AS1 Notes PDF

www.Vidyarthiplus.
com
BUCKLING OF COLUMN WHEN BOTH ENDS ARE FIXED
AIM:
To find buckling load of column using column test setup arrangement
under both ends are fixed condition.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Column test, load indicator, specimen rod with two end supports.
FORMULA USED:
4π2 EI
ρ = -----------
Cℓ2
ρ Crippling load
E Young’s modulus
I moment of inertia
ℓ Actual length
C constant (varies with end conditions)
EULER’S COLUMN THEORY:

As per Euler’s equation for buckling load of long column based on
bending stress, the effect of direct stress is neglected. This may be justified
with the statement, the direct stress induced in a long column is negligible as
compared to the bending stress.
ASSUMPTION:
• Initially the column is perfectly straight and the load applied in exactly
axial.
• The cross section of column is uniform throughout its length.
• The column material is perfectly elastic homogenous and isotropic and
they obey Hooks law.
• The length of column is very large as compared to its cross-sectional
dimension and the failure occurs due to buckling load.
PROCEDURE:
• Consider a column AB of length ‘ℓ’ fixed at both of its end A & B.
• The column is rotated by hand in order to ensure the fixed support.
• It is positioned to have a complete fixed support.
• The load is gradually applied by rotating the loading wheel connected to
the load cell, intern connected to digital meter.
1
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
• The load indicator is connected with column test setup.

• The load indicator is viewed simultaneously from the display of digital
load indicator.
• Now the column just starts buckling.
• Till the column deflection touches the speared position of span, the load
is being given to the column.
• Now shape of deflection of columns occurred as shown in fig.
meanwhile applied load value approximately coincides with the
theoretical value. Deflection will be noted from the digital meter.
MODEL CALCULATION:
4π2EI
ρ = ------------; where [ℓ = ℓ/4]
ℓ2
For stainless steel -5 mm Diameter
E = 2 × 105 N/mm2
π
I = ---- × d4 mm4 ,where d= 5mm is the dia of shaft
64
ℓ = 1000 mm
4 × π2 × 2 × 105 × π × 54
ρ = ------------------------------------
10002 × 9.81 × 64
ρ = 24.69 Kg
Note: Similarly calculate for 4 mm & 6 mm Diameter rods.
2
BUCKLING OF COLUMNS:
When both ends are fixed before loading
After loading
Young’s
Diameter Length Crippling load
S. No. Specimen modulus
mm mm Kg
N/mm2
1. Stainless steel 2 × 105 4 1000 10.11
2. Stainless steel 2 × 105 5 1000 24.69
3. Stainless steel 2 × 105 6 1000 51.20
Loading column is stopped at this crippling load. This load is known as

buckling load of column.
BUCKLING OF COLUMN WHEN BOTH ENDS – HINGED
AIM:
To final buckling load of column using column test setup arrangement
under both ends are hinged condition.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Column test, load indicator, specimen rod and two various ends supports.
3
FORMULA USED:
πEI
ρ = -----------
Cℓ2
ρ Crippling load
E Young’s modulus of specimen
I moment of inertia
ℓ Actual length
C constant (varies to end conditions)

bending stress, the effect of direct stress is neglected. This may be adjusted
justified with the statement, the direct stress induced in a long column is
negligible as compared to the bending stress.
ASSUMPTION:
• Initially the column is perfectly straight and the load is truly “Avail”.
they obey Hook’s law.
• The length of column is very large as compared with cross-sectional
dimensions and the failure occurs due to buckling load.
PROCEDURE:
• Consider a column AB of length ‘ℓ’ hinged at both of its end A & B.
• The column is rotated by hand in order to ensure the hinged support.
• It is positioned to have cone hinged support.
load cell, intern connected to digital meter.

load indicator.
• Till the column deflection touches the specified position of span, the
load is being given to column.
4
• Now shape of deflection of columns occurs as shown in figure

MODEL CALCULATION:
(i) For Stainless steel:
π2EI
ρ = ------------ = Enter crippling load for strut
ℓ2
E = 2 × 105 N/mm2
π
I = ---- × D4 mm4 where dia of specimen is 5mm.
64
ℓ = 1000mm
π2 × 2 × 105 × 54 × π
ρ = --------------------------------- = 6.17 Kg
10002 × 9.81 × 64
5
Young’s
Length Diameter Cripping load
‘mm’ ‘mm’ Kg
N/mm2
1) Stainless steel 2 × 105 1000 4 2.52
2) Stainless steel 2 × 105 1000 5 6.17
3) Stainless steel 2 × 105 1000 6 12.8
With this crippling load of the column is spring shot. This load is known
as buckling load of column.
Before loading After loading

A P
ℓ ℓ γ δ = deflection
x
B o
P
6
Both ends hinged

Sl. Diameter,d Load,P in Deflection,δ Deflection/Load,
No. 'mm' Load 'Kg' 'N' 'mm' δ/P ∆(δ/P) ∆(δ)
1 4 2.9 28.449 1.8 0.063271117 -0.133806695
2 4 3 29.43 5.8 0.197077812 -0.042974803 -
3 4 3.1 30.41 7.3 0.240052614 -0.094448819 -
4 4 3.2 31.39 10.5 0.334501434 -0.568498858 -2
5 4 3.5 34.33 31 0.903000291 0.903000291
7 5 4.3 42.183 A1= 0.7 B1= 0.016594363 B1-B2= -0.062458665 A1-A2= -

8 5 4.9 48.069 A2= 3.8 B2= 0.079053028 B2-B3= -0.038873857 A2-A3= -
9 5 5.1 50.031 A3= 5.9 B3= 0.117926885 -0.050660898 -
10 5 5.2 51.012 8.6 0.168587783 -0.075332415 -
11 5 5.6 54.936 13.4 0.243920198 -0.035527234 -
12 5 5.8 56.898 15.9 0.279447432 -0.033047346 -
13 5 6.1 59.841 18.7 0.312494778 -0.044284019
14 5 6.2 60.822 21.7 0.356778797 -0.273661099 -1
15 5 6.5 63.765 40.2 0.630439896 -0.030650228 -
16 5 6.8 66.708 44.1 0.661090124 0.661090124 4
18 6 12.4 121.644 5.7 0.046858045 0.002088505 -

