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30-03-20-11 Masters of Military Studies Research Paper September 2010- April 2011
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Military Application of Apiculture: The (other) Nature of War N/A
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Lois Delaney, Drug Enforcement Administration NIA
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14. ABSTRACT
The use of bees in warfare predates 400 BC. The unique characteristics of the honey bee are currently being exploited in three ways which may
advance military capabilities in the future. First, using the Free Flight Method ofLandmine Detection, trained bees are released near a suspected
minefield and within minutes they detect and co11gregate over landmines. Secondly, inside Contained Detection Devices trained bees extend their
straw like tongues, called proboscises, when they encounter the odors of explosives. The bees' reaction, known as the Proboscis Extension Reflex
(PER), is captured by pattern-recognition software, it statistically translates the bees' behaviors into an electronic response which then alerts the
operator. Thirdly, in the Hybrid Insect Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (ID-MEMS) project, researchers are attempting to develop technology to
create cybernetic organisms, cyborgs, out of bees and other insects. The objective is to control the cyborgs' flight and motions by remote control.
Used individually or in swarms, cyborgs could potentially conduct reconnaissance missions, deliver toxins, collect intelligence, track targets, and
retrieve samples, all while blending in with the environment
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 United States Marine Co1ps
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MASTER OF MILITARY STUDIES

MILITARY APPLICATIONS OF APICULTURE: THE (OTHER) NATURE OF WAR

SUBMI'IT.ED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT

OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF.
MASTER OF MILITARY STUDIES

BY
ASSISTANT SPECIAL AGENT IN CHARGE LOIS DELANEY
DRUG ENFORCEMENT ADMINISTRATION

Mentor and Oral Defense Connn· !tee Member: --~~~~~~~~~~~~~--

Approved: ---=~'1-6.....=:::,....-==-------,-----------­
Date:----~-----~~~~~
 DISCLAIMER
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INDIVIDUAL STUDENT AUTHOR AND DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT THE
VIEWS OF EITHER THE MARINE CORPS COMMAND AND STAFF COLLEGE OR ANY
OTHER GOVERNMENTAL AGENCY. REFERENCES TO THIS STUDY SHOULD
INCLUDE THE FOREGOING STATEMENT.

QUOTATION FROM, ABSTRACTION FROM, OR REPRODUCTION OF ALL OR ANY

PART OF THIS DOCUMENT IS PERMITIED PROVIDED PROPER
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT IS MADE.
 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Title: Military Applications of Apiculture: The (other) Nature of War

Author: ASAC Lois Delaney, US Drug Enforcement Administration

Thesis: Historical uses of apiculture in warfare are largely primitive; however, the unique
characteristics of the honey bee may advance military capabilities in the future.

Discussion: Historical uses of bees in warfare predates 400 BC, when Aeneas Tacticus, alca
Aineias the Tactician, author on the art of war, wrote How to Sw1Jive under Siege, which
discusses deployment ofbees in defense of a fortified position. 11rroughout the globe, across the
sea, and in the American Civil War, the World Wars, and the Vietnam War, honey bees have
been unwitting participants.

Free Flight Method ofLandmine Detection- Landmines continue to be a threat to the military
and civilians. Traditional mine detection is slow and dangerous. Recently, scientists have
exploited the honey bees' exceptional sense of smell, and through Pavlovian conditioning have
trained bees to detect the scent of various explosive materials. Conditioned bees can be released
near a s11spected minefield and within minutes they detect and congregate over landmines.

Contained Detection Devices --Proboscis Extension Reflex (PER)- Researchers keyed on the
bee's natUral instinct of extending its straw like tongue, a proboscis, when it encounters odors it
associates with food. Bees trained to associate the scent of explosives with food, exhibit the
Proboscis Extension Reflex (PER). The bees aie being placed in portable detection units;
pattern-recognition software statistically translates the bees' PER behaviors into an electronic
response which is then displayed on a Personal Data Assistant (PDA). The unit has accurately
detected explosives on persons, in places and things.

Hybrid Insect Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (HI-MEMS)- The HI-MEMS project is

attempting to develop technology to create cybernetic organisms, cyborgs, out of bees arid other
insects. The objective is to control the cyborgs 1 flight and motions by remote control. The
cyborgs are to be outfitted with one or multiple sensors, such as a microphone, video camera or
gas sensor and will have the capability to stream collected data. Used individually or in swanns,
cyborgs could potentially conduct recom1aissance missions, deliver toxins, collect intelligence,
track targets, and retrieve samples, all while blending in with the environment.

