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SCIENCE (1st TRIMESTRAL EXAMINATION REVIEWER)

Respiratory System (AS #2)

 The body cells needed constant supply of oxygen in order to perform energy-producing processes.
 The respiratory system allows the body to take in oxygen and removes carbon dioxide from the body.
 Respiration – exchange of gases between the cells and its environment
 Breathing – the act of taking air in (inhalation) and out (exhalation) of the lungs
 The respiration system can be divided into two major parts: the upper respiratory tract and the lower
respiratory tract.
 The upper respiratory tract is composed of the following:
- nose
- nasal cavities
- pharynx
- larynx
 The lower respiratory tract is composed of the following:
- trachea
- bronchi
- bronchioles
- lungs

Path of Air Going to the Lungs


NASAL
NOSE CAVITIES
PHARYNX LARYNX TRACHEA BRONCHI BRONCHIOLES ALVEOLI

 Nose – passageway for the entrance and exit of air


 Nasal cavities – cavities that warm, moisten and filter the air that enters the nose
 Structures found in the nasal cavities:
o coarse hairs – trap dust particles
o mucous membranes – moisten the air that enters
o cilia – push mucus and any material in it towards the outside of the nose
 Pharynx – common passageway for both food (esophagus) and air (trachea)
 Larynx – also known as the voicebox which houses elastic ligaments or vocal chords which vibrate
producing sounds or voice
o glottis – slit-like opening
o epiglottis – flap of tissue that covers the glottis when swallowing food or water
 Trachea – windpipe; passageway of air going to the lungs
 Bronchi – branching passageway of air from the trachea; leads to the lungs
 Lungs – elastic sac; made up of two sacs: left lung and right lung
 Bronchioles – passageway of air from the bronchi; delivers air to the alveoli
 Alveoli – site where exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place
 Diaphragm – muscle that contracts and relaxes during the process of breathing

Inhalation and Exhalation (AS #3)

 Air enters and leaves the body because of changes in pressure in the lungs.
 These changes are the results of two breathing movements: inhalation and exhalation.
 Inhalation or inspiration – taking in air
 This process involves the contraction of the rib muscles and the diaphragm.
 During inhalation at the same time:
o Rib muscles contract causing the ribs to move upward and outward.
o Diaphragm contracts, moves downward and flattens.
o The contraction of the rib muscles and the diaphragm during inhalation enlarges the chest
cavity and lowers the air pressure within the lungs.
o This makes the air pressure outside greater than that of the air pressure within the lungs
causing the air to rush into the lungs and fill them.
 Exhalation or expiration – breathing air out
 This process involves the relaxation of the rib muscles and the diaphragm.
 During exhalation at the same time:
o The rib muscles relaxes causing the ribs to move downward and toward the center of the body.
o Diaphragm relaxes and moves upward to its arched position.
o The relaxation of the rib muscles and the diaphragm during exhalation causes the chest cavity
to become smaller and increases the pressure within the lungs.
o The increase in pressure within the lungs squeezes the air out of the lungs.

Additional: Diffusion causes the pressure changes.

Diseases, Prevention and Care of the Respiratory System (AS #5)

Common Diseases of the Respiratory System


Disease Cause Symptoms
Asthma constrictions or narrowing of the prolonged exhalation, breathlessness, and
airways in the lungs wheezing
Pneumonia caused by bacterial pathogens increased respiratory rate, fever, and
difficulty in breathing
Emphysema lungs loses its elasticity; it can also chronic cough, breathlessness, increased
be caused by smoking work of breathing and easy fatigability
Lung Cancer carcinogens that can also be weight loss, anorexia, progressive
acquired from smoking difficulty in breathing and bloody sputum
Tuberculosis caused by bacterial pathogen bloody sputum, chronic cough, weight
loss, anorexia, low grade fever, and night
sweats
Common Colds caused by viral infection sneezing, runny nose, congestion and
mild fever
Bronchitis caused by viral infection; can be difficulty in breathing, cough with
triggered by pollutants phlegm, and nagging cough for one to
three weeks
Prevention and Care for the Respiratory System
 Do not smoke.
 Breathe in some fresh air.
 Practice deep breathing.
 Breathe with the mouth closed.
 Avoid polluted places.
 Cover mouth when coughing or sneezing.
 Eat nutritious food.
 Exercise regularly.
 Regularly consult your physician.