19 6 14.8 145.188 6.5 0.04476954 -0.018191424
20 6 17 166.77 10.5 0.062960964 -0.021688308 -
21 6 17.1 167.751 14.2 0.084649272 0.084649272 1
7
RESULT:
Thus buckling load of column was found and compared its value with
theoretical values.
How to Calculate: (For guidance)
8
For Hinged -Hinged : 5mm Diameter
∆(δ)= 0.7-3.8 = -3.1
∆(δ)= 3.8-5.9= -2.1
∆(δ/P)= 0.016-0.079= -0.062
∆(δ/P)= 0.079-0.11= -0.0388
∆(δ/P) -0.062
Ratio = -------- = ---------- = 0.020
∆(δ) -2.1
1 1
Inverse= --------- = ----------- = 49.63
Ratio 0.020
BUCKLING OF COLUMN WHEN ONE END HINGED AND

ONE END FIXED
AIM:
under one end hinged and one end fixed.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Column test, load indicator, specimen rod, Two ends supported.
FORMULA USED:
πEI
ρ = -----------
Cℓ2
ρ Crippling load
I moment of inertia
9
ℓ Actual length

ASSUMPTION:
• Initially the column is perfectly straight and the load applied is truly
axial.
they Obey’s Hooks law.
dimensional and the failure occurs due to buckling load.
PROCEDURE:
• Consider a column AB of length ‘ℓ’ with one end fixed other end
hinged.
• The column cannot be rotated because it is one end fixed end and other
end hinged.
• It is positioned to have a complete supports.

load cell intern to the digital meter.
load indicator.
• Till the column deflection of column occurs as shown in fig. meanwhile
applied load value approximately coincides with the theoretical value.
MODEL CALCULATION:
2π2EI
ρ = ------------ ; [where ℓ = ℓ/2]
ℓ2
for stainless steel
10
E = 2 × 105 N/mn2
π
I = ---- × 54 mm4 where 5 mm is the dia of shaft.
64
ℓ = 1000mm
2π2 × 2 × 105 × π × 54
ρ = ---------------------------------
10002 × 9.81 × 64
ρ = 12.34 Kg
Note: Similarly calculate for 4 mm & 6 mm Diameter rods
11
When one end is hinged and other end’s fixed before loading.
Young’s
Length Dia in Crippling load
‘mm’ mm Kg
N/mm2
1) Stainless steel 2 × 105 1000 4 5.05
2) Stainless steel 2 × 105 1000 5 12.34
3) Stainless steel 2 × 105 1000 6 25.60
Loading column is stopped at crippling load. This load to known as

12
Hinged-Fixed Condition
Sl. Diameter,d Deflection/Load,
No. 'mm' Load 'Kg' Load,P 'N' δ 'mm' δ/P
Deflection,δ δ/ ∆(δ
δ/P)
1 4 4.8 47.088 7.1 0.150781515 -0.05
2 4 5.6 54.936 11.1 0.202053298 -0.0
3 4 5.8 56.898 16.6 0.291750149 -0.16
4 4 6.2 60.822 27.8 0.457071454 -0.1
5 4 6.7 65.727 42.5 0.646614025 0.646
7 5 9.7 95.157 A1= 4.1 B1= 0.043086688 B1-B2= -0.04

8 5 10.5 103.005 A2= 9.3 B2= 0.090286879 B2-B3= -0.0
9 5 11.5 112.815 A3= 13.6 B3= 0.120551345 -0.03
10 5 11.8 115.758 17.6 0.152041328 -0.05
11 5 12.3 120.663 25.4 0.210503634 -0.03
12 5 12.6 123.606 30.7 0.24836982 0.248
14 6 20 196.2 7 0.03567788 -0.00

15 6 23.2 227.592 8.9 0.039105065 -0.00
16 6 23.8 233.478 9.7 0.04154567 2E-0
17 6 24.3 238.383 9.9 0.041529807 0.000
18 6 25.8 253.098 10.3 0.040695699 0.040
13
RESULT:
Thus the buckling load of column as found and compared with its
theoretical value.
For Fixed- Fixed: 5mm Diameter
14
∆(δ)= 4.1 - 9.3 = - 5.2
∆(δ)= 9.3 – 13.6 = -4.3
∆(δ/P)= 0.04 – 0.09 = -0.047
∆(δ/P)= 0.09 – 0.12 = -0.03
∆(δ/P) -0.047
Ratio = -------- = ---------- = 0.009
∆(δ) -5.2
1 1
Inverse= --------- = ----------- = 110.16
Ratio 0.009
15
DETERMINATION OF YOUNG’S MODULUS OF ALUMINIUM BY

DEFLECTION METHOD
Aim:
To determine the Young’s modulus of Aluminium specimen by conducting
deflection on simply supported beam.
Apparatus Required:
Beam test set up, simply supported beam, weights, dial gauge 1 No. – one hook
measuring tape.
M. Steel beam wts-500gm-2 Nos.
Formula:
The equation for Young’s Modulus from the deflection of a flat rectangular
section beam of the materials simply supported and loaded at the centre is given
by
E Young’s modulus in N/mm2
Fa2(3L - 4a)
δ = -------------------
48 EI
bd3
I Moment of inertia of beam in mm4 I= ------ mm4
12
δ = Deflection of beam in mm Yc (measured in dial gauge)

W measured mass of weight in Kg
g 9.81 acceleration due to gravity m/sec2.
L Distance between supports point (1000mm for guidance).
a Distance from support end to loading point ( 450mm for guidance)
b = breadth = 25mm
d = depth = 6mm
16
Both ends fixed
Sl. Diameter, d Load Load,P in Deflection, δ Deflection/Load, Ratio,
No. 'mm' 'Kg' 'N' 'mm' ∆(δ) δ/P ∆(δ/P) [∆(δ/P)]/[∆(δ)] Inverse
1 4 7.7 75.537 36 -4 0.476587633 0.042814019 -0.010703505 -93.4273421
2 4 9.4 92.214 40 -4 0.433773614 -0.014748303 0.003687076 271.2176471
3 4 10 98.1 44 -5 0.448521916 -0.031757234 0.006351447 157.4444444
4 4 10.4 102.024 49 -4 0.48027915 -0.029404846 0.007351211 136.032
5 4 10.6 103.986 53 53 0.509683996 0.509683996 0.009616679 103.986
B1= B1-B2=
0.16369413 -0.097518918
7 5 13.7 134.397 A1= 22 A1-A2= -19 0.005132575 194.8339914
B2= B2-B3=
0.261213048 0.012034205
8 5 16 156.96 A2= 41 A2-A3= -3 -0.004011402 -249.289412
B3=
0.249178842 -0.001742509
9 5 18 176.58 A3= 44 -4 0.000435627 2295.54