Conclusion: The free flight method oflandmine detection is a promising teclmique which will
likely be utilized on a global scale for hrnnanitmian demining. Contained Detection Devices
(PER) units need to be implemented in prolonged actual real life conditions before its military
operability cm1 be detennined. The HI-MEMS project is still under development; therefore, its
actual viability is unlmown. Historically, cunently m1cl fuhnistically, military applications of
apiculture m·e relevant.

ii
 Preface

In 2007, I became aware of Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD), a global phenomenon in which
honey bees are disappearing in record quantities. Honey bees are pollinators of 80 percent of our
agricultural products; CCD is having a negative impact on pollination and food production. TI1e
emerging crisis motivated me to become a beekeeper in an effort to help repopulate the honey
.bee.

An unintentional by-product of maintaining several hives was plentiful honey, which led to my
high school aged daughter establishing a nonprofit honey company, Bee Blessed Honey. In
partnership with a community recycling group the honey is bottled in recycled glass jars. Raw,
unpasteurized wildflower honey, such as ours, contains pollens derived from the local flora and
is proven to naturally build the consumer's immunity against seasonal allergies. The medicinal
benefits have secured customers preordenng the entire amount of honey produced every season
and all profits are donated to charity.

The study of apiculture has been rewarding and ha:s led me to delve.,into many other related
topics. Early on iri my beekeeping literature I had read a reference to Romanp' soldiers
catapulting hives, later when enrolled in the Command and Staff College, I became interested in
researching historical and current military applications of honey bees.

iii
 Table of Contents

Page

DISCLAIJVIER ....................................... -....................................................... .i

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ........................ -....................................................... .ii

PREFACE ............................................. _....................................................... .iii

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 1

FREE FLIGHT LAND MINE DETECTION ....................................... ·........................ 9

CONTAINED DETECTION DEVICES- PROBOSCIS EXTENSION REFLEX (PER) ....... 13

HYBRID INSECTMICRO-ELECTRO-:tvffiCHANICAL SYSTEMS (HI-MEMS) .............. l9

CONCLUSION .............................................................................................. 21

PHOTOGRAPHS........................................................................................... 23

ENDNOTES ................................................................................................. 25

BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................................................................... 29

iv
 This paper will briefly discuss the association between war and insects; it will then examine past

and futuristic military applications of apiculture. The Defense Advanced Research Agency

(DARPA), has sponsored honey b~e research in the areas of Free Flight Landmine Detection,

Contained Detection Devices based on Proboscis Extension Reflex (PER), and Hybrid Insect

Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (HI-MEMS). The unique characteristics of the honey bee

can be exploited to advance demining, security, and other military capabilities in the future.

War and insects have always maintained a clandestine relationship. The most direct linkage has

been through insect-borne diseases such as typhus, transmitted through the bite of lice and ticks;

bubonic plague, contracted through lice and fleas; and malaria and yellow fever, transmitted by

infected mosquitoes. During war, overcrowding, mixing of populations, limited medical care,

decreased hygiene, and malnutrition are common; these factors make soldiers more susceptible

to disease and facilitate epidemics. 1 Spontaneous insect-borne epidemics have greatly influenced

or even determined the outcome of wars. Napoleon Bonaparte's Grande Armee suffered high

causalities;~however, for each soldier killed in battle four others died from disease? Of the
J

causalities in the American Civil War, two-thirds were caused by disease. In both cases, the

primary causes of the diseases were insect-borne p'athogens. 3

Aside from the natural spread of disease by insects, there are three ways insects have been

weaponized. Insects have been used to deliberately transmit pathogenic microbes in order to

spread disease among the enemy, to introduce agricultural pests intended to destroy livestock and

crops, and to perform direct attacks on humans to infect injury or fear. 4 The conscription of .

insects has been a documented practice for centuries. Deployed hornets defeated enemies in the

. Old Testament, according to EXODUS 23:28 "I will send the hornet ahead of you to drive the

1
 Hivites, Canaanites and Hittites out of your way," DEUTERONOMY 7:20 "Moreover, the

LORD your God will send the hornet among them until even the surv.ivors who hide from you

have perished," and JOSHUA 24:12 "I sent the hornet ahead of you, which drove them out

before you--also the two Amorite kings. You did not do it with your own sword and bow." 5

For insect missions aimed at inflicting injury or fear and which may require pursuit, flying

venomous bugs which can be deployed in mass, such as hornets, wasps and bees, are well suited.

