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The Reality Behind Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Material
The Science of Biodegradable Plastics

by: Rod Alire, Chief Scientist

Interest in biodegradable disposable plastic items has steadily grown over the last decade.
Disposable packaging materials used to ship and protect purchased items as well as disposable
containers used for food and drink are of special interest. The idea that one time use items can
be disposed of with the peace of mind, that they will not remain for centuries in a landfill, or as
litter, is one of the tenets driving the recent interest in “green” technologies and lifestyles. With
packaging materials, the reduction in usage of raw materials, re-use and recycling is of course
the best route to sustainable lifestyle. However, for various reasons, in practice, much of the
material ends up being discarded to a landfill or accidentally shows up as litter. For these
instances, it is advantageous to have a plastic material that would biodegrade when exposed to
environments where other biodegradable materials are undergoing decay.

What is Biodegradable?

Biodegradation is degradation caused by biological activity, particularly by enzyme action

leading to significant changes in the material’s chemical structure. In essence, biodegradable
plastics should breakdown cleanly, in a defined time period, to simple molecules found in the
environment such as carbon dioxide and water. The American Society of Testing and Materials
(ASTM) defines ‘biodegradability’ as:

“capable of undergoing decomposition into carbon dioxide, methane, water, inorganic

compounds, or biomass in which the predominant mechanism is the enzymatic action of
microorganisms, that can be measured by standardized tests in a specified period of time,
reflecting available disposal conditions.”

During this process of biodegradation, the large molecules of the substance are transformed
into smaller compounds by enzymes and acids that are naturally produced by microorganisms.
Once the molecules are reduced to a suitable size, the substances can be absorbed through the
organism cell walls where they are metabolized for energy. Most naturally occurring materials
such as yard waste, food scraps, etc., contain these large molecules and biodegrade in this way.
Aerobic and Anaerobic Biodegradation

Aerobic biodegradation is the breakdown of an organic substance by microorganisms in the

presence of oxygen. Almost all organic materials can be metabolized in an oxidative
environment by aerobic organisms. The organism has secreted enzymes that breakdown
substances into smaller organic molecules which are then absorbed into the cells of the
microbes and used for cellular respiration. During the respiration process, the organic
molecules absorbed into the cells are broken down in steps, where a molecule known as
adenosine-5’- triphosphate (ATP) is used to store and transport energy for cells, for life
processes such motility and cell division. In biochemistry this chemical reaction sequence is
known as Electron Chain Transfer. In the case of aerobic metabolism, oxygen is used at the end
of the chain as the final electron acceptor, producing the main byproducts of carbon dioxide
and water.

Composting is a well known and common use of aerobic biodegradation, during which the
volume of organic material is typically reduced by about 50%, where the remaining, slow-
decaying humus material left over can be used as a rich planting medium. The ASTM defines a
compostable plastic material as being:

“capable of biological decomposition in a compost site as part of an available program, such

that the plastic is not visually distinguishable and break down to carbon dioxide, water
inorganic compounds and biomass at a rate consistent with known compostable materials (e.g.
cellulose).”

The biomass material referred to here is humus. The bioactivity in active compost will generate
heat that further enhances the rate of microbial growth and metabolism. However, for the
purpose of the ASTM definition, the available program is an industrial compost facility where
heat and moisture are artificially added to the mass to maximize the degradation rate. As we
will see, this artificial environment becomes critical for degradation of some biodegradable
plastic materials.

Anaerobic biodegradation occurs in the absence of oxygen where anaerobic microbes are
dominant. In the absence of oxygen the organism must use some other atom as the final
electron acceptor. Hydrogen, methane, nitrogen and sulfur are common along with oxidizing
minerals. Thus, the effluent from anaerobic digestion is biogas, consisting of mostly methane
and carbon dioxide, with trace gasses such as ammonia and hydrogen sulfide. Often, the
complete digestion will require several different types of bacteria where one type partially
processes the waste to a point where another bacterium strain takes over (4). Most
biodegradation of solid waste in landfill occurs under anaerobic conditions by design because it
is typically much slower than aerobic degradation.

