Lecture on computations methods of areas

Area computation methods

Estimation of areas and volumes is basic to most engineering schemes such as route alignment,
reservoirs, tunnels, etc. The excavation and hauling of material on such schemes is the most
significant and costly aspect of the work, on which profit or loss may depend.
Building costs are often computed on the basis of per square meter of area. The field work
consists of a series of linear and angular measurements defining the outline of a piece of land,
forming a closed polygon. The following are some of the prevalent methods of area
determination:

a. By field measurements: These may be made by dividing the area into geometrical
figures, offsets from base line, double meridian distances and coordinates.
b. By plan measurements: These may be made by computations based on measurements
scaled from plan or by use of a planimeter.

Computation of Area by Geometrical figures

Some of the formulae used for determining the area (A) of various geometric figures are as
follows:
1. Triangle: A = base x half of the perpendicular height
2. Parallelogram: A = base x perpendicular height
3. Trapezoid: A = half of the sides x perpendicular height
4. Trapezium: A = area as found by dividing the figure into two triangles
5. Regular polygon: A = length of perimeter x half of the perpendicular distance of sides
Also,
80
𝐴 = 𝑛𝐿2 /4 × 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 ( )
𝑛
Where n is the number of sides and L is the length of one side.

Area from Offsets

Offsets are made from a base line to an irregular boundary. The irregular field is thus reduced to
a series of trapezoids by the right angled offsets drawn from points at regular intervals along the

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 Lecture on computations methods of areas

base line. There are several formulae to calculate the area of the figures so formed. These
include: Mid-ordinate Rule, Average Ordinate Rule, Trapezoidal rule, and Simpson’s rule
1. Trapezoidal Rule

From the figure above,

(ℎ1 + ℎ2 )
Area of 1st trapezoid ABCD = ×𝑤
2
(ℎ2 + ℎ3 )
Area of 2nd trapezoid BEFC = × 𝑤 and so on.
2

Total area = sum of trapezoids

ℎ1 + ℎ7
=𝐴 = 𝑤( + ℎ2 + ℎ3 + ℎ4 + ℎ5 + ℎ6)
2

N.B.
i. If the first or last ordinate is zero, it must still be included in the equation.
ii. The formula represents the area bounded by the broken line under the curving boundary;
thus, if the boundary curves outside then the computed area is too small, and vice versa.
2. Simpson’s Rule
Simpson’s rule is a numerical method that approximates the value of a definite integral by using
quadratic polynomials.
Let’s first derive a formula for the area under a parabola of equation y = ax 2 + bx + c passing
through the three points: (−h, y0), (0, y1), (h, y2).

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 Lecture on computations methods of areas

Since the points (−h, y0), (0, y1), (h, y2) are on the parabola, they satisfy 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐.
Therefore,

Observe that

Therefore, the area under the parabola is

We consider the definite integral

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 Lecture on computations methods of areas

We assume that f(x) is continuous on [a, b] and we divide [a, b] into an even number n of
subintervals of equal length

Using the n + 1 points

We can compute the value of f(x) at these points.

We can estimate the integral by adding the areas under the parabolic arcs through three
successive points.

By simplifying, we obtain Simpson’s rule formula.

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 Lecture on computations methods of areas

3. Planimeter
The most common mechanical method of measuring areas from paper plans is to use an
instrument called a planimeter. This comprises two arms, JF and JP, which are free to move
relative to each other through the hinged point at J but fixed to the plan by a weighted needle at
F. M is the graduated measuring wheel and P the tracing point. As P is moved around the
perimeter of the area, the measuring wheel partly rotates and partly slides over the plan with the
varying movement of the tracing point as in the figure below. The measuring wheel is graduated
around the circumference into 10 divisions, each of which is further sub-divided by 10 into one-
hundredths of a revolution, whilst a vernier enables readings to one thousandths of a revolution.
The wheel is connected to a dial that records the numbered revolutions up to 10. On a fixed-arm
planimeter one revolution of the wheel may represent 100 mm2 on a 1:1 basis; thus, knowing the
number of revolutions and the scale of the plan, the area is easily computed. In the case of a
sliding-arm planimeter the sliding arm JP may be set to the scale of the plan, thereby facilitating
more direct measurement of the area.

A planimeter

In the normal way, needle point F is fixed outside the area to be measured, the initial reading
noted, the tracing point traversed around the area and the final reading noted. The difference of
the two readings gives the number of revolutions of the measuring wheel, which is a direct
measure of the area. If the area is too large to enable the whole of its boundary to be traversed by
the tracing point P when the needle point F is outside the area, then the area may be sub-divided
into smaller more manageable areas, or the needle point can be transposed inside the area.
As the latter procedure requires the application of the zero circle of the instrument, the former
approach is preferred.
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 Lecture on computations methods of areas

The zero circle of a planimeter is that circle described by the tracing point P, when the needle
point F is at the centre of the circle, and the two arms JF and JP are at right angles to each other.
In this situation the measuring wheel is normal to its path of movement and so slides without
rotation, thus producing a zero change in reading. The value of the zero circle is supplied with
the instrument.
If the area to be measured is greater than the zero circle as in figure (a) below, then only the
tinted area is measured, and the zero circle value must be added to the difference between the
initial and final wheel readings. In such a case the final reading will always be greater than the
initial reading. If the final reading is smaller than the initial reading, then the situation is as
shown in Figure (b) and the measured area, shown tinted, must be subtracted from the zero circle
value.

Measured areas and the zero circle

4. Area by coordinates

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 Lecture on computations methods of areas

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The stations must be lettered clockwise around the figure. If anticlockwise the result will be the
same but has a negative sign.

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