10 5 19.5 191.295 48 -3 0.250921352 -0.009017486 0.003005829 332.6869565
11 5 20 196.2 51 51 0.259938838 0.259938838 0.00509684 196.2
13 6 15.5 152.055 31 -3 0.203873598 0.046334909 -0.01544497 -64.746

14 6 22 215.82 34 -2 0.15753869 0.025057651 -0.012528825 -79.8159413
15 6 27.7 271.737 36 -3 0.132481039 0.005871638 -0.001957213 -510.930647
16 6 31.4 308.034 39 -4 0.1266094 0.006847587 -0.001711897 -584.147378
17 6 36.6 359.046 43 43 0.119761813 0.119761813 0.002785158 359.046
17
RESULT:
Thus buckling load of column was found and compared its value with theoretical value.
18
∆(δ)= 22-41 = -19
∆(δ)= 41 - 44= -3
∆(δ/P)= 0.163 – 0.261 = - 0.0975
∆(δ/P)= 0.261 – 0.249 = -0.012
∆(δ/P) -0.0975
Ratio = -------- = ---------- = 0.0051
∆(δ) -19
1 1
Inverse= --------- = ----------- = 194.83
Ratio 0.0051
19
BUCKLING OF COLUMN WHEN BOTH ENDS – HINGED
AIM:
under both ends are hinged condition.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Column test, load indicator, specimen rod and two various ends supports.
FORMULA USED:
πEI
ρ = -----------
Cℓ2
ρ Crippling load
I moment of inertia
ℓ Actual length

bending stress, the effect of direct stress is neglected. This may be adjusted
justified with the statement, the direct stress induced in a long column is
negligible as compared to the bending stress.
ASSUMPTION:
• Initially the column is perfectly straight and the load is truly “Avail”.
they obey Hook’s law.
• The length of column is very large as compared with cross-sectional
dimensions and the failure occurs due to buckling load.
PROCEDURE:
• Consider a column AB of length ‘ℓ’ hinged at both of its end A & B.
• The column is rotated by hand in order to ensure the hinged support.
• It is positioned to have cone hinged support.
20

load cell, intern connected to digital meter.
load indicator.
• Till the column deflection touches the specified position of span, the
load is being given to column.
• Now shape of deflection of columns occurs as shown in figure
MODEL CALCULATION:
(ii) For Stainless steel:
π2EI
ρ = ------------ = Enter crippling load for strut
ℓ2
E = 2 × 105 N/mm2
π
I = ---- × D4 mm4 where dia of specimen is 5mm.
64
ℓ = 1000mm
π2 × 2 × 105 × 54 × π
ρ = --------------------------------- = 6.17 Kg
10002 × 9.81 × 64
21
Young’s
Length Diameter Cripping load
‘mm’ ‘mm’ Kg
N/mm2
1) Stainless steel 2 × 105 1000 4 2.52
2) Stainless steel 2 × 105 1000 5 6.17
3) Stainless steel 2 × 105 1000 6 12.8
With this crippling load of the column is spring shot. This load is known
as buckling load of column.
Before loading After loading

A P
ℓ ℓ γ δ = deflection
x
B o
P
22
Both ends hinged
Sl. Diameter,d Load,P in Deflection,δ
δ Ratio,
No. 'mm' Load 'Kg' 'N' 'mm' Deflection/Load, δ/P
δ/ ∆(δ
δ/P) ∆(δδ) [∆
∆(δ
δ/P)]/[∆
∆(δ
δ)] Inverse
1 4 3.5 34.335 33 -7 0.961118392 -0.111900546 0.015985792 62.55554795
2 4 3.8 37.278 40 -9 1.073018939 -0.116243718 0.012915969 77.42353846
3 4 4.2 41.202 49 -9 1.189262657 -0.154449696 0.017161077 58.2714
4 4 4.4 43.164 58 -8 1.343712353 -0.057918636 0.007239829 138.1248
5 4 4.8 47.088 66 66 1.401630989 1.401630989 0.021236833 47.088
A1= B1= B1-B2= A1-A2=

22 0.345016859 -0.179229537 -14
7 5 6.5 63.765 0.01280211 78.112125
A2= B2= B2-B3= A2-A3=
36 0.524246396 -0.100965973 -10
8 5 7 68.67 0.010096597 99.04326923
A3= B3=
46 0.625212368 -0.164797825 -16
9 5 7.5 73.575 0.010299864 97.08865979
10 5 8 78.48 62 0.790010194 -0.055319361 -6 0.009219893 108.4611236
11 5 8.2 80.442 68 0.845329554 0.845329554 68 0.012431317 80.442
18 6 11 107.91 24 -8 0.222407562 -0.038550644 0.004818831 207.5192308

19 6 12.5 122.625 32 -11 0.260958206 -0.076217361 0.006928851 144.3240741
20 6 13 127.53 43 -12 0.337175567 -0.084367588 0.007030632 142.234717
21 6 13.3 130.473 55 -7 0.421543155 -0.046611034 0.006658719 150.1790317
22 6 13.5 132.435 62 62 0.468154189 0.468154189 0.007550874 132.435
23
RESULT:
Thus buckling load of column was found and compared its value with
theoretical values.
24
For Hinged -Hinged : 5mm Diameter
∆(δ)= 22 - 36 = - 14
∆(δ)= 36 – 46 = - 10
∆(δ/P)= 0.345 – 0.524= - 0.179
∆(δ/P)= 0.524 – 0.625= - 0.100
∆(δ/P) - 0.179
Ratio = -------- = ---------- = 0.0128
∆(δ) - 14
1 1
Inverse= --------- = ----------- = 78.11
Ratio 0.0128
25
BUCKLING OF COLUMN WHEN ONE END HINGED AND

ONE END FIXED
AIM:
under one end hinged and one end fixed.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Column test, load indicator, specimen rod, Two ends supported.
FORMULA USED:
πEI
ρ = -----------
Cℓ2
ρ Crippling load
I moment of inertia
ℓ Actual length