Circulatory System [Heart] (AS #7)

Functions of the Circulatory System


 Carries oxygen and nutrients to every cell of the body
 Removes carbon dioxide and other waste from the cells

The circulatory system of humans is composed of the following:


 Heart
 Blood
 Blood Vessels

Heart – muscular organ that pumps the blood to all parts of the body

Circulatory System [Heart] (AS #8)

Parts of the Heart


 Right Atrium – receives blood that is rich in carbon dioxide from all parts of the body
 Right Ventricle – pumps blood from the right atrium going to the lungs
 Left Atrium – receives oxygen rich blood from the lungs
 Left Ventricle – pumps oxygen rich blood to the aorta
 Pulmonary Artery – delivers blood from the right ventricle going to the lungs
 Tricuspid Valve – prevents the backflow of the blood between the right ventricle and the right atrium
 Pulmonary Valve – prevents the backflow of blood between the pulmonary artery and the right
ventricle
 Pulmonary Vein – delivers oxygen-rich blood from the lungs going to the left atrium
 Mitral Valve – prevents the backflow of blood between the left atrium and left ventricle
 Aortic Valve – prevents the backflow of blood between the aorta and left ventricle
 Aorta – artery that delivers oxygen-rich blood to all the parts of the body
 Sinoatrial node or pacemaker – sends electrical signals that travelsto the heart muscles in the atria and
ventricles making the four chambers to contract

Circulatory System [BLOOD] (AS #11)

Blood
 The blood is the internal circulating medium of the body that gives life to the cells.

Functions of the Blood


 Transportation of nutrients and metabolic waste
 Protection against pathogens and blood loss injuries
 Stabilization of body temperature

Composition of the Blood


 The blood is made up of two components: liquid component (plasma) and solid components (blood
cells)

Plasma
 Serves as the medium where the blood cells are suspended along with other nutrients

Composition of the Plasma


 Water
 Dissolved wastes
 Antibodies
 Dissolved nutrients
 Fibrinogen
 Hormones

Blood Cells
 Cellular components of the blood:
o Red blood cells
o White blood cells
o Platelets

Red Blood Cells


 Red blood cells (RBC) or erythrocytes
 Contains red chemical pigment called hemoglobin which helps RBC to transport oxygen and remove
carbon dioxide from the cells

White Blood Cells


 White blood cells (WBC) or leukocytes
 The main function of the WBC is to protect the body from bacteria, viruses and other foreign
substances.

Types of White Blood Cells


 Neutrophil – engulfs microbes and other substances
 Basophil –releases histamine which promotes inflammation and heparin which prevents clot formation
 Eosinophil – responsible for allergic reactions
 Lymphocytes – produce antibodies
 Monocyte – engulfs pathogens; leaves the blood to become macrophage

Platelets
 Also known as thrombocytes
 Responsible for clotting–process that stops the flow of blood due to damage

Blood Vessels and Circulation (AS #13)

Blood Vessels
 The blood vessels deliver blood throughout the body.
 There are 3 types of blood vessels:
o arteries
o veins
o capillaries

Arteries
 Blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart
 Blood that enters the artery is under great pressure, reflecting the rhythmic pumping of the heart
o Arterioles – fine and small branching arteries
Veins
 Blood vessels that carry blood towards the heart
 Have valves that prevent backflow of blood
o Venules – fine and small branching veins

Capillaries
 Smallest blood vessels
 Connects arteries and veins
 Have very thin walls to allow diffusion of gases and nutrients to take place

Circulation
 The heart pumps the blood throughout the body in continuous circulatory system which is divided into
two: pulmonary and systemic circulations.

Pulmonary Circulation
 Transports oxygen-depleted blood from the heart to the lungs

Systematic Circulation
 Transports oxygen-rich blood from the heart to the organs and tissues

Blood Circulation
Right Pulmonary Pulmonary Left
Ventricle
Lungs Veins Atrium
Artery

Superior Body
Right and Inferior
Left
Atrium Organs and Aorta Ventricle
Vena Cava Tissues
Diseases, Prevention and Care of the Circulatory System (AS #14)

Diseases in the Blood Vessels


 Atherosclerosis
- Narrowing of the blood vessels due to cholesterol build-up inside the walls of the arteries; may
result to decrease in oxygen supply in affected body areas
 Stroke
- Blockage of the blood supply in the brain or neck area due to hardening of the arteries