Among these, the bee, and specifically Apis Mellifera - the honey bee, is evidently the favored

winged warrior. Perhaps the bond of over 5000 years of beekeeping has helped to make man

and honey bee trusted allies. The practice of apiculture, the harvesting of honey and bee's wax,

- ·--~iS coillinonlyperformecr in-riear proximity of one 's· resi'denc-~Tlie-·constnitti'oncifSome··------ .. ----------

medieval castles, forts, and homes included recesses on the outer walls, called bee boles or bee

niches, where bee hives were kept. Not only did the recesses protect the hives from foul

weather, the bees were readily accessible, and the hives could be pushed off the ledge by

reaching through a passage hole on the inside of the wall. The falling hives hampered enemies

who were attempting to penetrate or scale the structure. 6 The Romans believed that bees

provided omens which foretold the outcome of military conflicts, a sighting of a swarm signaled

misfortune. 7 Experts in bee management, the Romans made panoptic use of bees in warfare.

Romans routinely catapulted beehives over the walls of garrisons or fired the hives directly into

enemy forces; the practice was so widespread that it is believed to have endangered the number
8
of hives towards the end of the Roman Empire. In some cases, even the. bee's honey was used a

weapon. While fighting in Asia Minor against the Heptakometes, Roman soldiers led by

Pompeii the Great, consumed jars of honey they bad discovered along a mountain path. The

9
soldiers became seriously ill and "were afflicted as if they had all gone mad." The

2
 Heptakometes then emerged, attacked and defeated the soldiers. The Heptakometes had set the
~-····--·------------------

honey out as bait because they knew that the honey was derived from the nectar of the local

Rhododendron plants, a substance safe for bees but poisonous to humans. Understandably, when

the Romans later conquered the' region, they refused to accept honey as payment for the war

tax. 10 In 946, the SlavicS t. Olga, the first saint of the Russian Orthodox Church and a ruler of

Kiev, avenged her son's death with the use of mead, also known as honey wine. She served the

mead to 5000 of her enemies who were attending her son's funeral. Once intoxicated, they were

slain by St. Olga's allies. 11 In the 1100's, Roman Catholic monk and historian, William of

Malmesbury, reported that under the reign of King Stephen of England, army commander Robert

Fitzhubert "used to expose his prisoners, naked and rubbed with honey, to the burning heat of the
-- ··------·-··-···---

12
sun, thereby exciting flies and other insects of that kind to sting them."

A sacred Mesoamerican text, the Popul Vuh, details accounts of the ancient Ma yans in

Guatemala constructing warrior manikins to make their army appear larger. The heads of the

manikins were hollowed gourds filled with bees. When the enemy attacked, the gourds

dislodged, broke and released the bees; the Mayans then gained the advantage in the ensuing

13
chaos. The Mayans also molded hollow clay spheres with a small entrance hole· in each. The

spheres were placed near bee colonies which soon took up residence. Before battle, the spheres'

entrances would be plugged with grass which effectively trapped the bees inside, but permitted

oxygen flow. During battle, the "bee grenades" would be lobbed into the ranks of the enemy,

14
shatter, and release the angry bees.

In 400 BC, Aeneas Tacticus, aka Aineias the Tactician, a General of the Arcadian League and

Greek author on the art of war, wrote How to Survive under Siege, which discusses methods of

defense in a fortified position. He prescribes "besieged people to release wasps and bees into

3
 tunnels being dug under their walls, in order to plague the attackers." 15 Tacticus' method

proved successful for Ethelfleda of Mercia iH 908, when rhe fortification surrounding the city of

Chester, England was attacked by Danes and Norwegians led by Hingamund (Old Norse:

Ingimundr). The Scandinavians were unable to break through the walls so they dug tunnels and

were undeterred until the inhabitants threw all the city's beehives into the burrows. 16 In 939,

Geiselbert Duke of Lorraine attacked a fortified position of King Otto I of Germany. Bee hives

were thrown at the Duke's cavalry, the horses were stung severely and panicked; it caused the

. siege to be a complete failure. 17 The citizens of Gussing in Burgenland (now Austria) repelled

Duke Albert of Austria and his army in 1289, by deploying a combination of "hot water, fire

ba!l~S and bee hi\'es." 1~ A!I_:g_~glish manual-----------

on military-------weapons
-~ -~ -
by
.....
Walter de Milemete in- -1326,
--,---------

contains a sketch of a windmill type device launching bee hives, a second sketch depicts the