ASSUMPTION:
• Initially the column is perfectly straight and the load applied is truly
axial.
they Obey’s Hooks law.
dimensional and the failure occurs due to buckling load.
PROCEDURE:
• Consider a column AB of length ‘ℓ’ with one end fixed other end
hinged.
• The column cannot be rotated because it is one end fixed end and other
end hinged.
26
• It is positioned to have a complete supports.

load cell intern to the digital meter.
load indicator.
• Till the column deflection of column occurs as shown in fig. meanwhile
applied load value approximately coincides with the theoretical value.
MODEL CALCULATION:
2π2EI
ρ = ------------ ; [where ℓ = ℓ/2]
ℓ2
for stainless steel
E = 2 × 105 N/mn2
π
I = ---- × 54 mm4 where 5 mm is the dia of shaft.
64
ℓ = 1000mm
2π2 × 2 × 105 × π × 54
ρ = ---------------------------------
10002 × 9.81 × 64
ρ = 12.34 Kg
Note: Similarly calculate for 4 mm & 6 mm Diameter rods
27
When one end is hinged and other end’s fixed before loading.
Young’s
Length Dia in Crippling load
‘mm’ mm Kg
N/mm2
1) Stainless steel 2 × 105 1000 4 5.05
2) Stainless steel 2 × 105 1000 5 12.34
3) Stainless steel 2 × 105 1000 6 25.60
Loading column is stopped at crippling load. This load to known as

28
Hinged-Fixed Condition
Sl. Diameter,d Deflection/Load, Ratio,
No. 'mm' Load 'Kg' Load,P 'N' Deflection,δ
δ 'mm' δ/P
δ/ δ/P)
∆(δ ∆(δ
δ) [∆
∆(δ
δ/P)]/[∆
∆(δ
δ)] Inverse
1 4 5.7 55.917 47 -8 0.840531502 -0.078570786 0.009821348 101.8190149
2 4 6.1 59.841 55 -8 0.919102288 -0.116707123 0.01458839 68.5476582
3 4 6.2 60.822 63 -6 1.035809411 -0.046288919 0.00771482 129.6206557
4 4 6.5 63.765 69 -16 1.08209833 -0.121322216 0.007582639 131.8802154
5 4 7.2 70.632 85 85 1.203420546 1.203420546 0.014157889 70.632
B1= B1-B2= A1-A2=

0.009801615 -0.03413666 -4
7 5 10.4 102.024 A1= 1 0.008534165 117.1760792
B2= B2-B3= A2-A3=
0.043938276 -0.057998524 -7
8 5 11.6 113.796 A2= 5 0.008285503 120.6927273
B3=
0.101936799
9 5 12 117.72 A3= 12 -0.048461757 -6 0.008076959 123.8089655
10 5 12.2 119.682 18 0.150398556 -0.053475042 -8 0.00668438 149.6025

11 5 13 127.53 26 0.203873598 0.203873598 26 0.007841292 127.53
14 6 16.1 157.941 26 -9 0.164618433 -0.022176748 0.002464083 405.8304619

15 6 19.1 187.371 35 -3 0.186795182 0.012308769 -0.004102923 -243.7286836
16 6 22.2 217.782 38 -4 0.174486413 -0.010853222 0.002713305 368.5541538
17 6 23.1 226.611 42 -5 0.185339635 -0.019405218 0.003881044 257.6626531
18 6 23.4 229.554 47 47 0.204744853 0.204744853 0.004356273 229.554
29
RESULT:
Thus the buckling load of column as found and compared with its theoretical
value.
30
∆(δ)= 1 - 5= - 4
∆(δ)= 5 - 12 = - 7
∆(δ/P)= 0.0098 – 0.043 = - 0.034
∆(δ/P)= 0.043 – 0.101 = - 0.057
∆(δ/P) - 0.034
Ratio = -------- = ------------ = 0.0085
∆(δ) -4
1 1
Inverse= --------- = ----------- = 117.17
Ratio 0.0085
YOUNG’S MODULUS USING ELECTRICAL STRAIN GAUGE
OBJECTIVE: By using electrical strain gauge, find out young’s modulus for
different materials like MS, SS, aluminum.
INTRODUCTION:
Digital Strain indicators are mainly a Strain gauge signal conditioner and
amplifier used to measure strain due to load applied on the material. The strain
gauge bonded on the material used as the transducer to measure the strain on the
material. Strain gauge is connected to the arms of Whetstones Bridge Where any
imbalance in the bridge due to change in the resistance is measured in term of
micro strain gauges.
31
Strain indicator is a complete system which can be used for measurement of

strain using strain gauges. This has inbuilt calibration system and gauge factor
setting arrangements for different strain gauges. The system also has full, half,
and quarter bridge settings facility. The strain indicator is provided with zero
balancing facility through course and fine adjusting potentiometer. Gauge factor
of the strain gauge can be adjusted through potentiometer provided on the front
panel. Digital display will enable to take error free readings.
Digital indicators finds wide applications in all process control stations, chemical
industries, Research Laboratories, Educational institutions etc.. An extensive use
of linear and digital integrated circuits will enable to achieve high accuracy,
stability and trouble free service.
The digital indicator comprises of four parts.

1. Power Supply 2. Signal conditioning 3. Amplifier 4. Analog and digital
converter.
The inbuilt regulated power supply used will provide sufficient power to
electronic parts and also excitation voltage to the strain gauge bridge transducers.
The signal conditioners Buffers the output signals of the transducers. Amplifier
will amplifies the buffered output signal to the required level where it is
calibrated to required unit. Analog to digital converter will convert the calibrated
analog output to digital signals and display through LED's.
THEORY BEHIND IT:
When a material is subjected to any external load, there will be small change in
the mechanical properties of the material. The mechanical property may be,
change in the thickness of the material or change in the length depending on the
nature of load applied to the material. This change in mechanical properties will
remain till the load is released. The change in the property is called strain in the
material or the material gets strained. So the material is mechanically strained,
this strain is defined as ' The ratio between change in the mechanical property to
the original property'.
32
Suppose a beam of length L is subjected to a tensile load of P Kg the material