Most biodegradable substances come from plant and animal matter, or from artificial materials
that are very similar in molecular structure to these naturally occurring substances. As the
naturally occurring substances evolved, microorganisms also evolved to use the substances as a
food source: the carbon in particular, used as a building block for life-sustaining compounds.
Simple sugars are readily absorbed into the cell to be metabolized. However, larger and more
complex molecules such as starches, proteins and cellulose, require enzymes and acids to
reduce their size enough to be absorbed. Living organisms have developed the ability to secrete
specific digestive compounds so as to best utilize the available food supply. For example, the
enzyme amylase, found in human saliva, is used to breakdown long-chain starch molecules into
and smaller simple sugars.

For microorganisms, this adaptive process can be applied to other, more complex carbon
containing compounds in crude oil. This type of microbial biodegradation has been
demonstrated for hydrocarbons derived from petroleum (10)

Biodegradable Plastic Materials

Currently available degradable plastic materials can be broken down into two main groups:
1. Polyester Polymers
2. Synergistic and Hybrid Polymers

The Polyesters

When one thinks of polyesters in general, the polymers that come to mind are very durable
with good physical and mechanical properties. A good example is polyethylene terephthalate
(PET). This polymer is strong, abrasion and stain resistant, so it can be a good choice for
carpeting and clothing. It also has good gas barrier properties which make it ideal for soda
bottles. These polymers, which are also resistant to biodegradation, typically contain a large
number of six-carbon rings in their molecular structure. In chemistry, compounds containing
these rings are known as aromatic compounds.

Biodegradable polyesters which do not contain six-carbon rings are known as aliphatic
polyesters. They will typically react with moisture at elevated temperatures to breakdown the
long polymer chains. This process, called chemical hydrolysis, reduces the higher molecular
weight polymer to much smaller hydrocarbon compounds. The resulting molecules can then be
absorbed by microorganisms and metabolized for energy. Since it is a chemical reaction, the
hydrolysis occurs at a much higher rate than one would expect for a purely biological process,
and as a result, relatively quick degradation is observed.

Aliphatic polyesters have attracted interest as biodegradable plastic materials; however they
typically have poor physical and mechanical properties (3) like strength, flexibility, heat
resistance, etc. Some common biodegradable polyester polymers in commercial use include
poly(caprolactone) (PCL), poly(glycolic acid) (PGA) and poly(butylene succinate) (PBS).
These are synthetic polymers, made from petroleum-based, raw materials, and like most
biodegradable polyesters have inferior mechanical properties e.g. low heat deflection
temperature and low elongation failure (brittle). They will also begin to hydrolyze at modest
temperatures in the presence of moisture, rapidly losing molecular weight and further
decreasing mechanical properties. Although expensive to make, these biodegradable polymers
are ideal for use in specialized, high margin applications such as medical devices (e.g.
dissolving, drug delivery systems, tissue engineering scaffolds and bone repair etc.).(2)

Another well known aliphatic polyester is poly(lactic acid). PLA is a synthetic polymer made
from fermented sugars extracted primarily from food crops such as corn, beets or sugarcane.
The resulting lactic acid monomer is chemically processed and then polymerized, in the
presence of a metal catalyst, to form the high molecular weight plastic material. Like the
petroleum-based biodegradable polyesters, PLA has many of the same undesirable mechanical
properties, such as low heat deflection temperature. Figure 1 shows the affects of 170oF water
on cup made from PLA. The polymer is also very brittle and has a low-melt strength leading to
difficulty in processing. Consequently, most commercial applications using PLA require a
synthetic rubber and/or acrylic additive to compensate for these deficiencies.

