Influence of the use of celebrity endorsement on brand

image:
A study of Hollandia milk advertisement in Nigeria

Pratt Omoyemi

Student Number: 129054073

Subject Area: Marketing & Consumption

Supervisor: Vincent Pieterse

Submitted: May 2017

Dissertation submitted to the University of Leicester in partial

fulfillment of the requirement of the degree of Masters of Business

Administration

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………………..5

Executive Summary……………………………………………………………………….....6

CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………..7

1.1 Rationale and Objective for the Study………………………………………………7

1.2 Research Questions…………………………………………………………………..9
1.3 Research Requirement……………………………………………………………….9
1.4 Operational Definitions of Terms……………………………………………………9
1.5 Structure of dissertation……………………………………………………………..10

CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW……………………………………………….11

2.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………….11

2.2 Advertising…………………………………………………………………………..11

2.3 Advertising History in Nigeria……………………………………………………….13

2.4 Brand Image………………………………………………………………………….14

2.5 The Awareness Factor in Brand Image………………………………………………15

2.6 Endorsement………………………………………………………………………….16

2.7 Rationale Behind the Use of a Celebrity …………….………………………………17

2.8 Reasons Why Celebrities Were Not Previously Used in Nigeria…………………….18

2.9 Benefits of Using Celebrity Endorsements…………………………………………..19

2.10 Drawbacks……………………………………………………………………………20

2.11 Theoretical Framework……………………………………………………………….22

2.11.1 Source Credibility Theory……………………………………………………………23

2.11.2 Meaning Transfer Theory…………………………………………………………….23

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CHAPTER 3 – METHODOLOGY………………………………………………………..25

3.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………..25

3.2 Research Philosophy …………………………………………………………………25

3.3 Research Methodology ………………………………………………………………26

3.4 Study Location……………………………………………………………………….28

3.5 Study Population……………………………………………………………………..29

3.6 Sample size…………………………………………………………………………...30

3.7 Sampling Procedure ………………………………………………………………….30

3.8 Data Collection Instruments …………………………………………………………31

3.9 Ethical Considerations………………………………………………………………..31

CHAPTER 4 - DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION…………………………....33

4.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………...33

4.2 Demographic Characteristics of Respondents………………………………………..35

CHAPTER 5 – SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS…..........44

5.1 Summary……………………………………………………………………………....44

5.2 Limitation……………………………………………………………………………..45

5.2 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….............46

5.3 Recommendations…………………………………………………………………….46

Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………............48

TABLES:

Table 1. Gender…………………………………………………………………………33

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Table 2. Age Group……………………………………………………………………..34

Table 3. Level of Study…………………………………………………………………34

Table 4. Religion of Respondents………………………………………………………35

Table 5. Does the use of celebrities affect how you perceive Hollandia Milk?....,,,,……35

Table 6. Does the use of celebrities make you believe the adverts of Hollandia Milk?...36

Table 7. Respondents’ awareness of the Hollandia Milk advertisement………………..37

Table 8. Does the celebrity used in the advertisement influences/affects respondents’

choice or preference?..................................................................................................................37

Table 9. Respondents’ perception of Hollandia Milk Advertisement………………..…37

Table 10. Do you think celebrity endorsement of brands necessary in order to draw
consumers’ attention?.................................................................................................................38

Table 11. Will you buy Hollandia Milk because it is endorsed by your favorite celebrity 39

Table 12. Do celebrities used in Hollandia Milk attract you to buy the product?...............39

Table 13. Do you think these celebrities are credible sources?...........................................40

Table 14. Do you think products sales are higher if they are endorsed by a celebrity?......41

Acknowledgements

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The Dissertation would not have been conceivable and successful without the contribution of
many people, foremost among them is my supervisor: Dr Vincent Pieterse I say an immerse
thank you for being a formidable guardian, tutor and mentor throughout the entire process of this
thesis

My gratitude also to Dr Robert Bradshaw whose assistance cannot be over emphases in getting
my project proposal ready and approved.
Furthermore I would like to thank the management of CHI Ltd manufacturers of Hollandia milk
for the unconditional support. The staffs and student of Distance Learning Institute (DLI) of the
University of Lagos, Akoka, Yaba. Lagos, Nigeria, also deserves my appreciation for their
outstanding cooperation

A big thank you to my parents Mr and Mrs E.O Pratt who have been my biggest inspiration in
life for their love, care, knowledge and provision, also to my lovely sisters Omotola, Omowunmi
and Omotayo who keep pushing me to be a better man, their prayers and backing throughout the
program was overwhelmingly encouraging.

I couldn’t forget my colleagues at Glomobile Ghana whose assistance proved to be invaluable.

Finally my thankfulness to all my friends and family who patiently stood by me on this journey
and to everyone who contributed one way or the other in the successful completion of my
dissertation.

Executive Summary

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The research study focused on the use of celebrity endorsement in influencing brand image
towards a negative or otherwise image of the brand. The problem investigated was to find out the
influence of the use of celebrity endorsement on brand image, using Hollandia Milk
advertisement as the case study. The study reviewed existing literature under the leading general
literature concepts of Advertising, Celebrity Endorsement, Brand Image and other related
concepts. Also, the Source Credibility and the Meaning Transfer theories were given as the
theoretical background to the topic under study. The survey research method, using questionnaire
and interview as the instruments of data collection, was used to examine the opinions of the
University of Lagos, Nigeria students and the Hollandia (CHI) staff respectively. More so, a total
of 200 hundred questionnaires were administered coupled with an interview conducted with a
Sales Executive of Hollandia. It should be stated here that 189 questionnaires were returned and
valid for analysis.

Conclusions from the study showed that the massive use of celebrities in the advertising of
Hollandia Milk clearly implies that the advertisers have chosen celebrity endorsements based on
the celebrities mass appeal and good image, and intend to continue using it as its major
advertising strategy. Findings show that the use of celebrities may not have the desired effect due
to a number of reasons, some of them including the “credibility” issue and a “faulty marriage”
situation. Whether the sole aim of using celebrities in adverts is to promote the company’s
brands, with a view to achieving the projected sales profit or even surpassing same, it is not
always easy to actually find out the tactual impact that celebrities have had on a brand. The study
finally recommended that further researches be conducted on the use of celebrity endorsements
in advertising, especially with particular reference to the Nigerian market situation.

CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION

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Corporate organizations today spend huge sums of money to contract celebrities to endorse their
brands, both nationally and internationally. Some of these endorsements are successful while
others are colossal failures. Celebrity endorsements are expensive to undertake, yet companies
are willing to pay for the powerful endorsements embedded in the celebrities whose name, face
or voice recognition can draw considerable attention of millions of consumers.

Opinions differ as to whether celebrity endorsements are necessary in advertising. Some feel it is
a good and valuable technique to employ while others feel it only amounts to a waste of financial
resources. Therefore, the problem that was probed into is to examine the influence of the use of
celebrity endorsement on brand image, using Hollandia Milk advertisement as the case study.

1.1 Rationale and Objective for the Study

With the advent of more classy and refined customers which called for divergence and rigid
competition coupled with very low cost of changing especially in the advertising industry,
building customer approval has become a very critical goal (Wallace et.al. 2004).
The yearn to constantly initiate strategies in order to build a profitable relationship with
customer, get customer allegiance and capture a larger share of the market has taken a center
stage (Selorm 2006). As a consequence of rigid, tough competition, advertising companies will
have to effectively strategize and come out with quality, suitable packages to meet and satisfy the
diverse needs of the customers as to increase market share (Argawal et.al.2003).

The purpose of the study was to examine the influence of the use of celebrities on brand image
with particular reference to Hollandia Milk advertisement. The research also analyzed the
impressions of the brand that the celebrities help to create in the minds of consumers and how
positive are these images. More so, the study was influenced by the researcher’s interest in
establishing a relationship between celebrity endorsement and brand image.