gets elongated by a length of dl so according to the definition strain S is given by
S = ∆L / L Eq 1
Since the change in the length of the material is very small it is difficult to
measure dl. So the strain is always read in terms of micro strains. Since it is
difficult to measure the length Resistance strain gauges are used to measure strain
in the material directly.
Strain gauges are bonded directly on the material using special adhesives. As the
materials get strained due to load applied, the resistance of the strain gauge
changes proportional to the load applied. This change in resistance is used to
convert mechanical property in to electrical signal which can be easily measured
and stored for analysis.
The change in the resistance of the strain gauge depends on the sensitivity of the
strain gauge. The Sensitivity of strain gauges are usually expressed in terms of a
gauge factor Sg where Sg is given as
∆Rg / Rg = Sg ε Eq 2
Where ε is Strain in the direction of the gauge length.
The output ∆Rg / Rg of a strain gauge is usually converter in to voltage signal

with a Whetstones bridge, If a single gauge is used in one arm of whetstones
bridge and equal but fixed resistors is used in the other arms, the output voltage is
Eo = Ei / 4 (∆Rg / Rg) Eq 3
Substituting Eq 2 into Eq 3 gives
Eo = 1/4 (Ei Sg ε) Eq 4
The input voltage is controlled by the gauge size (the power it can dissipate) and
the initial resistance of the gauge. As a result, the output voltage Eo usually
ranges between 1 to 10 µ V and micro units of strain.
33
CIRCUIT EXPLANATION
The circuit comprises of three parts:

1. POWER SUPPLY
2. SIGNAL CONDITIONING AND AMPLIFYING
3. ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER
1. POWER SUPPLY:
Inbuilt power supply use power to all electronic devices inside the circuitry. High
stable regulated Power supply is used for better performance. There is different
power supply inside the unit.
(+5) - 0 – (-5) V 500mA to drive Digital integrated Circuitry &Drive A To D

Converter Display unit
1.2 V to 10 V variable power supply for strain gauge excitation and to

set gauge factor of the strain gauge.
2. SIGNAL CONDITIONING AND AMPLIFYING.
Signal conditioner will process the output of transducer and presents a linear DC
Voltage to the amplifier. This circuit will also buffer the inputs signal given to
the differential amplifier.
The operational amplifier is used as a differential amplifier where the signal gets
amplified to required level.
The amplifier gives out the analog output.
This output is controlled and calibrated to get the linear to micro strain. This
analog output is fed to the A to D converter.
3. ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER.
34
The output from the amplifier is a linearised analog DC voltage. This analog
output is converted into digital output with the help of IC 7107 3.5 digit 200mA
A to D converter. Then it is displayed through seven segmented LEDs.
SPECIFICATION:
DISPLAY RANGE: 3 1/2 digit RED LED display to +/-1999 micro strain
ACCURACY: +/-1 % of FSD
ZERO: Potentiometer to balance the bridge and to make the

Display read ‘000’ Separate zero is provided for all
the three channels
CAL: To calibrate the Unit in micro strains.
SELECTOR SWITCH: Select the required channel
POWER ON: Switch on or off the instrument
BRIDGE EXCITATION: 10 V DC
BRIDGE CONFIGURATIONS: Full
POWER: 230 V +/- 10% at 50Hz. with perfect grounding.
OPERATING PROCEDURE:
FOR MS
* Check connection made and Switch ON the instrument by toggle switch at the
front panel (power on). The meter glows to indicate the instrument is ON.
* Allow the instrument in ON Position for 10 minutes for initial warm-up.
* Select the beam by using the selector switch.
35
* The channel 1, 2, 3 selector switch should be in the channel 1.

* Adjust the ZERO Potentiometer (MS) in the front panel till the display reads
“000”.
* Apply load on the Cantilever beam in steps of 200 gm and observe the readings
& tabulate the readings.
FOR SS
* Check connection made and Switch ON the instrument by switch at the front
panel (power on).
The Display glows to indicate the instrument is ON.

* Adjust the ZERO Potentiometer (SS) in the front panel till the display reads
“000”by operating clock/anti clock wise direction by using small screw driver.
FOR Al
* Check connection made and Switch ON the instrument by switch at the front
panel (power on).
The Display glows to indicate the instrument is ON.

* Adjust the ZERO Potentiometer (Al) in the front panel till the display reads
“000”by operating clock/anti clock wise direction by using small screw driver.
TABLE OF READINGS: A
36
LOAD B
LOAD INDICATIO READING
SL. NO. IN Kg
C
MS SS AL
1 0.2
A- MILD STEEL
2 0.4
B- STAINLESS STEEL
3 0.6 C- ALUMINIUM
4 0.8
5 1
Formulae:
To find young’s modulus
A = Area = B×T mm2
T =5
B = 25
B= Breath of the Beam in mm= 25 mm
T= Thickness of the beam in mm = 5mm
L= Length of the beam from fixed point to loading point in mm = 250 mm
SECTION MODULUS ‘Z’

Z = (1/6) ×BT2 mm3
BENDING STRESS ‘σ’

BM where,
σ = --------- BM = BENDING MOMENT
Z =P× Beam length Kgmm
P = load in Kg
2
σ in Kg/mm Kg/mm×9.81= N/mm
σ
Ym = E= ------
ε
37
Where,
ε = Actual strain measured
GRAPH:
Bending stress
σ
ε (actual strain)
STANDARD YOUNGS MODULUS OF MATERIAL:
MILD STEEL=200 Gpa
STAINLESS STEEL = 190 Gpa
ALUMINIUM = 70Gpa
38
TABLE OF READING AND CALCULATIONS:
SL. LOAD LOAD INDICATIO BENDING

SECTION MODULUS Z BENDING STRESS YOUNGS MODULUS×109
NO. IN Kg READING LENGTH
MS SS AL MS SS AL MS SS AL MS SS AL
1 0.2 24 25 67 104.1666667 104.1667 104.1667 250 4.71 4.71 4.71 196.2 188.352 70.2806
2 0.4 48 50 133 104.1666667 104.1667 104.1667 250 9.42 9.42 9.42 196.2 188.352 70.80902
3 0.6 73 74 202 104.1666667 104.1667 104.1667 250 14.13 14.13 14.13 193.5123 190.8973 69.93267
4 0.8 97 99 270 104.1666667 104.1667 104.1667 250 18.84 18.84 18.84 194.1773 190.2545 69.76
5 1 121 123 337 104.1666667 104.1667 104.1667 250 23.54 23.54 23.54 194.5785 191.4146 69.8635
Avg 194.9336 189.8541 70.12916
GUIDANCECALCULATIONS FOR MS:

A = Area = B×T mm2
=25×5 =125 mm2 T
B
B= Breath of the Beam in mm =25mm
T= Thickness of the beam in mm = 5mm (MS), 5mm (SS), 5mm (Al)
L= Length of the beam from fixed point to loading point in mm =250mm
39

Z = (1/6) ×BT2 mm3
= (1/6) × 25×52=104.16 mm3

BM where,
σ = --------- BM = BENDING MOMENT=P× Beam
length
Z P = load in Kg = 0.1kg
(0.2×9.81=1.962N)
490.5 Nmm BM=0.981×250
= ----------------- =490.5 N-mm
104.16 mm3
= 4.71 N/mm2
σ 4.71×106
Ym = E= ------ =-------------= 0.196=196.21×109 N/m2
ε 24×10-6
Where,
ε = Actual strain measured
40
SL. LOAD LOAD INDICATIO BENDING

SECTION MODULUS Z BENDING S
NO. IN Kg READING LENGTH
MS SS AL MS SS AL MS SS
1 0.2 43 44 123 104.1667 104.1667 104.1667 250 4.71 4.7
2 0.4 88 90 246 104.1667 104.1667 104.1667 250 9.42 9.4
3 0.6 134 135 370 104.1667 104.1667 104.1667 250 14.13 14.1
4 0.8 179 180 493 104.1667 104.1667 104.1667 250 18.84 18.8
5 1 223 226 617 104.1667 104.1667 104.1667 250 23.54 23.5
SAMPLE CALCULATION:
A = Area = B×T mm2
=25×5 =125mm2 T
B
B= Breath of the Beam in mm =25mm
T= Thickness of the beam in mm = 5mm (MS), 5mm (SS), 5mm (Al)
L= Length of the beam from fixed point to loading point in mm =250mm
Z = (1/6) ×BT2 mm3
= (1/6) × 25×52=104.167 mm3
BM where,
σ = --------- BM = BENDING MOMENT=P× Beam
length Kgmm
41
Z P = load in Kg = 0.1kg
(0.2×9.81=1.962N)
490.5 BM=1.962×250
= ----------------- = 490.5Nmm
104.167
= 4.70N/mm2
σ 4.70×106
Ym = E= ------ =-------------= 106.81=106×109N/m2
ε 44×10-6
Where, ε = Actual strain measured

SUSPENDED HINGED BAR BY USING TWO DIFFERENT MATERIAL
WIRES
To determine the forces and the ratio of forces carried by different wire in a
system of a hinged bar suspended by a steel and copper wire experimentally and
compare with the theoretical values.
Statically Indeterminate
A Statically determinate forces system is one in which the values of all the
external forces acting on the body can be determined by the equations of static
equilibrium alone. The forces acting on a body can not be determined by the
equations of equilibrium. Such a case of force system is said to be statically
indeterminate.
Experiment is aimed at finding these unknown forces using simple dial gauges.
A hinged flat suspended by two wires of different materials is an indeterminate

system. It will have one unknown force in each wire and a vertical unknown
reaction at the hinged support. In this case there are only two effective
equations of equilibrium. There are no horizontal forces and hence the system
is indeterminate of order one. To determine the unknown forces ‘this method’
is used, which considers the deformation of the system. The procedure to be
followed in analyzing an indeterminate system is to first to write all equations of
static equilibrium that pertain to the system and then supplement these equations
with other equations based upon the deformation of the structure. Equations
involving deformation will be written so that total number of equations from
42
both statics and deformations is equal to the number of unknown forces

involved.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Hinged bar suspended by Steel and Brass wires of equal length and diameter,
Dial gauges (2 Nos.), weights and pan loading frame.
PROCEDURE:
The hinged flat in suspended using two wires of equal diameter, one of steel and
the other of brass. The flat is suspended horizontally. Two dial gauges are
placed below the point of attachment of each wire. Weights are placed in the
pan in steps of 0.2 kg up to 0.8. Dial gage readings are noted and tabulated.
The first weight of 0.2 kg makes the wires initially straight. Hence the
difference in the dial gauge readings between 0.8 kg and 0.2 kg is taken for the
calculation of load in the wires. Load on each wire is also calculated using
theory from ‘Strength of Materials’ compared with the values obtained from the
dial gage readings. The ratio of the loads on each wire also calculated.
f1 l 1 a1 E1
δ1 -------- f1 = -------- δ1
a1E1 l1
f2 l 2 a2 E2
δ2 = -------- f2 = -------- δ2
a2 E2 l2
l1 + l2= l a1 = a2 = a
E1= steel (young’s modulus) E2 = Brass (Young’s modulus)
S. No. P in kg δ1(STEEL) δ2(BRASS)

1 0.5
2 1
δ1(BRASS) δ2(STEEL)
3 0.5
4 1
The ratio of forces in the Steel and Brass wire is determined experimentally and
theoretically and found agree with near by value. The individual forces on each
43
wire obtained experimentally are higher than the theoretical values due to the
slip of the wire, which also contributes to the dial gage readings.
The wires may be interchanged and repeat the experiment.
f1 Position Steel f2 Position Brass
δ1 δ2
----- = --------
l l
----
2
δ1 = 2δ2
f1 l f2 l
---- = 2 -----
aE1 aE2
f1 E1
---- = 2----- ……………………….(1)
f2 E2
Taking movement @ MA = 0
3L l
W × ----- – f1. l – f2. ---- = 0
4 2
44
3/2 W– 2f1 = f2 ………………………..(2)
substituting in eqn. (1) & E1 = 200 GPa for steel; E2 = 100 GPa for Brass
f1 200
------------------- = 2 × --------
3 100
---- W –2f1
2
f1 = 6W – 8f1
9f1 = 6w
2 w
f1= --- w. & from eqn. (2) f2 = -----
3 6
f1 = f2 = 4 ……………………… (3)
Actual brass young’s modulus is 95.1 × 10-3