Figure 1 – Poly (lactic acid) Cup Before and After Adding Hot Water

Degradation of PLA occurs quickly through a multistep process (4) of chemical

depolymerization, followed by dissolution of the intermediate lactic acid in the presence of
moisture, and the absorption into the cells of microorganisms with subsequent metabolization.
Initiation of this chain of events typically occurs at elevated temperatures (above heat
deflection temperatures), such as conditions existing in an industrial compost operation. The
relatively fast chemical reaction at the beginning of the chain of events explains the
surprisingly quick degradation of polymer in an industrial compost environment. This
mechanism of chemical attack followed by cell metabolism does not meet the true definition of
a biodegradable material inasmuch as biological activity is not required for the initial breakup
of the material. In low temperature aerobic or anaerobic environments where initial hydrolysis
occurs slowly, biodegradation of PLA also proceeds very slowly if at all.
Another family of biodegradable polyesters, which could in a way be viewed as more complex
extensions of the molecular structure of PLA, is known as polyhydroxy alkanoates (PHA’s).
Intriguingly, PHA’s are natural polymers also derived from plant sugars but are synthesized
within the bacteria themselves. The PHA’s are manufactured and used as carbon storage in the
cells(6), similar to the way the human body stores fat to be used as an emergency food source.

One of the more notable polymers in this class is polyhydroxy butyrate (PHB), and like the
synthetic aliphatic polyesters, it has the same poor physical and mechanical properties, and an
additional disadvantage of being quite expensive. A cousin to PHB, which is actually a
copolymer, was developed to help improve these deficient properties. This co-polyester is
known as polyhydroxy butyrate-valarate (PHBV) and has much better, and more useful,
thermoplastic properties that are similar to polypropylene(5). Since these materials are
produced by microorganisms as an emergency food source, they are, by design, easily
biodegradable by direct enzymatic action of microorganisms, and don’t necessarily require the
chemical hydrolysis reaction step first. It has been shown that bacterially produced PHB/PHV
(92/8 w/w) deteriorated nearly to completion within 20 days of cultivation by anaerobic
digested sludge, while synthetic aliphatic polymers such as PLA, PBS, and poly(butylene
succinate adipiate) (PBSA) did not degrade at all in 100 days (1).

For degradable polyesters, the best improvement in physical properties is obtained by

synthetically creating a polyester copolymer using both aliphatic and aromatic groups. These
are typically derived from oil-based raw materials such as 1,4-butanediol, adipic acid, and
terephthalic acid (7). Using this technique, the polymer can be tailored to balance the excellent
physical and mechanical characteristics of the aromatic polyester groups with the degradation
and subsequent mineralization of the aliphatic groups. These polymers are also readily mixable
with pure aliphatic polyesters like PLA, or natural polymer like cellulose, to form a hybrid,
degradable polymer with improved performance.

Synergistic or Hybrid Polymers

Synergistic polymers are typically intimate mixtures of oil-based and naturally occurring
polymers where the two have some chemical affinity for each other. When mixed, there is
intimate contact between the two polymer chains so as to create a homogenous single phase. In
other words, once mixed they could not be mechanically separated. This is somewhat akin to
mixing gelatin powder with hot water to form a single uniform substance, once cooled.

A good example of a commercial, synergistic, biodegradable material is Thermoplastic Starch

(TPS). The key to this blend of the two natural starch polymers, amylose and amylopectin, and
the synthetic polymer, polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH), is their natural affinity to each other, due to
the large number of hydroxyl (OH) groups present in the compounds. This hybrid can be made
into foamed articles, plastic films or molded parts such as cutlery. Generational adaptations that
occur during the digestion of the familiar starch groups quickly begin to breakdown the
synthetic PVOH chains.

The intimate mixing of the natural and synthetic polymers can be taken one step further: where
the attraction of the synthetic and natural polymers is enhanced by grafting other chemically
compatible groups along the chains of the natural and/or synthetic polymers. As with the
PVOH, this technique enhances biodegradation through generational adaptation which can be
initiated with relatively small additions of natural polymers. To illustrate how this could be
possible, it has been shown that polyethylene will biodegrade via a monooxygense enzyme
pathway (9). Initiation of the process begins with the formation of a biofilm on the surface of
the polymer, which is facilitated by the inclusion of the compatible natural polymers. These
films of microorganisms have been shown to efficiently biodegrade petroleum based polymers
(8).

Low-level synergistic enhancement does not materially impact the physical and mechanical
properties of the original synthetic polymer. Therefore, the product applications are not
restricted beyond what would normally be expected for the un-amended polymer. Since the
additive itself will not degrade the polymer or affect processing, the ability for recycling or
reuse of the plastic article will be unaffected. Unintended degradation will not occur since the
initial colonization requires an environment where existing biodegradation is occurring or
would normally be expected to occur, either aerobic or anaerobic. Additional heat is not
required, and no chemical, polymer-chain weight reduction process is needed beyond the
enzymatic action of the microorganisms.

Figures 2 – 6 illustrate a short period, pictorial history of the biodegradation of polystyrene

loosefill particles containing this kind of synergistic additive. Figures 7 – 10 show a similar
history for polyethylene film containing the additive taken from a back yard compost
environment.

Polystyrene Loose-Fill Biodegradation

Synergistic Additive
Compost History

Fig. 2 – Amended, Unexposed Loosefill

Fig. 3 – Uniform Foam Cells; Amended, Unexposed
Loosefill Magnification 18X
 

Fig 4 – Amended Exposed 3 Months in Compost

Fig 5 – Degraded Foam Cells and Pits, Amended

Exposed 6 Months, Magnification 18X
Fig 6A – Amended Exposed 6 Months in Compost

Fig 6B - Amended Exposed 9 Months in Compost (left)

vs. Original Sample (6A)

Polyethylene Film Biodegradation

Synergistic Additive
Compost History

Fig 7 – Amended, Unexposed Film

Fig 8 – Amended Exposed 3 Months in Compost

Fig 9 – Amended Exposed 6 Months in Compost

Fig 10 – Amended Exposed 6 Months, Magnification
20X Fungus Colonies

Conclusion
For the choice of materials to be used in the manufacture of a more environmentally friendly
packaging material, the criteria needs to take into account business considerations and
strategies, while addressing environmental concerns related to the life cycle of the packaging.
The primary purpose of the packaging material is to protect the items being shipped from
damage via impact or abrasion, and therefore protection should be the first consideration. The
material will also need to perform in largely uncontrolled, ambient conditions of heat and
humidity; thus, the next consideration should be given to the products’ possible end-of-life
scenarios. The scenarios include disposal in landfills, litter, recycle, etc. Finally, material costs
need to meet market criteria.

Conventional polymer technologies have been able to tailor materials that can meet the market
need of both cost and performance. There is infrastructure in place for recycling and/or re-use
of many of these materials, which is the most desirable destination in the life cycle of the
packaging product. With inclusion of a synergistic additive, such as that used by FP
International, the materials would also be well-suited for the less desirable destinations, such as
landfills.

The other biodegradable polymer options have no recycle infrastructure, and could possibly be
viewed as having been designed to be thrown out. However, the fact that many of these
polymers, like PLA, are limited to biodegradation in only commercial compost facilities,
further decreases the potential for a desirable end-of-life scenario. Moreover, while the
bacterially produced polyesters (PHB/PHV) would biodegrade in a more general disposal
scenario, they are particularly cost-prohibitive for most packaging applications.

In addition to sustainable choices in materials for FP International’s products, FP has ongoing

programs for reduction of raw material and energy usage, recycling, increased production
efficiencies, efficient product design and increased recycled, raw material usage.

About the Author

Rod Alire is Chief Scientist for FP International. Mr. Alire carries more than 20 years
experience in polymer processing with particular expertise in polymeric foam and film
extrusion processes. His projects have emphasized environmental impact mitigation and
sustainability through new product design and manufacturing technologies. By Mr. Alire’s
development of a theoretical model for mass transport phenomena and foam expansion
behavior in polystyrene packaging material production, FP International was able to reduce the
usage of raw materials and density of the products being produced.

In order to replace the use of CFC’s – chlorofluorocarbon, (known to be harmful to the ozone
and environment), Mr. Alire designed and built a high pressure, foaming agent metering and
delivery system for polymer foam extrusion. Also, he developed polyolefin polymer blends and
a blown film process for production of PMOS (products manufactured on-site) air bag
materials. These airbags are 99% air, since they can be manually deflated or popped, they also
 reduce the size of materials produced for recycling. Also, the size of the film air cushion
materials takes less space to ship, thus less cost and lowers the use of trucks (lowering gas use
and truck emissions). Currently, Mr. Alire is working to increase the strength and mechanical
property of the film itself, in order to produce film which uses less material.

