Circular Motion and Gravitation

Circular motion is everywhere, from atoms to galaxies, from flagella to Ferris wheels.
Two terms are frequently used to describe such motion. In general, we say that an
object rotates when the axis of rotation lies within the body, and that it revolves when
the axis is outside it. Thus, the Earth rotates on its axis and revolves about the Sun.

When a body rotates on its axis, all the particles of the body revolve – that is, they move
in circular paths about the body’s axis of rotation. For example, the particles that make
up a compact disc all travel in circles about the hub of the CD player. In fact, as a
“particle” on Earth, you are continually in circular motion about the Earth’s rotational
axis.

Gravity plays a large role in determining the motions of the planets, since it supplies the
force necessary to maintain their nearly circular orbits. Newton’s Law of Gravity
describes this fundamental force and will analyze the planetary motion in terms of this
and other related basic laws. The same considerations will help you understand the
motions of Earth satellites, of which there is one natural one and many artificial ones.

Angular Measure

Motion is described as a time rate of change of position. Angular velocity involves a

time rate of change of position, which is expressed by an angle. It is important to be
able to relate the angular description of circular motion to the orbital or tangential
description, that is, to relate the angular displacement to the arc length s. The arc
length is the distance traveled along the circular path and the angle θ is said to subtend
(define) the arc length. A unit that is very convenient for relating angle to the arc length
is the radian (rad), which is defined as the angle subtending an arc length (s) that is
equal to the radius (r).

2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 360°

360°
1 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = = 57.3°
2𝜋

The number of radians subtended by an arbitrary arc length is equal to the number of
radii that will go into s, or the number of radians. Thus,

𝑠 = 𝑟𝜃

Sample Problems:

1. A spectator standing at the center of a circular running track observes a runner start
a practice race 256 m due east of her position. The runner runs on the same track
 to the finish line, which is located due north of the observer’s position. What is the
distance of the run?

2. A sailor measures the length of a distant tanker as an angular distance of 1° 9’ with

a divided circle. He knows from the shipping charts that the tanker is 150 m in
length. How far is the tanker from the sailor?

3. Convert the following angles from degrees to radians: (a) 10° (b) 27° (c) 451°

𝜋 𝜋
4. Convert the following angles from radians to degrees. (a) 𝑟𝑎𝑑 (b) 𝑟𝑎𝑑 (c) 1.25
25 10
𝑟𝑎𝑑

5. What is the arc length subtended by an angle of π/4 rad on a circle with a radius of
6.0 m?

6. A jogger on a circular track that has a radius of 0.250 km jogs a distance of 1 km.
What angular distance does the jogger cover in (1) radians and (2) degrees?

7. If the arc length is twice the radius of a circle, what angle subtends this arc?

Angular Speed and Velocity

The angular speed is given by the formula

𝜃
𝜔= or 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡
𝑡

The unit of angular speed is rad/s. But a more common descriptive unit is rpm
(revolutions per minute). This nonstandard unit of rpm is readily converted to rad/s
since 1 revolution = 2π.

Relationship Between Tangential and Angular Speeds

A particle moving in a circle has an instantaneous velocity tangential to its circular path.
For a constant angular velocity and speed, the particle’s orbital or tangential speed v
(the magnitude of the tangential velocity) is also constant.

𝑠 = 𝑟𝜃 = 𝑟𝜔𝑡

The length of the arc or the distance is also given by

𝑠 = 𝑣𝑡
Combining the last two equations, we get

𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔

where ω is in rad/s.

Period of Frequency

Some other quantities commonly used to describe the circular motion are the frequency
and period. The period T is the time it takes for an object in circular motion to make one
complete revolution or cycle. The standard unit for the period is second (s).

Closely related to the period is the frequency (f), which is the number of revolutions or
cycles made in a given time, generally a second.

1
𝑓=
𝑇
2𝜋
𝜔= = 2𝜋𝑓
𝑇

Sample Problems:

1. On an old 45-rpm record, the beginning of the track is 8.0 cm from the center and
the end at 5.0 cm from the center. What are the (a) angular speeds and (b) the
tangential speeds of a point on the record at these distances when it is spinning at
45 rpm?

2. A compact disc (CD) rotates in a player at a constant speed of 200 rpm. What is the
CD’s (a) frequency and (b) period of revolution?

3. The blades of a helicopter rotor travel at 14π rad/s. What is the angular speed of the
rotor in rpm?

4. A satellite in a circular orbit has a period of 10 hours. What is the frequency in

revolutions per day?

5. What is the period of revolution for (a) a 33-1/3 rpm phonograph record, (b) a 45-rpm
record, and (c) and old 78-rpm record?
Uniform Circular Motion and Centripetal Acceleration

A simple type of circular motion is uniform circular motion, which occurs when an object
moves at a constant speed in a circular path. An example of this is a car going around
a circular track. The motion of the Moon around the Earth and of some electrons around
the nucleus of an atom are approximated by circular motion.

The acceleration in uniform circular motion is called centripetal acceleration, which

means center-seeking acceleration. Without the centripetal acceleration, the motion
would not be in a curved path, but in a straight line. The magnitude of the centripetal
acceleration is

𝑣2
𝑎𝑐 = = 𝑟𝜔2
𝑟

Sample Problems:

1. A space station is in a circular path about the Earth at an altitude h of about 5.0 x
102 km. If the radius of the Earth is 6.4 x 10 6 km and the space station makes one
revolution every 95 minutes, what are its (a) orbital speed and (b) centripetal
acceleration?

2. A laboratory centrifuge operates at a rotational speed of 12,000 rpm. (a) What is the
magnitude of the centripetal acceleration on a red blood cell at a radial distance of
8.00 cm from the centrifuge’s axis of rotation? (b) How does this acceleration
compare to g?

Centripetal Force

To provide an acceleration, there must be a net force, thus to produce a centripetal

acceleration, we must have a centripetal force (net inward force). The magnitude of the
centripetal force can be expressed as

𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹𝑐 = 𝑚𝑎𝑐 =
𝑟

The centripetal force, like the centripetal acceleration, is directed toward the center of
the circular path.
Sample Problem:

1. A car approaches a level, circular curve with a radius of 45.0 m. If the concrete
pavement is try, what is the maximum speed at which the car can negotiate the
curve at a constant speed?

Newton’s Law of Gravitation

The universal law of gravitation is powerful and fundamental. Without it, we will not
understand the cause of tides or know how to put satellites into particular orbits around
the Earth. This law allows us to analyze the motions of planets and comets, starts and
galaxies. The word “universal” means it applies everywhere in the universe. The
magnitude of the mutually attractive gravitational forces between two masses is give by

𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹=
𝑟2

where G = 6.67 x 10-11 N•m2/kg2 and r is the distance between the two objects.

Sample Problem:

1. Estimate the magnitude of the mutual gravitational force between the Earth and the
Moon. ME = 6.0 x 1024 kg, mM = 7.4 1022 kg and rEM = 3.8 x 108 m.