Due to commercial ingradients at the time of manufacturing we have to take 100
x 10-3 Gpa
How to calculate f1 = 2/3 w
3
4 ---- (w – 2f1) = f1
2
12
----- w– 8f1 = f1
2
6w – 8f1 = f1
6w = 9f1
6
W ---= f1
9
2
W ----- = f1
3
How to Calculate f2 = w/6
45
f2 = 3 2
----- w - 2 + ---- w
2 3
9w – 8w 1
= -------------- = ----- w =f2
6 6
Interchange the wire position
f1 Position Brass f2 Position Steel
δ1 δ2
----- = -----
l l
----
2
δ1 = 2δ2
f1 l f2 l
---- = 2 -----
aE1 aE2
f1 E1
---- = 2 ----- ……………………….(1)
f2 E2
Taking movement @ MA = 0
3l l
W × ---- – f1. l – f2. ----- = 0
4 2
3
----- W – 2f1 = f2 ……………………….. (2)
2
Substituting in eqn. (1) & E1 = 100 for brass GPa; E2 = 200 for steel GPa
46
f1 100
------------------- = 2 × -------- = 1
3 200
---- w – 2f1
2
3
f1 = ------ (W – 2f1)1
2
3 3 1 W
3f1 = ----- w = ----- × ----- = ------
2 2 3 2
w w
f1= ----- & from eqn. (2) f2 = ----
2 2
f1/ f2 = 1 ……………………… (3)
EXPERIMENTAL CALCULATION:
l1 + l2 = l = mm d1= d2 = 1mm a1 = a2 = (π/4) d2
E1 = MS 200 GPa for steel E2 = (for Brass) GPa 100
S. No. P in kg δ1(STEEL) δ2(BRASS)

1 0.5 44 89
2 1 58 116
δ1(BRASS) δ2(STEEL)
3 0.5 42 79
4 1 59 108
δ1 =44 and δ2 = 89
A1E1 π (1)2 × 200 × 103× δ1

P1 = -------- δ1 = ------------------------------- N
l1 4 l1
47
π (1)2 × 100 × 103× 44

P1= ------------------------------ = 46053.33 N
4×0.15
A2E2 π (1)2 × 100 × 103× δ2

P2 = -------- δ2 = ------------------------------
l2 4×0.15
π (1)2 × 100 × 103× 44

P2= ---------------------------- =46576.66 N
4×0.15
46053.33
P1 / P2 = ------------ = 0.99
46576.66
From theory P1 = P/2 and P2 = P/2
P1/P2 = 1(From the Experiment Ratio of forces must be ≤ to one)
Hence the ratio of forces from the experiment and theory coincides.
VERIFICATION OF CASTINGLIANO’S LOAD THEOREM
Aim:
To verify Castingliano’s theorem for a given simply supported beam on loading.
Apparatus required:
Simply supported beam, dial gauge, structure, tape-load 1 Kg.
Formula used:
• Moment of Inertia,
bd3
I = ----- mm4
12
b = breadth of beam in mm = 25mm

d = width of beam in mm = 6mm
• Deflection of beam δ
W = load applied in Kg =( 9.81 × W) in N
δ = deflection in mm
48
‘ℓ’ = length of the beam – 1000mm
Theory:
Beam subjected to a load system, deflection at paint ‘P’ is given by partial
differential co-efficient of the total strain energy with respect to pressure force
acting at point and in the direction in which the deflection is designed.
The figure shows a beam of span ℓ’ applying load ‘W’.
• Reaction at A, RA = wb/ℓ’. Reaction at B = RB = wa/ℓ.
Procedure:
• Fix the given beam on the frame so that it’s simply supported.
• Mark the point where the beam is loaded measure the distance AC & CB.
AC = a; BC = b
• Load the beam and note down the deflection in dial gauge which as placed as
near to load point.
• Note down the corresponding deflection in dial gauge.
• Calculate moment of inertia and diffusion.
Result:
The deflection under loading on a simply supported beam where theoretical
deflection calculated as follow:
Wa2b2
----------- = δC
3EIℓ
W
A B
C
δC
a b
ℓ
where a = 430mm
b = 570mm (taken).
49
bd3
Where I = ---------- mm4
12
E = M.S → from tables = 2.1 × 105N/mm2 (taken) ℓ = 1000mm
(i) Dial gauge
C
δC Wa2b2
b δC = ----------
a 3EIℓ
ℓ
Compare experiment value to theoretical value of deflection.
Guidance experiment
Sl.
Load (kg) Deflection (Div) Deflection (mm)
No.
1 1 207 2.07
bd3 25(6)3
I = ----- = -------- = 450
12 12
Wa2b2
δthe = ---------
50
3 EIℓ
1 × 9.81 × (430)2 (570)2

= ----------------------------------
3 × 2.1 × 105 × 450 × 1000
δthe = 2.07mm
δprod = 2.07mm.
VERIFICATION OF MAXEWELL’S RECIPROCAL THOEREM
Aim:
To verify Maxewell’s reciprocal theorem for a simply supported beam.
Theory:
Simply supported beam as shown in fig. and calculate the deflection at a point D
when the load P is acting at C. this deflection is obtained by substituting x = d
into equation.
It is seen that this expression does not change if we substitute d for b and b for
d, which indicates that for the case shown in fig. the deflection at D1 is the
same as the deflection at D in Fig. From Fig b we obtain Fig. c by simply
rotating the beam through 180 degrees which brings point C1 into coincidence
with point D and point D1 into coincidence with point C. Hence the deflection
at C in Fig.1C is equal to the deflection at D in Fig.1a. This means that if the
load P is moved from point C to point D, the deflection measured at D in the
first case of loading will now be obtained in the second case at point C. This is
a particular case of the reciprocal theorem.
Fig. 1
51
The reciprocal theorem states that the work done by the forces of the first state
on the corresponding displacements of the second state is equal to the work
done by the forces of the second state on the corresponding displacements of the
first state.
Procedure:
• Measure the length of the given beam.
• The beam is mounted on a simply supported beam end connection.
• Load P at point C.
• Now the dial gauge is fixed at point D.
• Load is gradually applied at point C and note down the deflection by dial
gauge.
Load @ D and dial gauge @ C and repeat the experiment as above note down
the readings.
Weights are used 200gm – 3 Nos.
DEFLECTION DURING INDIVIDUAL LOADING
Load applied Deflection in dial gauge

Sl. No.
gm N Div mm
1
2
3
For simply supported beam
GUIDANCE CALCULATION
The Maxwell’s Reciprocal Theorem for simply supported beam as shown in