The competition to dominate a business market has grown tougher with each passing year, and
companies have deployed various marketing strategies “in and out of the box” in a bid to “steal”
the market.

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For example, the regular use of promotions by companies luring customers to purchase their
products and ultimately wining whooping monetary rewards and an array of consolation prizes,
game shows/lottery, where juicy monetary packages are up for grabs by customers who
participate and obey stipulated instructions have become rampant. These seemingly “over-
flogged marketing strategies” have propelled a few to look towards the direction of the
celebrities (especially those in the entertainment circuit) to invoke a sales-reload needed to thrust
them far ahead of their competitors. Thus, celebrity endorsements provide another means
through which advertisers strive to exploit the persuasive potentials of advertising.

Currently in Nigeria, a large number of firms have been juxtaposing their brands with celebrities
in the hope that celebrities may boost the effectiveness of their marketing and/or corporate
communication attempts and with no doubt, Hollandia Milk has been a major user of the so-
called celebrity endorsements to boost sales.

A lot of celebrities in Nigeria have also being well used by advertisers to promote their brands:
Kanu Nwankwo (Fidelity Bank, Peak Milk, Nobel Carpets and Rugs), Genevieve Nnaji (Lux),
Mikel Obi (Samsung), Dakore Egbuson (Amstel Malta), Kate Henshaw-Nuttal (Onga), D’banj
(Power Fist), TuFace Idibia (Guinness and Airtel), Banky W (Etisalat) and even the General
Overseer of the Redeemed Christian Church of God, Pastor Enoch Adeboye (Lagos State
Government on the payment of tax) among many others.

The rationale behind these strategies is that a famous person can draw attention to a brand and
shape the perceptions of the brand, by virtue of the inferences that consumers make based on the
knowledge they have about the famous person.

The study will be most desirable as it will help students get more acquainted with issues
bordering on the use and effectiveness of celebrity endorsements. Furthermore, scholars and
practitioners in the advertising industry as well as advertisers will benefit greatly from the
outcome of the study. In addition, the findings from this research will provide an insight into the
appropriateness or otherwise of celebrity endorsements as an advertising technique. Finally, the

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research document will serve as a valuable addition to existing literature in the field of
advertising.

1.2 Research Questions

For a proper understanding of the influence of the use of Celebrity Endorsement on Brand
Image, the research seeks to answer the following questions:
1. How does celebrity endorsement enhance the image of Hollandia Milk?
2. How is Hollandia Milk celebrity endorsement advertisement perceived by its customers?
3. How effective are the celebrity endorsements in terms of attracting and holding
consumers’ attention?
4. What role does a celebrity play in the purchase decisions of the consumer?
5. Does the celebrity’s identity influence Hollandia Milk’s choice of brand ambassadors?

1.3 Resource Requirement

This research drives towards generating knowledge by examining and analyzing the use of
celebrity endorsement in influencing brand image towards a negative or otherwise image of the
brand; secondary sources was used for the literature review, methodology, background and
introduction of study and justification, journals, educational websites, articles, books and text
and news articles will be accessed, while primary data will be gotten through the administration
of the research instruments.

1.4 Operational Definitions of Terms

Celebrity: Refers to a person who is famous and enjoys significant public and media attention.
Endorsement: A statement made in an advertisement, usually by somebody famous or
important, saying they use and like a particular product. Based on the above, celebrity
endorsement describes a situation where the endorser attests to a product or its ability to deliver
on promises.
Advertisement: A paid announcement, as of goods for sale, in newspapers or magazines, on
radio or television, etc.
Brand: A name, term, sign, symbol, or design, or a combination of them, intended to identify the
goods and services of one seller or group of sellers and to differentiate them from those of
competition.

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Image: The impression that a person, an organization or a product, etc. gives to the public.
Brand Image: Consumers’ perceptions about a brand, as reflected by the brand associations held
in consumer memory.

1.5 Structure of dissertation

This paper will begin with a literature review to provide the academic framework and context,
beginning with conceptual review of the various related concepts. This will equally be supported
with theoretical framework that will serve as the basic building block for the study. Presentation
of the methodology around the fieldwork and a full analysis of the data will be presented with an
attempt of linking this back to the theory presented in the literature review. Subsequent chapter
will be the discussions and conclusions surmising the findings. Furthermore, this final chapter
will present any theoretical and practical implications, limitations to study and finally concluding
with recommendations on the study.

Chapter 1 Summary

This chapter gave wide-ranging insight and overview to the research work. It provided
highlights to the background of study, research questions, aims and objectives, the justification
for the study and methodology to be adopted. The chapter also highlighted brief description of
the structure for research that is: the outline of subsequent chapters. Chapter 2 contains the
review of current and relevant literature.

CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction
The focus of this study is centered on examining the use of celebrity endorsement in influencing
brand image towards a negative or otherwise image of the brand. Thus, this section of the study
reviewed existing literature under the leading general literature concepts of Advertising,
Celebrity Endorsement, Brand Image and other related concepts. Furthermore, this chapter also

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offered theoretical explanation to the study. The theories considered suitable for this study are:
Source Credibility Theory as well as the Meaning Transfer Theory. These theories would serve
as framework for the study.

2.2 Advertising
Akashoro (2007) defines advertising conceptually as an act of communication. Precisely, it is a
persuasive communication, meaning that it is designed to evoke source-intended meanings
in its target recipients. As a persuasive communication, advertising is undertaken by those
who employ it (marketers, corporate organizations, institutions, associations, individuals,
government etc) through professionals (as practitioners who provide the services) to achieve
pre-determined objectives. These attitudes involve modifying attitude (and by implication,
behavior) along three dimensions: creating new attitudes/ behaviors, reinforcing existing
attitudes/behaviors, or changing existing attitudes/behaviors towards the positive or the
negative.

Yusuf (2010) sees advertising as a powerful communication force and a vital marketing tool. It
helps to sell goods, services, images and ideas (or ideals) through channels of information
and persuasion. Notice the word “helps” in the last sentence. By itself, advertising never
sells product. Though it is often credited with making cash registers ring or blamed for
failing to do, advertising is advertising after all, but one part of the marketing and
communication processes. The “greatest ads” in the entire world cannot sell a product which
is not in the store because the distribution system has broken down. Nor will it convince
people to buy products which will they feel cost too much, are poorly expectations. Even if
advertising does help to sell such a product once, respect sales are virtually impossible to
obtain. And few advertisers today can survive on one time sales.
Advertising can be described as a method of delivering a sponsor’s message through an
impersonal medium, to a mass audience, for the purpose of seeking the market’s apathy while
influencing their attitudes for the sole purpose of increasing sales. According to Arens (2008),
advertising is a planned process of disseminating information and persuasive messages through a
paid non personal medium by an identified sponsor to a target audience consisting of individual
and anonymous audience members.
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Also, advertising is the paid, non personal communication of information about a product or
ideas by an identified sponsor through the mass media in an effort to persuade or influence
people (Osunbiyi, 1999). Advertising, an aspect of communication has a long history and it is an
age long practice, which is as old as civilization. According to Molokwu (2000), it has been used
as a means of communicating the need to buy goods and services; even for the sale of slaves in
ancient times. Despite this long history, Molokwu (2000) further stated that advertising began to
grow very slowly only after the development of print technology. However, it has matured within
the last century due to the pressure of industrial revolution and today industrial economy.
Indeed advertising creates visibility for products so that people know about its existence so that
those who need it can consider it for consumption. Advertising takes different forms; it’s
done through different medium such as radio, television, newspapers, magazines, new
media, satellite and outdoor to mention a few. It is through these media we get informed
about products and services available for the audience. Without these media, the public will
be kept in the dark as to the range of products and services available. While it is important to
the public, producers and manufacturers are the biggest beneficiary of advertisement in any
given situation. According to Ajayi (2005), advertising closes the gap between the producer
and the consumer.