Diseases of the Heart


 Coronary Heart Disease
- Inability of the blood to reach the coronary arteries resulting to reduced blood volume in the
heart
- Causes pain in the chest, left arm and shoulder known as angina pectoris
 Myocardial Infarction or Heart Attack
- Heart attack due to damage of the large area of the heart
 Hypertensive Heart Disease
- Increased blood pressure tightens arterioles, smallest arteries in the body
- This condition increases resistance of blood flow causing the heart to work more than it should
causing to enlarge and become overworked
 Rheumatic Heart Disease
- Due to untreated infection from the bacteria Streptococcus pyogenes which releases toxins that
causes rheumatic fever that causes further damage to the heart

Diseases of the Blood


 Hemophilia
- A genetic disease which causes the blood to not clot properly
 anemia
- A condition wherein the red blood cell count is below normal
 Leukemia
- A disease characterized by abnormal production of white blood cells

Care for the circulatory system

 Exercise regularly
 Get enough rest
 Choose and eat the right kind of food
 Avoid drinking alcohol
 Do not smoke
 Have a regular medical check up

AS#19: Cell Division- Mitosis

CELL CYCLE

Refers to the changes in the cell as part of its growth and development.

The life of the cell from formation to its division.

ORGANISM DEPEND OR CELL DIVISION FOR:

 Development from the fertilized cell


 Reproduction
 Growth
 Repair

THE CELL CYCLE CONSISTS OF:

 MITOTIC (M) phase (mytosis and cytokinesis)


 INTERPHASE (cell growth and copying of chromosomes in preparation of the cell division)

CELL DIVISION

 Mitosis is conventionally divided into four phases:


 Prophase
 Metaphase
 Anaphase
 Telophase
 Cytokinesis is well underway to late telophase
 PROPHASE
 Assembly of spindle microtubules in the centrosome begins
 Formation of two centrosomes
 Migration of centrosome to opposite ends of the cell, as spindle microtubules grown out from them.
 METAPHASE
 Alignment of chromosomes at the metaphase plate, the midway point between the spindle’s two poles.
 ANAPHASE
 Sister chromatids separate and move toward opposite of the cell.
 TELOPHASE
 Genetically identical daughter nuclei form at opposite end of cell.
 Cytokinesis occurs
AS#21: Meiosis 1

Meiosis
 Occurs on gametes (sex cells)
 Takes place in two sets of cell division call MEIOSIS I and MEIOSIS II
 Meiosis I is called the REDUCTIONAL DIVISION
 Meiosis II is called the EQUATIONAL DIVISION
 The two cell divisions result in 4 daughter cells.
 Each daughter cell has only half as many chromosomes as the parent cell.
MEIOSIS I
 Division on meiosis I occurs in 4 phases:
 Prophase I
 Metaphase I
 Anaphase I
 Telophase I and cytokinesis

PROPHASE I
 Chromosomes begin to condense
SYNAPSIS- homologous
 Chromosomes pair up and line up gene by gene
CROSSING OVER- nonsister chromatids exchange DNA segments.
CHIASMATA- region where crossing over occurs.

METAPHASE I
 Tetrads line up at the metaphase plate
 Microtubules attach to the kinetochore of the chromosome in each tetrad.

ANAPHASE I
 Pairs of homologous chromosomes separate
 Sister chromatids remain attached at the centromere move as one unit toward the pole.

TELOPHASE I AND CYTOKINESIS


 Each half of the cell has a haploid set of chromosomes
 Each chromosome still consists of two sister chromatids
CYTOKINESIS- division of the cytoplasm occur forming 2 daughter cells

MEIOSIS II
 Division in Meiosis II also occurs in four phases:
 Prophase II
 Metaphase II
 Anaphase II
 Telophase II and cytokinesis

PROPHASE II
 A spindle apparatus forms
 Chromosomes (each still composed of two chromatids, more toward the metaphase plate)

METAPHASE II
 Sister chromatids are aligned to at the metaphase plate
 Microtubules attaches to the kinetochores of sister chromatids

ANAPHASE II
 The sister chromatids separate and move as two newly individual
 Chromosomes toward opposite oikes

TELOPHASE II AND CYTOKINESIS


 The chromosomes arrive at opposite poles
 New nuclei form and the chromosomes begin decondensing
 Cytokinesis separates the cytoplasm
COMPARISON BETWEEN MITOSIS & MEIOSIS
MITOSIS MEIOSIS
Type of cell involved Somatic Gametes
Chromosome number Diploid Haploid
Daughter cell Same as parent Different from parent
No. of daughter cell 2 4
No. of divisions/phases 1 set of division 2 divisions synapsis crossing over

AS#23: Genes and Chromosome


DNA as the BLUEPRINT OF LIFE

 DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA)


 Also known as the “BLUEPRINT OF LIFE”
 A molecule that carries genetic and hereditary information
FORMS OF DNA IN THE CELL
 CHROMATIN, a complex of DNA and protein that condenses during the cell division
 CHROMOSOME, is an organized structure of DNA and protein that is found in cell which carries the
genes
 HISTONE, protein that packages chromosome
PARTS OF CHROMOSOME
 CHROMATID- half of a chromosome
 CENTROMERE- connects the sister chromatids
 KINETOCHERE- site of attachment of spindle fiber
 TELOMERE- end of the chromatid that protects it from deteriotion
 P ARM- the shorter arm of the chromosome
 Q ARM- the longer arm of the chromosome

HUMAN CHROMOSOME
Humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs)
 AUTOSOMES- chromosomes that do not determine sex (22 pairs)
 SEX CHROMOSOMES- chromosomes that determine sex (x or y)

GENE AS PHYSICAL BASIS OF HEREDITY


GENES are the basic units of physical and functional units of heredity are made up of segments of DNA

 LOCUS- location of a gene in a chromosome


 ALLELES- alternative version of a gene
 Genes are passed to the next generation through reproductive cells called gametes (sperm and eggs)
 Genes determine what traits will be exhibited by an organism
 GENOME- the total set of DNA of an individual
 GENE POOL- the total set of DNA for a particular group of organism or species

AS#27: History of Genetics


 GENETICS- branch of biology that studies hereditary information
 HEREDITARY- transmission or passing of traits from parent to offspring
MENDEL AND THE STUDY OF HEREDITY
 GREGOR MENDEL is an Australian Monk known to be a FATHER OF GENETICS
 He experimented an garden peas (PISUM SATIVUM)
ADVANTAGES IN USING GARDEN PEAS
 the garden pea is an ideal subject for the study of genetics because of the following reasons:
 the presence of observable traits with contrasting forms
 produces many offspring in one cross
 short life cycle
 ease in manipulating pollination (cross pollination)
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GARDEN PEA
AS#28: Basic Concepts of Genetics

IMPORTANT TERMS IN GENETICS

 ALLELE- forms of genes controlling a specific trait; alternate versions of a gene


 GENE- unit of hereditary occurring on a specific point of the chromosome
 DOMINANT TRAIT- the appearing trait or trait that is expressed; it is represented by a CAPITAL
LETTER of the 1st letter of the dominant trait
 RECESSIVE TRAIT- the hidden trait; represented by a SMALL LETTER of the 1st letter of dominant
trait.
 VARIATION- the difference in living organisms of their own kind
 P1- first parental generation
 F1- first filial generation of offspring of the 1st generation
 PHENOTYPE- external appearance of an organism
 GENOTYPE- genetic makeup at an organism (homozygous or heterozygous)
 HOMOZYGOUS- genes or alleles are alike
 HETEROZYGOUS- genes or alleles that are not alike

Remember the following:

 An allele is represented by a letter.


Shape of seed
R- round seed (dominant)
r- wrinkled seed (recessive)
 An individual is represented by 2 letters (a pair of genes)

Examples:

BB bb Bb
Homozygous Heterozygous

During the formation of gametes, an egg cell or sperm cell may only receive one of the alleles representing
a trait

This is how to derive the gametes


BB Bb
B Bb
AS#30: Mendelian Law of Heredity (Law of Segregation)

Mendelian Laws of Genetics

 Law of Segregation
 Law of Dominance
 Law of Independent Assortment
LAW OF SEGREGATION
 States that two genes of pair separate during gametes formation, only one gene is received by each
gamete.
Example:

Genotypes:

1. RR- Homozygous round seed -1


2. Rr- Heterozygous round seed -2
3. Rr- Homozygous round seed -1
Genotype ratio :1:2:1

Phenotype

1. Round seed-3
2. Wrinkled seed -1
Phenotypic ratio :3:1

Reminder:

Genotypic and phenotypic ratio should be in the simplest form.

AS#31: Mendelian Genetics: Law of Dominance

 States when two pure breeding pea plants with contrasting traits are crossed all the offspring will show
only one trait (dominance)

Example:

What will be the phenotype and genotype of F1 if a pure breeding pea plant with round seed is crossed
with a pure breeding pea plants with wrinkled seed?

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