Fig. 1 to show the deflection at a point D when the load P is acting at C.
D=30cm P @ D – Dial gauge @ C

b = 44.5cm when Load @ D.
Load at C deflection at D
Sl. No. Load in Kg Deflection in mm
52
1 0.2 0.32
2 0.4 0.64
3 0.6 0.94
Load at D deflection at C
Sl. No. Load in Kg Deflection in mm

1 0.2 0.32
2 0.4 0.64
3 0.6 0.94
Result:
The Maxwell Reciprocal theorem is proved.
VERIFICATION OF PRINCIPLE OF SUPER POSITION
Aim:
To verify the principle of super position by simply supported Alluminium beam.
Apparatus required:
Simply supported beam, meter scale, dial gauge – 1 No., 2 hooks, slotted
weight 200gm – 3 Nos.
Theory:
Deflection by combined loading is equal to sum of the deflection by individual
loading.
The total deformation is equal to the algebraic sum of the deformation is equal
of the individual section. This principle of finding out the resultant deformation
is known as principle of super position.
Procedure:
• Both side Hinged condition.
• Fix the beam on the frame.
• The distance between supports in measured and it is taken as span length ‘ℓ’.
• Dial gauge is mounted middle of the two loading hook.
• Two points ‘C’ & ‘D’ are selected near by mid span to get accurate readings.
• At point ‘C’ load is applied gradually in terms of 200gm and for every load
corresponding deflection reading to be noted.
• The above procedure is followed to ‘D’ position and take the reading of
individual loading.
• Now all the individual loads to determine the combined load by loading in C
& D and note down the deflection.
53
Deflection by combined loading is equal to some of the deflection by individual

loading.
Graph to be drawn to find slope independent load W1 & W2 at C & D should
equal to combined load at C & D.
Result:
The principle of super position is verified.
Case A
W1 W2
35cm C D 35cm
WA X WB
Dial gauge
DEFLECTION AND SLOPE DURING COMBINED LOADING
Slope
Deflection in dial
Sl. Load applied dy
gauge
No. θ = ----- N/mm
gm N Div mm dx
1
Simply supported
W1 W2
54
δC
ℓ/2 ℓ/2
Case A
W1
δC1
Case 1
W2
δC2
Case 2
δC = δC1 + δC2
Case A Load δA δA in mm
0.2 34 0.34
0.4 62 0.62
0.6 85 0.85
Case 1 Load δ1 δ1 in mm
0.2 17 0.16
0.4 31 0.31
0.6 45 0.45
Case 2 Load δ2 δ2 in mm
0.2 16 0.14
0.4 25 0.54
0.6 37 0.37
(δ1+δ2) = δA
0.34 16+14 = 33 0.33
0.62 31+29 = 60 0.60
55
0.85 45+37 = 82 0.82

X Y X & Y are almost equal
Case 1 & 2 should be equal to Case A which proves the principle of super
position.
56

AS1 Notes PDF

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Título original

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

AS1 Notes PDF

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

www.Vidyarthiplus.

BUCKLING OF COLUMN WHEN BOTH ENDS ARE FIXED

EULER’S COLUMN THEORY:

• The load indicator is connected with column test setup.

For stainless steel -5 mm Diameter

Note: Similarly calculate for 4 mm & 6 mm Diameter rods.

Loading column is stopped at this crippling load. This load is known as

BUCKLING OF COLUMN WHEN BOTH ENDS – HINGED

EULER’S COLUMN THEORY:

• The load indicator is viewed simultaneously from the display of digital

• Now shape of deflection of columns occurs as shown in figure

(i) For Stainless steel:

Note: Similarly calculate for 4 mm & 6 mm Diameter rods.

Before loading After loading

Both ends hinged

7 5 4.3 42.183 A1= 0.7 B1= 0.016594363 B1-B2= -0.062458665 A1-A2= -

18 6 12.4 121.644 5.7 0.046858045 0.002088505 -

How to Calculate: (For guidance)

For Hinged -Hinged : 5mm Diameter

∆(δ)= 0.7-3.8 = -3.1

∆(δ)= 3.8-5.9= -2.1

∆(δ/P)= 0.016-0.079= -0.062

∆(δ/P)= 0.079-0.11= -0.0388

BUCKLING OF COLUMN WHEN ONE END HINGED AND

EULER’S COLUMN THEORY:

• It is positioned to have a complete supports.

for stainless steel

Note: Similarly calculate for 4 mm & 6 mm Diameter rods

Loading column is stopped at crippling load. This load to known as

7 5 9.7 95.157 A1= 4.1 B1= 0.043086688 B1-B2= -0.04

14 6 20 196.2 7 0.03567788 -0.00

How to Calculate: (For guidance)

For Fixed- Fixed: 5mm Diameter

∆(δ)= 4.1 - 9.3 = - 5.2

∆(δ)= 9.3 – 13.6 = -4.3

∆(δ/P)= 0.04 – 0.09 = -0.047

∆(δ/P)= 0.09 – 0.12 = -0.03

DETERMINATION OF YOUNG’S MODULUS OF ALUMINIUM BY

M. Steel beam wts-500gm-2 Nos.

E Young’s modulus in N/mm2

δ = Deflection of beam in mm Yc (measured in dial gauge)

9 5 18 176.58 A3= 44 -4 0.000435627 2295.54

13 6 15.5 152.055 31 -3 0.203873598 0.046334909 -0.01544497 -64.746

How to Calculate: (For guidance)

For Fixed- Fixed: 5mm Diameter

∆(δ)= 22-41 = -19

∆(δ/P)= 0.163 – 0.261 = - 0.0975

∆(δ/P)= 0.261 – 0.249 = -0.012

BUCKLING OF COLUMN WHEN BOTH ENDS – HINGED

EULER’S COLUMN THEORY:

• The load is gradually applied by rotating the loading wheel connected to

(ii) For Stainless steel:

Note: Similarly calculate for 4 mm & 6 mm Diameter rods.

Before loading After loading

A1= B1= B1-B2= A1-A2=

11 5 8.2 80.442 68 0.845329554 0.845329554 68 0.012431317 80.442

18 6 11 107.91 24 -8 0.222407562 -0.038550644 0.004818831 207.5192308

How to Calculate: (For guidance)

For Hinged -Hinged : 5mm Diameter

∆(δ/P)= 0.345 – 0.524= - 0.179

∆(δ/P)= 0.524 – 0.625= - 0.100

BUCKLING OF COLUMN WHEN ONE END HINGED AND

EULER’S COLUMN THEORY: