ORGANS OF VISION: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONAL SIGNIFICANCE.

VERTEBRATE EYE

All vertebrates have eyes that are similar in basic construction plan. This eye must have
evolved very early in chordate evolution and then got modified subsequently to increase its
efficiency in higher vertebrates.
The eye is formed of 3 coats or tunics.
Coats or tunic Regions
1. Outer or fibrous
- sclera & cornea
2. Middle or vascular
- choroid, ciliary
body & iris
3. Inner or nervous
- retina

The sclera is the

white outer layer of the eye.
It covers posterior five-
sixths of the eye. This firm
layer provides shape and
protects the internal structures. A small region of the sclera can be seen as the “white of the
eye”.
In the front, the outer layer forms a transparent region called the cornea. It permits
entry of light. The cornea is made up of a
connective tissue having collagen, elastic
fibres and proteoglycans.
The middle tunic of the eyeball is
the vascular tunic. It contains most of the
blood vessels. The vascular tunic contains
melanin containing pigment cells. It
appears black in colour. A major part of the
vascular tunic is found in association with
the sclera and called the choroid.
Anteriorly this layer forms the ciliary
body and iris.

The ciliary body consists of smooth muscles called the ciliary muscles.
Contraction of the ciliary muscles can change the shape of the lens.
The anterior compartment is divided into two chambers. There is an anterior
chamber found between the cornea and iris. A smaller posterior chamber lies between
the iris and lens. These two chambers are filled with a substance called the aqueous
humor. It helps to maintain intraocular pressure.

Dr.C.V.Narasimha murthy. Associate professor (Contract), VSUPGCenter,Kavali. M.Sc.Zoology, notes‐2016 
 
 

The posterior compartment of the eye is much larger and it contains a

transparent jellylike substance called vitreous humor.
The eye lens is a unique biological structure. It is transparent and biconvex. It is
made up of long columnar epithelial cells called lens fibres. These fibres have an
accumulation of proteins called crystalline. The lens is placed between the two eye
compartments by suspensory ligaments.
The functioning of the eye is aided by accessory structures. They include the
eyebrows, eyelids, conjunctiva and lacrimal apparatus. The eyebrows prevent the sweat
during perspiration from running down into the eye. They help to shade the eyes from
direct sunlight.
The eyelids and associated lashes protect the eyes from foreign objects. The medial
region where the eyelids join has a small reddish-pink mound called the caruncle. It contains
modified sebaceous and sweat glands. There are two or three rows of hairs attached to the
free edges of eyelids. Modified sweat glands called the ciliary glands open into the
follicles of the eyelashes. It keeps them lubricated. The inner margin of the eyelids
contain Melbomian glands. These glands produce sebum for lubricating the eyelids.
The inner surface of the eyelids and the anterior surface of the eye are covered by a
thin, transparent mucous membrane called the conjunctiva.
The lacrymal glands or tear glands are situated in the superolateral corner of the
eye orbit. They produce tear at the rate of about 1 ml / day. It helps to moisten the eye
surface and wash away foreign substances. At the corners of the eye there are small
openings called the puncta. Each punctum inturn opens into a lacrymal canaliculus. The
lacrimal canaliculi open into a lacrimal sac. This sac enters into a nasolacrimal duct which
opens into the inferior nasal concha. These ducts help to drain the excess tear. The entire
organization related to ‘tear’ is called the lacrymal apparatus.

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF EYE

Protochordata do not have true eyes; Amphioxus has pigmented eye spots on the ventro-
lateral sides of the spinal cord for detecting light and shades.

CYCLOSTOME EYE
Hagfishes have rudimentary eyes that are hardly one mm in diameter but Petromyzon has
well developed eyes. The eye ball is flat and eye lids are absent. Lens is permanently spherical
and there are no ciliary bodies. Sclera and choroid are fused and pupil has fixed diameter.

FISH EYE
Eyelids are immovable and permanently open and nictitating membrane covers the eye in
front. In elasmobranchs, cornea is flat in front, lens permanently spherical which is moved
forward and backward by protector lentis muscle. There is no fovea in area centralis but there is
a layer of shiny guanine crystals called tapetum behind retina for night vision. Sclera is
cartilaginous in elasmobranchs.
In bony fishes also the eye ball is elliptical and lens permanently spherical that almost
touches the cornea in front. Lens is moved forward and backward by a muscle called campanula

Dr.C.V.Narasimha murthy. Associate professor (Contract), VSUPGCenter,Kavali. M.Sc.Zoology, notes‐2016 
 
 

Halleri that is attached to the processus falciformis at the back of the eye ball. There is no fovea
on retina and the layer of reflecting cells is called argentea.

AMPHIBIAN EYE
Limbless amphibians have rudimentary eyes owing to their burrowing habits. Urodeles
also have small eyes which are essentially fish like in structure. However, anurans have evolved
an eye that is suitable for vision in terrestrial conditions.
Frog eye is oval in shape with three distinct layers, fibrous sclera, vascular choroid and
sensory retina. Eye lids are movable and lower eye lid is larger and also carries a nictitating
membrane. Lachrymal glands are also located on the lower side of the eye ball and a harderian
gland is present on the back of the eye ball. Lens is flat on the front side but convex on the
posterior side. Ciliary body is well developed but lens is moved forward and backward for
focusing by a protractor lentis muscle. The whole eye ball can be pulled back into the eye orbit
by a retractor bulbi muscle and can be brought forward by levator bulbi muscle. Frog
possesses limited colour vision.

REPTILIAN EYE
Reptilian eye is made on amphibian plan and is adapted for terrestrial environs. Sclera is
cartilaginous or bony and retina possesses a fovea centralis. Lizards also have a conus
papillaris protruding on the lower side of the fovea. It probably has nourishing function. Lens is
soft and flexible and can alter focal length by squeezing with the help of ciliary muscles.
Lachrymal glands are well developed except in Sphenodon and snakes. Lower eye lid is still
larger and nictitating membrane is present. In snakes eyelids are fused and become transparent to
form a spectacle in front of the eye. Crocodiles have a pecten as in birds. Colour vision seems to
be present in some lizards and turtles.

BIRD EYE
Bird eye is best developed among all vertebrates which is a necessity for a flying animal.
Bird eye ball is large and depressed in the area of powerful ciliary body. Sclerotic coat is tough
with cartilages and bones. Retina is highly sensitive having abundance of cones and a very deep
fovea centralis. A pecten is present in birds which increases contrast and reduces glare in bright
sunshine. Lens is highly flexible and can be squeezed by two powerful muscles, namely, muscle
of Crampton and muscle of Bruke. Iris is supplied with striated muscles. Nictitating membrane
is used to cover the front of eyeball when the bird is in flight. Except for the nocturnal birds, all
birds possess colour vision.

MAMMALIAN EYE
In mammals sclera is made of fibrous tissue and continues in front as cornea. Retina has
a fovea but there is no pecten. Iris can change the diameter of pupil by radial and circular
muscles. Lens is soft and capable of changing focal length by altering its thickness with the help
of circular and meridional muscles present in the ciliary body. Upper eyelid is large in
mammals and lachrymal gland is located on the upper side of the eyeball. Nictitating membrane
is present in some mammals such as horse, anteaters, panda and caribou. A modification of iris
called umbraculum is found in cats, camels etc. which cuts excessive glare in daytime.

Dr.C.V.Narasimha murthy. Associate professor (Contract), VSUPGCenter,Kavali. M.Sc.Zoology, notes‐2016