Plastic has emerged as one of the most commonly known

materials across the world. It is used for making various
products, ranging from kid's toys to spaceships. The
versatility of plastic is due to the its physical
properties like water resistance, relatively low cost and
comparatively easy methods of manufacturing. It has
replaced most of the traditional materials like wood,
leather, glass, etc. We all are familiar with plastic and
use it in various forms in our day to day life. But, most
of us may be unaware of the different types of plastic.
So, let us take a look at the various types of plastic.

Classification of Plastic

There are many different criteria to classify plastic. As

per the chemical structure, plastic is classified into
various types; acrylic, polyester, silicone,
polyurethane, and halogenated plastics. If classified on
the basis of properties, which affect the product design,
it can be categorized into; thermoplastic, thermoset,
elastomer, structural, biodegradable, and electrically
conductive. Plastic can also be classified on the basis
of method of production or physical properties. In short,
there are various criteria for classifying plastic and it
depends on the ultimate use. However, for a common man,
most of these classifications are irrelevant. So, let us
take a look at that method of plastic classification,
which can be identified by ordinary people.

Types of Plastic and Plastic Recycling

Plastic is a material, which degrades very slowly. It is

said that, it takes around 100 to 500 years for discarded
plastic to get degraded naturally. This revelation led to
the concept of plastic recycling, which was promoted by
almost all nations. However, this method confronted
various hurdles and one among them was different types of
plastic required different methods of recycling and there
was no universal standards to classify plastic, which is
used in various products. It was in 1988, the SPI (The
Society of the Plastics Industry) designed the symbol
code for plastic classification. The symbol code consists
of a triangle of arrows, inside which there are numbers
ranging from 1 to 7. Most of us are familiar with this
symbol embossed on plastic items like pet bottles, yogurt
cups, etc. This system of classifying plastic is
considered to be a uniform coding system, which helps
both consumers and recyclers to differentiate between the
various types of plastic. Apart from that, it gives a
clear idea about which plastic is used for manufacturing
that product. Read more on:

 How is Plastic Made

 Plastic Bottles Health Hazard
 Plastic Recycling Facts

Plastic Types as per Number Coding

Now, we know that plastic is classified through a number

coding system which makes it easier to sort out different
plastic items for recycling. The following are the
different types of plastic, as per this coding system.

 The coding symbols start with number 1 (i.e, a

triangle of arrows with number 1 inside it). This
plastic is polyethylene terephthalate (PETE) and the
easiest one to recycle. Pet bottles, medicine
containers, water bottles, etc. are made of this
plastic, which can be easily recycled to fiberfill
for winter coats, sleeping bags and life jackets and
can also be used in making bean bags, furniture, etc.
 Those plastic items coded with number 2 are made up
of a high density polyethylene (HDPE). This plastic
is mainly found to be used to make detergent and
 shampoo bottles, milk jugs, etc. This type of plastic
is recycled to make rope, pipes, toys, etc.
 Number three is assigned for those plastics, which
are made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC). It is often
found to used in the manufacture of shower curtains,
window and door frames, plastic pipes, automotive
parts, etc.
 Number 4 goes to those plastic items, that are made
of low-density polyethylene (LDPE). This is found in
sandwich bags, wrapping films, dry cleaning bags,
trash can liners, etc.
 Plastic items made of polypropylene (PP) are given
the number 5. This plastic is used to make
Tupperware, margarine tubs, microwaveable bowls,
bottle caps, etc.
 The next one is number 6, which is used to denote
plastic made of polystyrene (PS) and is commonly
known as Styrofoam. This plastic is mainly used in
making coffee cups, meat trays, peanut packages,
plastic tableware, etc. This plastic can be recycled
to make a rigid foam insulation and many other items.
 Number 7 is assigned to those plastics which do not
fall under the categories of 1 to 7. These are not
usually collected for recycling, as it is considered
to be the most difficult category for recycling.

Now, you have a basic idea about the different types of

plastic, which are classified according to the use and
chances of reprocessing. Among them, the number 1, 2 and
6 are commonly collected for recycling, but, 3, 4, 5 are
not recycled on a regular manner. Plastic items without
numbers too are not fit for recycling. So, you can reduce
the use of plastic or else, opt for those in category 1,
2 and 6.