to the 2 Avoid carrying dead plane of the panel. Each of the fixings
structure through load on bolts in shear
bearing must provide resistance to wind and
earthquake forces perpendicular to the
plane of the panel. These may augment
3 Provide only two 4 Provide bearing at one
bearing points gravity forces.
level only, per panel
per panel ■ Connections should be chosen so that
the loads are transferred through the
6 Alternatively,
panel may be connections as simply as possible with
5 Panel should be
bottom-supported middle-supported minimal eccentricities. The design of the
(if possible) component fixing must allow for the
forces and moments in the detailed
8 Bearing support to
7 Panel may also be be tied against lateral design Figure 3.
top-supported forces ■ Connections should allow economical
fabrication of the precast elements. The
9 A bolted connection 10 Provide vertical, hardware should not interfere with
(cleat) is suitable for horizontal and lateral concrete placement, cause finishing
lateral restraint adjustments to all problems nor make it difficult to provide
connections
the specified cover to reinforcement.
Figure 2 Design principles for cladding-panel connections
■ Connection details should be standard-
ised as much as possible. This results
in economy, speed and simplicity during
production and erection, and also
reduces the chance of error.
H ■ Connections should be detailed so that
hoisting equipment can be quickly
released. It may be necessary to provide
e temporary connections that are released
after final adjustments are made.
W = Weight
of panel
h
W
We
H=
h
4
Packer plates as required
Cladding Panel Connection
(lateral and alignment Categories There are many possible
adjustments) combinations of anchors, plates, bolts and
angles, etc to form various connection
Bolt (with plate washer) assemblies. However, there are two basic
through oversize holes categories of panel connections – bearing
into ferrules cast in panel
(vertical and horizontal and restraint.
adjustment)
Bearing Connections Bearing connec-
tions transmit load by direct bearing of one
Cleat plate unit on another or the structure. Particular
care should be taken in the detailing to
prevent cracking in the supported as well
Bolt (with plate washer) as the supporting member.The interface
through oversize holes
into ferrules cast in panel material must cater for the vertical,
(vertical and horizontal horizontal, and rotational forces.
adjustment) Some form of variable-thickness packing
material is necessary to absorb tolerances
(eg mortar or shims).
NOTE: Lower panel must have lateral
High bearing-intensities may be
restraint (eg, a corbel)
developed at edges of a bearing surface due
Figure 5 Restraint connections to deflection and twisting of the supported
member, as well as mismatching of the
bearing surfaces. This can cause cracking
* When standard clips are used in steel-selected buildings,
clips are to be welded to restraint beam to secure panels
and spalling unless they are taken into
in the event of a fire. account or avoided in the design of the
Continuous
angle fixed connection. Chamfered or protected edges
by masonry will alleviate this problem.
anchor
■ Haunches These can be either concrete
or steel. A typical concrete corbel or
haunch cast on a cladding unit is
Raking gable rafter Tie beam flush
against panel shown in Figure 4. It can also be
Continuous angle
Standard clip*
fabricated from a rolled steel section
Standard clip
Standard clip* (2/panel) into (2/panel) into such as an angle or channel, a plate on
(2/panel) into M20 ferrule
M20 ferrule
M20 ferrule edge, or for light-weight units (up to 3t)
STEEL RAFTER STEEL TIE BEAM CONCRETE BEAM a plate on flat.
30 30 30 ■ Angle seat bearing connections Other
R20 dowel
(2/panel) items used to support cladding units
R20 dowel (2/panel) covered by
covered by concrete concrete are steel angles. Depending on the load
100
75 min 20 to be supported, the angle may need to
20 100
min
be stiffened. Note that confinement
Grout
reinforcement is needed around the
Grout 20
Packers embedded ferrules to add ductility to
Packers Packers
and grout
the connection.
STEPPED FOOTING STRIP FOOTING TROUGH FOOTING
HOLLOW CORE WALL PANELS USED IN VERTICAL CONFIGURATION Restraint connections These stabilise
the panel against out-of-balance gravity
Standard clips into M20 ferrules cast in panel.
Top two clips to be welded to column. loads and resist horizontal windloads. For
ease of erection they should preferably be
accessible from the same lever as the
support fixings. The simplest is an angle
Steel columns as in Figures 5. Panel-to-panel restraint
connections can also be used in the
horizontal direction to hold adjacent
panels together.
Hollowcore panel connections
Hollowcore panels are usually
non-loadbearing cladding panels. They
may be single-storey panels spanning
HOLLOW CORE WALL PANELS USED IN HORIZONTAL CONFIGURATION vertically or horizontally and are fixed to
the building frame. The frame can be of
Figure 6 Hollowcore panel connections steel or concrete. Details of typical fixings
at the top and bottom of the panels are
shown in Figure 6.
5
LOADBEARING CONNECTIONS at foundation level. A baseplate bars being discontinuous. Extra ties
COLUMN ELEMENTS The connections of a connection is the quickest to erect. may be required to carry local stresses.
column element must be detailed to carry Plumbing is by adjusting the holding ■ The mixing of the grout must be properly
the required design loads in service and down bolts, the column is immediately controlled to ensure that the design
allow quick and easy erection. There are a stable and the crane can be released. strength is achieved. Premixed and
number of means of splicing or connecting The baseplate is flush with the outside proprietary grouts are the best means of
columns into a structure; the two most of the column for intermediate splices. doing this. The designer should examine
common are by grouted dowels and by In this case the bolts are housed in the products available and specify a
steel base plates. Precast concrete units recesses at the corners of the section. particular product type rather than
are accurately made factory products. ■ Dowelled connections are economical employ generic names such as
Advantage can be taken of this by but require the column to be separately non-shrink grout.
connecting precast to precast. stabilised until grouted. Two or three ■ Core holes may be grouted by pouring
props are required for stability. These directly into access holes in the side of
Column connection detail principles are secured to the main structure and are the column or by pumping into holes
■ The column length between splices adjustable for plumbing of the column. drilled into the duct near the base. This
should be as long as possible to ■ There are a number of techniques for ensures that all air is displaced, see
minimise the number of joints and the forming the dowelled splice. Usually the Figure 7.
number of pieces to be erected. A typical column bars project from the unit below ■ The duct size must be large enough to
length would be 2 stories in multi-storey into core holes formed in the unit above. provide sufficient erection tolerance and
construction. Three stories is a normal This can allow an in-situ floor slab to be clearance and to permit free flow of
maximum. The frame must be braced carried directly on the column with the grout around the bars. Generally, a duct
and not rely on the splice for frame bars projecting through. Proprietary size two and a half to three times the
stability. grout sleeves are available to form the bar diameter is satisfactory. The
■ The connection should be easily core hole, these minimise the bond horizontal joint between units must be
accessible during construction. Locate length required. The column bars may wide enough to provide adequate
it in a zone between floor level and say, also project from each unit and tolerance and to permit free flow of grout
1.5 metres above the floor. The latter connected by welding to splice angles throughout the bearing area. A width of
will place it where bending is a or by fusion. However this requires very 20 to 25 mm is generally adequate.
minimum. Where there is a change in accurate construction. ■ The pressure of the grout at the joint
column section, locate it at floor level. ■ The number of bars to be spliced at the can be considerable. A one-and–a-half
■ The type of connection is selected on joint should be a minimum to avoid metre head will lead to a pressure of
convenience and cost. The most congestion and simplify erection. Eight 36 kPa. Thus the joint needs to be very
convenient is the bolted baseplate; the bars is a practical maximum. Load can securely sealed.
most economical is the grouted pocket. be transferred through the connection
WALL ELEMENTS The design of connec-
The grouted pocket is usually only used by bearing, with most of the column
tions for load bearing wall elements follows
principles similar to those given above for
column units. Loads are transmitted either
by direct bearing or by dowelled connections.
Upper reo bar
Close attention to detail, planning,
Splice sleeve manufacture and site activities is required.
Precast Precast unit Wall unit connection detail principles
column incorporating High-strength
grout ■ Generally the principles given for column
beam
Precast units above apply. Reference should be
beam Shims
made to these.
Dry-pack mortar
■ Load transfer is through grout or dry-
Lower reo bar
packed mortar. Figure 8 shows typical
examples: (a) with the horizontal joint
(a) Full-height column (b) 'T' unit STEEL-SLEEVE SPLICE DETAIL at slab level; (b) similar but with the joint
clear of the floor where it is more
Lapped upper
reo bar
accessible and visible; (c) a thickened
Grout and air out
wall panel where a double row of long
A A dowels provides moment resistance as
well as bearing support.
Upward Downward
■ Lateral joints are left open or are
sleeving sleeving Lower reo bar
Grout in
connected by insitu grout or concrete
Shims infill sections.
■ Hard packers used for levelling during
Dry-pack mortar
Precast unit Precast unit erection must be removed. These create
incorporating incorporating a stress concentration that may lead to
beam beam
Upper reo bar vertical splitting and spalling of the unit.
25
Grouted duct Plastic packers or similar, which can
min Lower reo bar deform under long-term load, should be
(c) Cruciform unit 1 (d) Cruciform unit 2 Section A–A used when they must be left in place.
The packers should be located at points
TYPICAL COLUMN SPLICE CONFIGURATIONS DUCT SPLICE DETAIL
where a stress concentration would be
Figure 7 Typical loadbearing column connections least critical.
6
■ Progressive collapse must be considered must be designed for realistic by permitting small displacements and
in load bearing wall panel construction. eccentricities. rotations.
Providing alternative load paths in the ■ Details for shear connection between There are several materials commonly
structure by continuity of reinforcement panels to form shear walls are shown in available as bearing pads. In some cases,
across joints does this. Figure 9. various grades are available in the same
■ Realistic erection tolerance should be material and they exhibit different properties
provided for. BEARING PADS and behaviour. In case of doubt, consult
■ Loading from floor and roof structure Bearing pads are used to distribute vertical the pad supplier or precast manu-facturer
usually applies eccentric loads on wall loads over the bearing area. Some pads for proper selection of the pad. Most pad
units. Connections and the members also reduce force build-up at the connection manufacturers have technical brochures
available to aid the designer.
Bearing pads typically belong to one of
Grout the following categories:
access ducts Grout ■ Commercial grade elastomeric pads are
access ducts
Dowel bar readily available. However, these pads
Dowel bars exhibit wide variations in shear-
Grout seals
Grout seals deformation characteristics and bearing
Details as strength. These pads are not
for typical
recommended unless performance data
Slab starter panel
bars is available.
■ Structural grade chloroprene pads used
in places where uniform bearing is
Beam starter
bars necessary or when it is desired to reduce
Note: Panel volume change restraints. For high
reinforcement Local thickening
not shown to accomodate compression stresses and/or large
extra dowels horizontal displacements, laminated
(a) TYPICAL PANEL (b) ALTERNATIVE (c) HEAVY-DUTY PANEL pads consisting of layers of elastomer
bonded between steel or fibreglass
Figure 8 Typical loadbearing wall connections plates can be used. Each layer behaves
in compression like an individual pad,
but the shear deformation is a function
B B of the thickness of the total assembly.
Level 3
■ Laminated fabric bearing pads composed
of multiple layers of 190 g/m2 cotton
Detail 'X' fabric with a high quality binder are
Face-sealed
joint generally used where a higher compres-
sive strength is desired.These pads do
Typical not deform as readily as elastomeric
dimensions
Level 2 pads, and thus provide less tolerance of
horizontal movement and rotation than
'Keys' do chloroprene pads.
Typical formed in
panel ■ Pads reinforced with randomly oriented
end of wall 300
A panels fibres have been used successfully in
recent years. Vertical load capacity is
higher than plain chloroprene pads,
Level 1 1
5
but tolerance of rotation and horizontal
movement is somewhat lower than
50 50
A
chloroprene pads. No national standard
specifications are available for this
TYPICAL EXTERNAL SHEAR WALL LAYOUT DETAIL X (ELEVATION) material.
■ A multi-polymer plastic bearing strip is
Grouted keys Face seals
manufactured expressly for bearing
Grout access ducts purposes. It is a commonly used material
for the bearing support of hollow-core
Dowel bar slabs, and is highly suitable for this
Grout seals (a) Unreinforced grouted shear key application. The material has a compres-
(Easier to manufacture) sive strength higher than the typical
design range of concrete used in precast
Grouted keys Reinforcement
Slab starter bars construction. Research has shown that
most of the stress-relieving characteris-
tics of elastomeric bearing pads are due
Note: Panel to slippage instead of pad deformation.
reinforcement
not shown (b) Reinforced grouted shear key Tempered hardboard strips are also used
(If required for strength) with hollow-core slabs to prevent concrete
SECTION A–A SECTION B–B to concrete bearing. However, they should
be used with caution in situations where
Figure 9 Shear wall details moist conditions exist. ■