According to Kufo (2001:1), advertising is a profession that thrives on creativity. This creativity
is exemplified in how advertising agencies go about designing and implementing effective
advertising strategies that would capture the attention of the audience members and also go a
step further by creating a favourable disposition towards the advertised brands.

Akashoro (2008:1) also observes that in today’s highly competitive marketing world, the
measure of a successful advertising as a persuasive communication is its ability to make a
difference by breaking through contemporary highly cluttered media environment and catch the
reader’s or viewer’s attention as well as make an impact on the consumer such that the product or
service can be remembered.

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For a better understanding of advertising, therefore, one must appreciate from the start the dual
nature of this process, which draws from both marketing and behavioral science disciplinary.

2.3 Advertising History in Nigeria

Ogechukwu (1997) extensively discusses the historical background of advertising from a biblical
angle. According to him the creation story of the bible shows the first advertisement on earth
happened when the serpent advertised the qualities of the forbidden fruit to Eve and thereby
aroused her want for it. Eve in a very captivating manner re-advertised the fruit to Adam, her
husband. Adam yielded easily to her enticement. So Adam and eve were said to be the first
victim of the overwhelming power of advertising.

It also has been discovered that the earliest men did advertise, though unconsciously. As soon as
man could grunt, he began to advertise to his neighbors about his presence, indicating either
happiness or anger. His war part advertised his tribe whiles the plumage of his head gear,
told his rank.

In Nigeria, the first newspaper was called “iwe irohin” which was published in 1859. The paper
set the landmark for the development of modern advertising in Nigeria. In this sense, one
can say that advertising like other disciplines came via our colonial masters. But this is not
to conclude that we do not have some form of traditional advertising before the arrival of the
colonialist. To say it clearly, before the arrival of the colonizers (the British masters), adverts
had already been regular and is a common practice among the natives of Nigeria Olu
Fadeiro concluded thus, “Advertising is a part of the people and is part of the culture”.
Although our traditional means of advertising were crude and unsophisticated and its messages
restricted to a limited audience, sellers of goods and services found them very serious.
Buyers and users used them to know where the products and services they wanted actually
existed and can be bought.

2.4 Brand Image

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The word “image” as defined by the Oxfords Advanced Learner’s Dictionary is “the impression
that a person, an organization or a product, etc. gives to a person”. It is also defined as “a mental
picture that one has of what somebody or something looks like”.

Keller (2008:93) define brand image as the “perceptions about a brand as reflected by the brand
associations held in consumer memory”. He referred to brand associations as the other
informational nodes linked to the brand node in memory and contain the meaning of the brand
for consumers.

Brand image has also been defined as “the impression that consumers have about a brand of
good or service. The stronger the brand image, the more inelastic the demand for the product is
likely to be” (www.patana.ac.th/linklearn/Linklearn_interface/results/II_check.asp).

The image of a brand can be the deciding factor between its success and failure. According to
O’Shaughnessy and O’Shaughnessy (2004:39), a positive brand image can be the very sole
reason for choosing a brand. They attest to the fact that the image of a brand can have far
reaching effect on why a consumer chooses one brand over another. Furthermore, they posit that
buying on the basis of image saves ‘cognitive’ energy and relieves the tensions of doubt and
hesitancy. This assumption is based on the belief that consumers are ‘cognitive misers’ and often
act on what vividly comes to mind at the moment when the impulse to decisive action becomes
extreme.

Their belief about the image of a brand and how much patronage it gets is that a brand could fail
in the marketplace, not necessarily because it cannot offer satisfaction to its users, but because of
the impression consumers have of it. This impression could have been influenced by friends, the
environment, and even advertising. Hence, advertising should be used to enhance the image of
the brand. In their own view, a successful brand is one that symbolizes an image tied to what the
consumer cares about.

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The image of a brand has often been considered by some to go beyond what people feel about a
product. According to Ernest Ditcher (1964) cited by Arens (2002:51) a product’s image, created
in part by advertising and promotion, is described as “an inherent feature of the product itself”.
Arens also corroborates Ditcher’s statement by adding that subsequent studies showed that while
an advert may not address a product’s quality directly, the positive image conveyed by
advertising may imply quality of same product.

According to Keller (2008:65), brand image depends on the extrinsic properties of the product or
service, including the ways in which the brand attempts to meet customers’ psychological or
social needs. He views a brand’s image as the way people think about a brand abstractly, rather
than what the brand actually does.

This means that it is possible for consumers to have a particular image of a brand when in reality,
that brand may not perform at the level people feel it performs. This confirms the widely held
view of advertising and marketing experts that people do not buy a product for its inherent
quality; rather people buy a product for its perceived inherent quality.

2.5 The Awareness Factor in Brand Image

According to Keller (2008:61), brand image is only possible after brand awareness has been
achieved. In other words, before people can have an impression of a particular brand, be it
positive or negative, they must first be aware of the existence of that brand. He describes the
concept of brand awareness as having two components: Brand Recognition and Brand Recall.

Brand recognition relates to consumers’ ability to confirm prior exposure to the brand when
given the product category as a cue. For example, for a consumer to be able to recognize
Seaman’s Aromatic Schnapps, he must have been exposed to the brand before that time. On the
other hand, brand recall relates to consumers’ ability to retrieve the brand from memory when
given the product category, the needs fulfilled by the category, or the purchase usage situation as
a cue.

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Keller further states that brand awareness can be viewed in terms of its Depth and Breadth. The
Depth of brand awareness, he says, concerns the likelihood that a brand element will come to
mind and the ease with which it does.
On the other hand, the Breadth of brand awareness concerns the range of purchase and usage
situations where the brand element comes to mind. This depends, to a large extent, on the brand
and product knowledge in memory.

2.6 Endorsements
The Oxfords Advanced Learner’s Dictionary defines endorsement as “a statement made in an
advertisement, usually by somebody famous or important, saying that they use and like a
particular product”. Roderstein (2005:4) sees endorsement as a person who gives favourable
opinion about something, for instance, about a brand or a product.

Roderstein (2005:5) goes further to state that three types of endorsers are widely used in
advertising: the typical consumer, the professional expert and the celebrity endorser. Giving a
definition, he said, “the celebrity endorser is defined as any individual who enjoys public
recognition and who uses this recognition on behalf of a consumer good by appearing with it in
an advertisement. The professional expert endorser is characterized as an individual possessing
superior knowledge regarding the product class endorsed while the typical consumer is
circumscribed as an ordinary person without special knowledge about the product class
endorsed.” However, for the purpose of this study, our focus will be on the celebrity endorser.

According to McQuail, (2005:549) celebrity status can be based on recognition of distinction in

different spheres including sports, entertainment, the arts, science, politics and society.
Endorsements are normally used by advertisers especially in the introduction of a new product
into the market. Thus, the assumption is that the celebrities will help to attract and hopefully
retain the attention of the audience towards the brand.

2.7 Rationale behind the Use of a Celebrity

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Celebrities are widely used in advertising because people identify with and possibly emulate
them. How this works is that consumers associate the celebrities’ known characteristics with
product attributes that coincide with the consumers’ own needs (Ong, 2003:2).

Madhukar (2003:4) also presents arguments to corroborate the ones stated by Ong. In his own
view, few advert agencies present the use of a celebrity as a solution to client problems because
in the advertising world, celebrity advertising is seen as a substitute for the “absence of ideas”.

Some of the reasons given for the use of celebrities are:

1. When an agency is unable to provide a viable and exciting solution for his client’s
communication or marketing problem. Thus, the use of the celebrity is seen as an easy
way out;
2. A client looks at a celebrity solution, sometimes, to follow competition. When attacked
with a celebrity, a quick response is to get another one to combat. The result is often, at
best, achieving parity;
3. The desire for the client to rub shoulders with the fashionable, rich and famous. Signing a
celebrity is seen as a passport to achieving that.
Wells, Burnet & Moriarty (1998:262) hold the view that celebrities are used as endorsers for
brands because they are able to convey the product’s message in a very persuasive fashion and
anchor the message in memory more firmly than an “anonymous” person. They also observe that
the most persuasive communication is person-to-person, and the celebrity not only delivers that
contact, he/she brings a glamour that can intensify that association.

Furthermore, Belch & Belch (2004:173) observe that companies spend huge sums of money to
have celebrities appear in their ads because they think celebrities have “stopping power”, that is,
they draw attention to advertising messages in a very cluttered media environment.

With respect to how celebrity endorsements can achieve the desired results when used in
advertising of brands, Ries (2007:2) brings to our attention some important details which should
not be ignored. To start with, she suggests that celebrity endorsements work best when the
consumer has a firm belief that the celebrity would be interested in buying and using the product

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or service despite being paid to do so. Anything otherwise would amount to a waste of financial
resources.

Also, celebrity endorsements can be successful when the celebrity is not one that has endorsed
too many products. Usually, when an ‘over-used’ celebrity is employed, his influence on the
brand may be limited. In addition, she expresses the view that the use of celebrities can only be
effective if the celebrity is believable and if the celebrity is not too famous.

Celebrities that are too famous tend to overshadow the brands they advertise. Finally, she advises
corporate organizations and advertising practitioners to think long term, in other words, the
‘consistency’ principle must be strongly adhered to whenever the issue about recruiting the
services of a celebrity arises.

2.8 Reasons Why Celebrities Were Not Previously Used in Nigeria

Okon (2009) observes that celebrity endorsements were previously not considered as an option
for advertisers for the following reasons:
Ignorance: Most Advertising practitioners were not conversant with the concept of using
celebrities to promote their brands. They were hired to simply advertise, showcase the products
of their clients to viewers, which they did. They were not deeply involved in any marketing
strategy to outdo brands from rival companies.

Indifference: A few were rather indifferent, adopted a lackadaisical approach to the concept,
since they believed that the use of celebrities had no effect on the quality output of the adverts
produced, so they did not bother using them.

Unwillingness to Spend: Most Clients were unwilling to pay the fees required to engage the
services of the celebrities to promote the brands in the advert (which was not as expensive when
compared with what obtains today). Only a few consented to the soliciting and eventual use of
celebrities such as the now defunct Universal Trust Bank (UTB advert: Chief Zebrudaya and
Jegede of the New masquerade TV series fame), Visine eye drops (Regina Askia), Morning fresh

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(Bimbo Oloyede), Panadol (Ovuleria, Akpena in the TV series of the New masquerade), New
Elephant Blue detergent (Chief Zebrudaya, Samanja).

Low Competition: A handful of companies with rivals producing brands in the same sector
existed. In the 80's we basically had two known rival brands of products drawn from different
spheres for e.g. Detergents "Omo and Elephant Blue", Soaps "Lux and "Cussons Imperial
leather", Soft drinks "Coke and Pepsi", Cars "Peugeot and Volkswagen". On the other hand a few
companies produced brands that went unchallenged such as Okin biscuits, Peak Milk, Maltina,
Robb, Thermocool fridge/freezers so the motivation to use celebrities did not really exist.

The game has now changed in Nigeria with companies eagerly parting with cash to ensure that
celebrities are effectively used to promote their brands via both the print and electronic media.

2.9 Benefits of Using Celebrity Endorsements

The use of celebrities in advertising has been argued by some to contain some benefits. These
benefits are encapsulated by Madhukar (2003:4) as the 4Q’s of celebrity endorsement:
Quick saliency: It gets cut through because of the star and his attention getting value.
Quick connect: There needs to be no insight but the communication connects because the star
connects.
Quick shorthand for brand values: The right star can actually telegraph a brand message fast
without elaborate story telling.
Quick means of brand differentiation: In a category where no brand is using a celebrity, the first
that picks one up could use it to differentiate itself in the market.

Katyal (2007:8) also suggests that celebrity endorsement in advertising leads to:
1. Establishment of Credibility: Approval of a brand by a star fosters a sense of trust for
that brand among the target audience. This is especially true in the case of new products.
2. Ensured Attention: Celebrities ensure attention of the target group by breaking the
clutter of advertisements and making the ad and the brand more noticeable.
3. Higher Degree of Recall: People tend to commensurate the personalities of the celebrity
with the brand thereby increasing the recall value.

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 4. Associative Benefit: A celebrity’s preference for a brand gives out a persuasive message:
because the celebrity is benefitting from the brand, the consumer will also benefit.
5. Psychographic Connect: Celebrities are loved and adored by their fans and advertisers
use stars to capitalize on these feelings to sway the fans towards their brand.
6. Mass Appeal: Some stars have a universal appeal and therefore prove to be a good bet to
generate interest among the masses.

2.10 Drawbacks
Despite the seeming positives that advertisers can derive from the use of celebrities to endorse
their brands, there are a number of potential problems with linking a celebrity endorser with a
brand.

Belch and Belch (2004:170) observe that celebrity endorsement could be detrimental to a
product in the following ways:
1. Overshadowing the Product: Celebrities may distract attention from the brand in
advertisements so that consumers notice the stars, but have trouble remembering the
advertised brand. Pepsi decided to drop singers Beyoncé Knowles and Britney Spears
when they felt the Pepsi brand did not get the same promotion from the campaign that the
stars were getting. Also, Chrysler dumped Celine Dion after a year into the four-year
contract when commercials featuring Dion driving a Pacifica produced great sales for the
singer, but not the car!
2. Overexposure: Consumers are often skeptical of endorsements because they know the
celebrities are being paid. This problem is particularly obvious when a celebrity endorses
too many products or companies and becomes overexposed.
3. Risk to the Advertiser: Celebrity endorsers can get into trouble or lose popularity,
diminishing their marketing value to the brand. This could be risky to the advertiser. A
number of entertainers and athletes have been involved in activities that could embarrass
the companies whose products they endorsed. For instance, Pepsi had to sever ties with
Mike Tyson after his wife accused him of beating her and with late singer Michael
Jackson after he was accused of having sex with a 12-year old boy.
4. The Celebrity Trap: Once into a celebrity, it is hard to get out of it. If the brand has done
moderately well after the break of a celebrity campaign, it becomes difficult to separate

20
 the role of the message and the role of the celebrity in selling the brand. Hence, the
celebrity becomes an addiction for the marketing team. Interestingly, celebrity
endorsement is a disease that is seen to spread across a marketing department. Once one
brand manager gets into it, others tend to follow, not wanting to be left behind.

Katyal (2007:10) also adds other weaknesses:

1. Celebrities Using One Brand and endorsing another: This can pose a big challenge to
the effectiveness of the use of a celebrity. It is a commonly held opinion by audience
members that celebrities are often not users of the products they endorse. For example,
many people believe that Genevieve Nnaji endorsed Lux Soap, but doesn’t use it.
2. Mismatch between the Celebrity and the image of the Brand: In some cases, celebrities
have been matched products with which there is no congruence. For example the use of
Nkem Owoh (male actor in Nigeria) in the “Harpic” advert was a mismatch. As a norm in
Nigeria, men do not clean toilets at home, since it is regarded as part of the domestic
duties of a woman. Hence the target audiences to promote any toilet cleaning products are
"women". The use of the celebrity was hinged on outstanding success recorded as a
Nollywood star, hence they felt his popularity would effectively promote the brand and
tremendously boost sales. They must have realized that using him was a wrong move as
women considered it as a mere advertorial propaganda to make them buy the product. His
stepping aside brought on board the remarkable Bukky Wright (a female actress in
Nigeria), though following her predecessor's formulaic advert.

In offering guidelines as to the means through which these problems can be overcome, Keller
(2008:307) makes three recommendations to advertisers with respect to the use of celebrity
endorsements. First, he advises that marketers should strategically evaluate, select and use
celebrity spokespeople. This means that they should choose a well-known and well-defined
celebrity whose associations are relevant and likely to be transferable.

Also, he states that there must be a logical fit between the brand and the product. Whenever
consumers see the celebrity in the advertisement, they should be able to clearly and easily see the
relationship between the celebrity and the brand. Finally, the advertising and communication
21
program should use the celebrity in a creative fashion that highlights the relevant associations
and encourages their transfer.

2.11 Theoretical Framework

Basically, theories are tools on which researches are based. They give research studies the
required footing because they are set out to explain and predict phenomena, and that is why the
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (7th Ed.) defines theory as a formal set of ideas that is
intended to explain something which happens or exists or a set of principles on which an activity
is based.

A theory “is a set of ideas of systematic generalizations based on scientific observation (and)
leading to further empirical observation” (Severin & Tankard, 2001) as cited by Anaeto et al
(2008). This means that we can make predictions about the outcome of certain events.

Kerlinger (1973:23) defines a theory as “a set if inter-related constructs, definitions and

propositions that give a systematic view about phenomena by specifying relationships among
variables with the purpose of explaining and predicting such phenomena”.
Also, McQuail (2005: 14) adds that a theory is a system of law-like propositions and a
systematic set of ideas that can help make sense of a phenomenon, guide action, or predict a
consequence.

For the purpose of this research study, the theories that I have considered suitable are: Source
Credibility Theory and Meaning Transfer Theory.

2.12 Source Credibility Theory

Hovland and Weiss (1951) cited by Anaeto, Onabajo and Osifeso (2008:75) the source credibility
theory is based on the assumption that one of the variables in a communication situation over
which the communicator typically has control is the choice of the source. They believe that
having the right source can increase the effectiveness of a message. In other words, when a
company chooses an effective source to speak for its product, it is using the propaganda device
of the testimonial.
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In an experiment carried out to test the validity of the theory, Hovland and Weiss presented the
same messages to some people as coming from a high- credibility source and to another as
coming from a low-credibility source. The results showed that the high-credibility source
produced more opinion change on 75 percent of the topics presented to the respondents.

This theory points out that the dimensions of expertness and trustworthiness might be important
factors in the choice of the endorser of any brand as this could be helpful in creating positive
image towards a brand.

2.13 Meaning Transfer Theory

Meaning Transfer Theory is a theory suggested by McCracken (1989:310) in the process of
Celebrity Endorsement. According to him, meaning indicates an overall evaluation of celebrity
determined by the consumer's interpretation of the public images of the celebrity conveyed by
several routes (e.g. television and movies). The theory states that an endorser transfers values to
an endorsee that enhances consumer perception of the latter. The model consists of a three- stage
process that begins with public perception and the forming of an image of a particular celebrity.

The celebrity thus has a “meaning” to consumers. The endorsement matches the celebrity with
the brand in stage two and the “meaning” transfers to the brand and in stage three the new
“meaning” for the brand transfers to the consumer.

This theory tends to support the opinion of advertising and marketing scholars who believe that
value attached to a personality is transferable to a product the person associates himself or
herself with.

Chapter 2 Summary

This chapter has provided a thorough insight and description of the subject area. With reference
to various scholars’ views on the concept, dimensions and antecedents. It has reviewed existing
literature under the leading general literature concepts of Advertising, Celebrity Endorsement, Brand

23
Image and other related concepts. Furthermore, this chapter also offered theoretical explanation to the
study. This will be used as a foundation for the research to be undertaken. Methodology and
methods to be used and applied in the research will be discussed in Chapter 3.

CHAPTER 3 – METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction
This study was embarked upon to examine the influence of the use of celebrity endorsement on
brand image, using Hollandia Milk advertisements as a case in point and as such, this chapter
explains the method of investigation, data collection, and general methods adopted in the course
of this study. The relevance of the exercise is to provide the basis for data collection and analysis.
The chapter was subdivided into the following subsections; research design, population of the
study, sample size, sampling techniques, method of data collection, field work, method of data
analysis and the decision rule.

3.2 Research Philosophy

The objective of research is to contribute to knowledge through an empirical analysis of social
and natural phenomena (Carter and Miles, 2007). However, considering that research is
scientific, it implies that the knowledge to be gathered is always in context; that is, the field of
study in question determines that type of knowledge is considered suitable (Saunders, Lewis and
Thornbill, 2007). This brings up the matter of epistemology and ontology; however, for the
aspect of this study, the focus will be on epistemology, since its ontological underpinnings have

24
been addressed elsewhere in the study. The table below shows Christiaans’s (n.d) representation
of how research philosophy plays out, in terms of the process.

Table 1: Research traditions

Epistemology Theoretical perspective Methodology Methods

Positivism
Objectivism Interpretativism Experimental Scaling
Subjectivism Symbolic interactionism Descriptive Questionnaires
Phenomenology Survey Observation
Hermeneutics Ethnography Interview
Feminism Heuristic Focus group
(post)modernism Action research Case study
Social-constructivism Discourse analysis. Narratives
Evaluation Ethnographic
Statistical analysis
Data reduction
Cognitive mapping
Interpretative methodology
Document analysis
Content analysis
Conversation analysis
Source: Christiaans (2014)
From the above, it can be seen that epistemology can be seen from two perspectives: objectivism
and subjectivism. While both of them represent ideological positions towards research, their
similarities stop there. As Holden and Lynch (2010) show, objectivism is an adaptation of the
principles of research in the natural sciences by social scientists, and its dominant position is that
‘facts is everything’, while the reverse applies to subjectivism, which maintains that sometimes,
the truth may be beyond the facts, and beliefs, experience and personal (researcher’s) opinion
may serve the research process as much as facts can. They also went further to show there is the
position of objectivism, research is conducted from the deductive perspective, which generally
25
goes from the general to the specific, while with subjectivism; it is a case of going from the
particular to the generic. These two positions adopt different theoretical perspectives, but this
study will limit itself to just two of them, which are positivism and interpretivism.

3.3 Research Methodology

Before determining which research methodology to employ, there is the need to first know which
options are available to the research, and based on the understanding of each of the options,
choose one that best suits the study.

As stated in the section earlier, a number of research traditions exist from which to choose from,
but they fall under two broad categories: qualitative and quantitative. Hughes (2006) points out
that quantitative research is observed research where the information gathered basically deals
with numbers (both in terms of the information gathered, and the data found after analysis),
while in the case of qualitative research, the emphasis shifts from numbers, both in terms of the
information gathered, and the data found after analysis. According to Burns (2000), he defined
research as a systematic investigation to find answers to problems. Anderson (2006) provides a
table which describes the differences in the characteristic features of qualitative and quantitative
research which helps one to appreciate their uniqueness, strengths and weaknesses.

Table 2: Characteristics of qualitative and quantitative research

Quantitative Qualitative
Objective Subjective
Research questions: How many? Strength of Research questions: What? Why?
association?
"Hard" science "Soft" science
Literature review must be done early in study Literature review may be done as study
progresses or afterwards
Tests theory Develops theory
One reality: focus is concise and narrow Multiple realities: focus is complex and
broad
Facts are value-free and unbiased Facts are value-laden and biased
Reduction, control, precision Discovery, description, understanding,
shared interpretation
Mechanistic: parts equal the whole Organismic: whole is greater than the parts
26
Report statistical analysis. Basic element of Report rich narrative, individual;
analysis is numbers interpretation. Basic element of analysis is
words/ideas.
Reasoning is logistic and deductive Reasoning is dialectic and inductive
Highly controlled setting: experimental Flexible approach: natural setting (process
setting (outcome oriented) oriented)
Establishes relationships, causation Describes meaning, discovery
(Author adapted from Anderson (2006)

Based on the above therefore, the research design to be adopted for this study is a mixture of
qualitative and quantitative methods, namely the survey and interview. According to Sobowale
(1983) (cited by Tejumaiye 2003:85), survey, which is the main research method, involves
drawing up a set of questions on various subjects or on various aspects of a subject to which
selected members of a population are expected to react. In addition, Osuala (1987:81) opines that
surveys do more than merely uncover data; he says they also interpret, synthesize, and integrate
these data and point to implications and interrelationships.

On the other hand, the interview is a common technique for gathering data in for research
purposes, and is more preferred in qualitative studies, and is executed using either of four
approaches which are, personal interviews, postal (or mailed) surveys, telephone interviews and
surveys on the internet (Wegner, 2000:73). According to Creswell (2007), interviews are the
major means by which data are gathered in qualitative studies. In this study, the personal
interview method was selected. This is due to the fact that in the opinion of the researcher, only
experienced professionals who are experts in the field can give the answers that would be useful
in dealing with the research questions. This agrees with the positions of Hooley et al (2012) and
Bell and Campbell (2014) that interviews are preferred where in-depth understanding of a
subject matter can only be achieved through narrative, and interviews are best at providing
narratives.

3.4 Study Location

The study location is Lagos State, Nigeria. Lagos State is one of the 36 federate units (states) of
Nigeria, and it is located in the south-western part (politically referred to as the South-West

27
geopolitical zone) of the country. Even though it has the least land mass among Nigeria's states at
just 3,474 km2, Lagos State is arguably the most economically important state of the country,
and is host to the city of Lagos, which is the Nigeria's largest urban area. The state is further
broken down into five Administrative Divisions, which are further divided into 20 Local
Government Areas, or LGAs and 37 Local Council Development Areas, or LCDAs; and is home
to 9,019,534 people, according to the 2006 population census, even though the Lagos State
government claims it has a population of over 17 million (Lagos State Government, 2016).

3.5 Study Population

There are different definitions of the word population, but the research angle is what interests us
most in this study. In social science research, a population can be defined as including all people
or items with the characteristic that the study wishes to understand. By implication, this means
that the population of a study involves all the persons who can provide information relevant for a
study. According to Ross (2005), it is key to have an accurate delineation of the features of the
population (persons, organisations, objects, etc.) that is to constitute the basis for the study, In
most instances, this population is usually defined, made up of subjects which fit in to some
designated set of specifications. These specifications provide clear guidance as to which
elements are to be included in the population and which are to be excluded. In order to prepare a
suitable description of a population it is essential to distinguish between the population for which
the results are ideally required, the desired target population, and the population which is actually
studied, the defined target population. An ideal situation, in which the researcher had complete
control over the research environment, would lead to both of these populations containing the
same elements.

A certain population is supposed to provide answers and response to the questionnaires, the total
number of types of subjects that are used within a study is known as population (Williamson,
2001) and in this research, the population on which the research was conducted was the Distance
Learning Institute (DLI) students of the University of Lagos, Akoka, Yaba. Lagos, Nigeria.

However, the determination of the sample from a well-defined study population is based on how
well the sampling frame is established. The sampling frame is usually composed by features of
28
the population which best assist the researcher to have a truly representative sample. In the case
of this study, the sampling frame will be restricted to the eight departments under the three sub-
divisions of the DLI faculty within the University of Lagos, Nigeria. These include – the Science
Education division which has four departments namely: Chemistry Education, Mathematics
Education, Biology Education and Physics Education. The Management Science division with
two departments namely: Acoounting and Business Administration and also the Social Science
division with two departments namely: Economics and Public Administration. A simple random
sampling method was adopted in the administration of questionnaires to respondents. The
essence of this was to ensure that every member of each department stood an equal chance of
being selected.

3.6 Sample Size

Gathering information from the entire population for a study is generally considered impossible,
or unwise, especially because there is very rarely enough time or money to gather information
from everyone or everything in a population. Thus, the goal becomes finding a representative
sample (or subset) of that population, which carries all the characteristics of the population. This
study presents the researcher with a dilemma. This is because while there is a need to get as
much constituents for the sample, the expert nature of the study and the research design to be
implemented and the nature of the information that will be generated, there is the need to limit
the constituent number of the sample. Thus, this study will make use of probability sample to
select respondents for the survey, while non-probability would be used to select sample from the
company (CHI – HOLLANDIA MILK). The probabilistic sampling technique that will be used
for this study is simple random sampling, and this was to ensure that every member of each
department stood an equal chance of being selected. Also, the non-probability sampling
technique that will be used is purposive sampling. This technique was chosen because the
researcher is interested in a particular information-rich subset of the organization.

3.7 Sampling Procedure

Whilst there are two broad methods of determining the constituents of a research sample,
probabilistic and non-probabilistic methods, the choice of which of the methods to use depends
solely on the kind of study being conducted. That being said, considering the nature of this study,
29
this study will make use of both probability and non-probability sampling techniques. The
probability sampling technique that will be used for this study is simple random sampling, while
the non-probabilistic sampling technique that will be used for this study is purposive sampling.

3.8 Data Collection Instruments

The instruments used for this study will be the questionnaire and the interview guide. A
questionnaire is an instrument for gathering data. According to Asika (2008:75), a questionnaire
consists of a set of questions designed to gather data for analysis, the result of which are used to
answer the research questions. For the secondary method, the interview guide, defined by
Kennedy (2006) as ‘questions designed for research’, is fashioned out, containing questions
which have their root in the research questions, with the objective of addressing the research
problem and answering the research questions, will be used.

3.9 Ethical Considerations

Before carrying out this research, the researcher will see to it that consent forms and necessary
procedure is taken from the appropriate authorities before questionnaires are shared to the
respondents, the collection and collation of responses from respondents will form data for the
research and the researcher will make sure that these responses is not shared or accessible to any
third party so as to keep their responses confidential.

Also the researcher will see to it that at all stages of this research, ethical procedures and
considerations are followed. This research is being supported by secondary data from textbooks
and journals, the researcher will ensure that these are cited and referenced properly using the
appropriate referencing style.

Questions that will be used in the questionnaires will be constructed and presented in such ways
that it does not cause distress or anxiety to the respondents. At any point in time during the
sharing of questionnaires, the respondents will be given free hand to answer their questions and
no form of harassment or coercion on the researcher’s part to influence responses will be shown.

30
After the analysis of the data gotten from questionnaires, the researcher will ensure that results
and findings are stipulated correctly without forging or adding cooked information to these
results.

Chapter 3 Summary

This chapter gave a clear understanding and description of the research design used in the
dissertation, the population, the sample size, sampling techniques and procedures. It went on to
highlight method of data collection adopted in this study and also addressed ethical issues
encountered in the course of data collection. With data gathered, Chapter 4 analyzes and presents
the information to make sense to readers of the study

CHAPTER 4 - DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION

31
4.1 Introduction
This chapter focused on analyzing the results from the study carried out by the researcher. The
data discussed were obtained from the questionnaires administered on respondents about the
influence of the use of celebrity endorsement on brand image. The questionnaires were analyzed
using univariate tables and the findings were discussed from each table.

A total of 200 copies of questionnaire were distributed to the respondents and 189 were returned
showing a 94% response rate. From the remaining 11 questionnaires, 8 questionnaires were not
returned and 3 questionnaires were not appropriately filled. This represents a total of 6%.
Therefore, this analysis was based on 189 responses of the respondents.

Moreover, the data were presented in two parts. The first part contains information about the
demographic characteristics of the respondents, while the second part answers the research
questions. Finally, brief discussions of the findings from the analyzed research questions were
presented.

4.2 Demographic Characteristics of Respondents

Table 1: Gender
Sex Frequency Percentage (%)
Male 109 58
Female 80 42
Total 189 100

From the table above, 109 (58%) are males while 80 (42%) are females. This means that the
number of male respondents is fairly more than the number of female respondents. Since
both respondent groups are almost equal in number, the results are not expected to be gender
based.

Table 2: Age Group

Age Frequency Percentage (%)

32
Below 18 0 0
18-25 20 11
26-35 72 38
36-45 97 51
Total 189 100

According to the results provided by the table above, respondents within the age range of 36-45
represent 97 (51%) of the total respondents, which is the largest. This is likely due to the fact that
members of the research population are Distance Learning students of the university and are
mostly thought to be within that age group (older persons), unlike the undergraduate students
where there tends to be a relatively higher number of younger persons.

Table 3: Level of Study

Levels Frequency Percentage (%)
100 level 0 0
200 Level 72 38
300 Level 24 13
400 Level 47 25
500 Level 24 13
600 Level 22 11
Total 189 100

A careful examination of the table above reveals that 200 level students were 72 (38%) of the
total population while the number of 400 level students follows a little bit close at 47 (25%). 300
level students and 500 level students recorded 24 (13%) each, while 600 level students were just
22 (11%) of the total population.

Table 4: Religion of Respondents

Religion Frequency Percentage (%)
Christianity 101 53
Islam 85 45
Traditional 3 2
Total 189 100

33
The table above showing the respondents’ religious affiliation reveals that majority of the
respondents was Christians, they were 53%. Those who were Muslims stood at 45%, while the
traditional worshippers were just 2%.

4.3 Answering the Research Questions

Research Question 1: How does celebrity endorsement enhance the image of Hollandia Milk?
Table 5: Does the use of celebrities affect how you perceive Hollandia Milk?
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
Yes 72 38
No 117 62
Total 189 100

From the table above, it would be observed that the proportion of respondents whose perception
of Hollandia Milk is not affected by celebrities is largely more than the number of respondents
on whom celebrities affects their perception of the brand. This figure given by the table above
tends to give the impression that celebrities are hugely ineffective to effect a change of
perception of majority of the consumers.

Table 6: Does the use of celebrities make you believe the adverts of Hollandia Milk?
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
Yes 70 37
No 108 57
Not Sure 11 6
Total 189 100

The table above illustrates that more people do not believe the adverts of Hollandia Milk as
against those who believe them. 108 (57%) respondents do not believe the contents of the adverts
while 70 (37%) believe and 11 (6%) are not sure. This shows that the number of respondents
who do not believe the adverts is more than those who believe and those who are not sure put
together.

It can be deduced from the table that the “believability” challenge associated with the use of
celebrities is a major issue which should be addressed by advertisers and their agencies if their
adverts will be effective in positively shaping the perception that people hold of their brand.
34
However, it is evident that most of the respondents are indifferent to these celebrities in terms of
their perception of the brand. They are also skeptical as regards the ability of the celebrities to be
persuasive enough to make them buy the product.
Research Question 2: How is Hollandia Milk celebrity endorsement advertisement perceived by
its customers?
Table 7: Respondents’ awareness of the Hollandia Milk advertisement
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
Yes 117 62
No 72 38
Total 189 100

Table 7 shows the respondents’ awareness of the Hollandia Milk advertisement. 117 (62%) of the
respondents claimed they are aware of the advertisement, while 72 (38%) said they are not aware
of the advertisement. Hence, the number of those people that are aware of the advertisement is
more than those that are not aware.

Table 8: Does the celebrity used in the advertisement influences/affects respondents’ choice
or preference?
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
Yes 109 58
No 80 42
Total 189 100

From the table above, the number of respondents that agreed the celebrity used in the
advertisement influences/affects their choice or preference. While 109 (58%) agreed to have
been influenced/affected, 80 (42%) of the respondents do not agree.
Table 9: Respondents’ perception of Hollandia Milk Advertisement
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
Good 60 32
Bad 19 10
Fair 110 58
Total 189 100
From the table above, it is evident that the respondents mostly perceived the Hollandia Milk
advertisement as a fair campaign. More than half of the respondents 110 (58%) perceived it as
fair, followed by 60 (32%) of them that perceived it as a good campaign and just 19 (10%) of the
35
respondents perceived the advertisement as a bad campaign. Hence, it is safe to conclude that the
Hollandia Milk’s advertisement is favourably perceived by a large number of the respondents,
thereby making the advertisement a successful campaign.

To give credence to this finding, Ong (2003) has explained that celebrities are widely used in
advertising because people identify with and possibly emulate them. He stated that the idea of
celebrity works because consumers tend to associate the celebrities’ known characteristics with
product attributes that coincide with the consumers’ own needs.

Research Question 3: How effective are the celebrity endorsements in terms of attracting and
holding consumers’ attention?
Table 10: Do you think celebrity endorsement of brands necessary in order to draw consumers’
attention?
Response Frequency Percentage
(%)
Yes 38 20
No 151 80
Total 189 100

From the table above, it is evident that the use of celebrities to endorse products does not
necessarily draw the attention of the consumers to the product. 151 (80%) of the respondents do
not think it is necessary, while 38 (20%) of them said it is necessary to use celebrities to endorse
products.

Table 11: Will you buy Hollandia Milk because it is endorsed by your favourite celebrity?
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
Yes 41 22
No 62 33
Maybe 86 45
Total 189 100

Table 11 shows that the largest percentage of the population was indifferent if they could buy a
product because it is endorsed by their favourite celebrities. 86 (45%) of the respondents were

36
indifferent, 62 (33%) said no, and 41 (22%) claimed that they will buy Hollandia Milk because it
is endorsed by their favourite celebrities.

Table 12: Do celebrities used in Hollandia Milk attract you to buy the product?
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
Yes 27 14
No 102 54
Indifferent 60 32
Total 189 100

The results from Table 12 show that 102 (54%) respondents are not persuaded enough to
purchase the product through the use of celebrities. This was followed by the number of
respondents 60 (32%) that are indifferent about it, while 27 (14%) agreed that the use of
celebrities in advertisement has persuaded their purchasing decisions of the product.

If the responses of the respondents are anything to go by, their celebrities have only been able to
achieve minimal impact in this regard with only 27 (14%) positive responses. However, this
tends to give the impression that celebrities though attractive, may not be strong enough to
deliver the desired results in terms of making ample sales of the advertised product. This is why
Madhukar (2003) also argues that few advert agencies present the use of a celebrity as a solution
to client problems because in the advertising world, celebrity advertising is seen as a substitute
for the “absence of ideas”.

Research Question 4: What role does a celebrity play in the purchase decisions of the
consumer?
Table 13: Do you think these celebrities are credible sources?
Responses Frequency Percentage (%)
Yes 69 37
No 31 16
Can’t Say 89 47
Total 189 100

Based on the premise of the table above, respondents who think celebrities are credible sources
are 69 (37%) those without a definite opinion on the question stand at 89 (47%) while those in

37
the negative stance amount to 31 (17%) respondents. This suggests that the credibility of
celebrities as regards their use in advertising remains a very contentious issue in the advertising
profession.

The lack of belief in the credibility of the celebrities was attributed to the belief that the
celebrities were endorsing the brand for the money and that the celebrities were not trustworthy
persons.
Table 14: Do you think products sales are higher if they are endorsed by a celebrity?
Responses Frequency Percentage (%)
Yes 26 14
No 31 16
Not Sure 132 70
Total 189 100

Table 14 represents respondents’ views on whether product sales are higher if they are endorsed
by a celebrity. A large percentage of the population 132 (70%) are not sure if it does increase
sales, 31 (16%) claimed it does not increase and 26 (14%) agreed that celebrity endorsement of
products bring about product sales.

As a result of the above premises, it is imperative to state that the sale of the product cannot be
said to be the effect of the use of celebrities. Even though people tend to want to associate with
their “heroes”, it takes more than the attraction they feel towards the celebrity to persuade them
to patronize the product.

Research Question 5: Does the celebrity’s identity influence Hollandia Milk’s choice of brand
ambassadors?
In reacting to the question of whether the celebrity’s identity influences Hollandia Milk’s choice
of brand ambassadors, Omosanya Patrido explains that to a very large extent, the celebrity’s
identity influences the company’s choice of brand ambassador.

According to him, the major thing the company considers in any celebrity is “mass appeal”. The
overall positive image of the celebrities is the first to be considered because they must have the
ability and charisma to appeal to a very large heterogeneous audience.

38
 The celebrity to be considered must have attained a level of success in his or her chosen career.
Product ambassadors like Basket Mouth, P-Square, Pasuma and Desmond Elliot are household
names in then Nigerian entertainment industry and can be referred to as successful persons in
their chosen fields of endeavor.

This goes a long way to corroborate the position of Wells, Burnet & Moriarty (1998). They hold
the view that celebrities are used as endorsers for brands because they are able to convey the
product’s message in a very persuasive fashion and anchor the message in memory more firmly
than an “anonymous” person. They also observe that the most persuasive communication is
person-to-person, and the celebrity not only delivers that contact, he/she brings a glamour that
can intensify that association.

In another complementary twist, Belch & Belch (2004:173) equally observe that companies
spend huge sums of money to have celebrities appear in their ads because they think celebrities
have “stopping power”, that is, they draw attention to advertising messages in a very cluttered
media environment.

Research question 6: Will celebrity endorsement influence customers to consider Hollandia milk
as their first choice?

Table 15: Does use of celebrity makes Hollandia milk your first choice in dairy products.

Response Frequency Percentage (%)

Yes 45 22
No 60 33
Maybe 84 45
Total 189 100

Table 15 represents views on whether celebrity endorsement will make customers consider
Hollandia milk as the first choice. Larger percentage of the population 84 (45%) are not sure, if it
will really influence them to make Hollandia milk their first choice, 60 (33% ) are of the view
that it does not change their position that it can never be their first choice and 45 (22%) strongly
agreed that it influenced their decision in making Hollandia milk their first choice. As a result of

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 these, it is noteworthy that the use of celebrity does not influence customers on which product
they make their first choice. According to (Giddens 1991), brands assist users in overcoming
negativity, such as fragmentation, powerlessness and uncertainty which are found in modern
society as they move to go against commoditization. De Chernatony et al (2001) claimed that
individuals have stopped purchasing goods solely to possess them, instead of using them to
become someone.

Research question 7: Does celebrity endorsement lead to overall Satisfaction with Product
and Sales Promotions?

Table 16: Will endorsement of celebrity by Hollandia milk gives overall satisfaction with
product and sales promotions?
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
Yes 41 22
No 62 33
Maybe 86 45
Total 189 100

Result from table 16 indicates that 86 (45%) were unsure, while 62 (33%) strongly disagreed and
41 (22%) strongly affirmed that they were satisfied with the product and sales promotions more
especially with the use of celebrity of their choice. It’s documented that consumers select brands
that possess anthropomorphic characteristics. (Maehle et al 2011), stated that links between
personality and brand satisfaction are limited.

Chapter 4 Summary

This chapter captures analyzes the data captured using the tools already explained in the capter
and present them in a meaningful pattern thus answering research question outlined the first
chapter
Chapter 5 summarizes and concludes the entire dissertation, highlighting values,
recommendation, limitation

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CHAPTER 5 – DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

5.1 Summary
The research study focused on the use of celebrity endorsement in influencing brand image
towards a negative or otherwise image of the brand. The problem investigated was to find out the

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influence of the use of celebrity endorsement on brand image, using Hollandia Milk
advertisement as the case study.

The study reviewed existing literature under the leading general literature concepts of
Advertising, Celebrity Endorsement, Brand Image and other related concepts. Also, the Source
Credibility and the Meaning Transfer theories were given as the theoretical background to the
topic under study.

The survey research method, using questionnaire and interview as the instruments of data
collection, was used to examine the opinions of the University of Lagos, Nigeria students and the
Hollandia (CHI) staff respectively.

More so, a total of 200 hundred questionnaires were administered coupled with an interview
conducted with a Sales Executive of Hollandia. It should be stated here that 189 questionnaires
were returned and valid for analysis.

Based on the entire research work and the corresponding findings after the data were analyzed,
the following are some of the major findings:
1. Based on the data collected, it is evident that consumers are indifferent to the use
celebrities in terms of their perception of the brand. They are also skeptical as regards the
ability of the celebrities to be persuasive enough to make them buy the product.

2. According to the responses gathered, the celebrities used in the advertisement of the said
product did not influence the perception of the majority of people as regards the product
even though the celebrities had their fans.

3. The use of celebrity endorsement of products is less effective in terms of attracting and
holding consumers’ attention. This tends to give the impression that celebrities though
attractive, may not be strong enough to deliver the desired results in terms of making
ample sales of the advertised product.

4. With the analysis of data above, it is evident that the sale of the product cannot be said to
be the effect of the use of celebrities. Even though people tend to want to associate with
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 their celebrities, it takes more than the attraction they feel towards the celebrity to
persuade them to patronize the product.

5. Consumer awareness of the brand is impressively high and a major factor responsible for
this is the celebrities’ mass appeal. The mass appeal of the celebrity is an identity that
influences the company’s choice of brand ambassadors.

5.2 Limitation
However I, the author of this thesis, do identify the findings as reliable and valid, some
shortcomings and limitations were encountered. Firstly the dissertation is based on a single
product in Nigerian market in order to get more reliable result about the topic , a larger number
of product and service across different industries would have given a more valid result also a
more international product not restricted to the Nigerian market would have also given a more
valid result.

Furthermore there was limitation since this study was conducted in Nigeria and all the
questionnaire based analysis that is done are all from Nigerian students. This research was
exploratory and had a relatively small sample size; there is a need for confirmatory research with
a larger sample testing. Another limitation of research is that when it comes to whether celebrity
endorsement influences brand image is that the study does not take customer perceptions and
attitude change towards the brand hollandia into account. This would have strengthened the
trustworthiness of the results and would have been a reliable indicator on whether hollandia
brand image actually has changed as a result of their previous campaigns, in terms of customer
perceptions. Another primary limitation is related to the generalization of the research results.
Most important generalization issue is related to sample and there was also limited discussion on
financial aspect that is (strategic brand management)

5.3 Conclusions
The study explored the tendency of correspondence between the use of celebrity endorsement in
advertising and brand image. It also looked at the issue from the advertiser’s perspective. The
massive use of celebrities in the advertising of Hollandia Milk clearly implies that the advertisers

43
have chosen celebrity endorsements based on the celebrities mass appeal and good image, and
intend to continue using it as its major advertising strategy.

However, it is imperative to note that the use of celebrities may not have the desired effect due to
a number of reasons, some of them including the “credibility” issue and a “faulty marriage”
situation. Whether the sole aim of using celebrities in adverts is to promote the company’s
brands, with a view to achieving the projected sales profit or even surpassing same, it is not
always easy to actually find out the actual impact that celebrities have had on a brand.

5.4 Recommendations
In view of the findings of the study, it is very important that marketers should exercise a high
degree of caution when considering the option of using the celebrity endorsement strategy and
subsequently the choice of celebrity in the event of its decision to use the strategy.

They should also ensure that whoever will be chosen is capable of delivering maximum benefits
in terms of achieving a highly positive image transfer. More so, advertisers of the Hollandia
brand could also consider the option of combining celebrity endorsements with adverts
containing “ordinary” people so as not to be seen as an organization that lacks ideas.

Lastly, this dissertation leaves adequate possibility for additional research to be carried out thus it
would be recommended that further researches be conducted on the use of celebrity
endorsements in advertising, especially with particular reference to the Nigerian market
situation. To also carry out studies in other nations and include all possible industries to find out
whether there is any significant difference in the impact on the customers who are geographically
apart. Further study can also be carried out which involve a different demography besides
students.

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