_ hives descending on a fortress and its soldiers being attac.ked by bees. 19 The Kissingen Parish

Chronicle (Bavaria) reported that in 1642, Swedish soldiers led by General Reichwald attacked

the town and were forced to retreat when the defenders threw bee hives on them.Z 0

In the 18th century, a number of vi·olent conflicts between the Austri~ns and the Turks took place

in Belgrade. At one point the Turks penetrated the city walls but were stopped by a barrier of

bee hives. 21 Honey bees also served in the Navy, "As early as 332 BCE, earthen hives were

thrown onto enemy decks, and with the advent of the catapult, bees and hornets became standard

projectiles on the high seas. Across the Greco-Roman and Syro-Palestinian worlds and into the

Middle Ages, warships carried bee hives as part of their arsenals." 22 Records kept by Abbe Della

Rocca in 1790 'relay an incident in which a small privately owned war vessel was chased and

boarded by an armed Turkish galley. The crew of the smaller vessel climbed its rigging and

threw earthenware hives at the Turks. 23 In Nigeria, the Tiv people fed a portion of their bees

4
 poison, allegedly causing the sting to be lethal. 24 On the battlefield the Tivs projected the

poisoned bees at their enemies through "bee cannons," created from large custom-made horns. 25

During the American Civil War, at the Battle of Antietam, brigades under Union General

William French, crossed the fields of the Roulette Farm, outside of Sharpsburg, Maryland. 26

While advancing, the rookie 132nd Pennsylvania Volunteers sought cover in the Roulette's bee

yard until a Confederate cannon ball tore through a row of hives. "The slapping, swearing

regiment was disintegrating and the Union commanders worried the panic would spread across

the enti~e front. The Pennsylvania unit was mdered to double-q~ick march p'~stthe Roulette

farm, which allowed the troops to escape the bees but left them without cover. The Confederates

--------- exploited the opportunity with a devastating volley of musketry ." 27

A woman in Georgia used her honey bees to prevent both Union and Confederate soldiers from

plundering her farm. The woman fastened a cord to one of her hives and ran the cord through a

hole into her house. As soldiers approached, she pulled the cord, the hive fell, and angry bees

drove the soldiers away. This line of defense was successful on numerous occasions. 28

In World War I, the Germans used trip wires strung to bee hives in order to delay advancing

British troops. 29 In a separate incident, Belgian soldiers trapped in an apiary managed to escape,

in part by throwing frames of bees at the Germans. 30 During the Italian conquest of Ethiopia

(1935-6), the natives dropped bee hives from mountain heights on to Italian tanks and "the bees
31
easily entered the tanks, teirorizing the Italian drivers and causing the loss of several tanks."

Attacks by bees were also a concern for US tank soldiers in Vietnam. The book Vietnam Tracks:

Armor in Battle, 1945-1975, states "A swarm of bees descending on a tank was no trivial matter,

and several crews became seriously ill as a result of multiple stings."32 The Asian honey bee,

5
 Apis Dorsata, is larger and more aggressive than domestic honey bees, and both the North and

South Vietnames~ devised booby traps to disrupt the wild hives in the jungle.33

In the past, honey bees have been used in both defensive and offensive measures. A recent

defensive application under development involves the detection of landmines. Landmines have

been widely used as weapons of war since the mid 19th century. They are easily manufactured,

inexpensive and effective. 34 Landmines serve three functions in warfare: (1) to delay forces

resulting in a loss of synchronization and loss of surprise; (2) to damage or destroy vehicles and

dismounted soldiers; and (3) to cause fear and anxiety in enemy troops. 35 Unfortunately, even

with the assistance of the United Nations and humanitarian organizations, many post conflict

----nations lack the· resources and infrasrructure-to clear their minefields and-innocent civilians-have-····-·--···-·····

become the primary victims. 36 Additionally, the presence of landmines prevents civilians from

resuming normal activities, such as farming, which in turn delays the country's post conflict

recov~ry. 37 An estimated 45-50 million mines were not yet cleared in 2001. 38 A 2003 study

conducted by the RAND Corporation, estimates 15,000- 20,000 causalities are caused by

landmines each year, of which over 30 percent of the victims are children. 39 Blast survivors

commonly suffer the loss of limbs, have shrapnel wounds and may be blinded. 40 The RAND

study suggests that at the current rate in which minefields are being cleared by government and

nongovernmental organizations, it will take between 450-500 years to clear them all, and that is

if no new landmines are laid. 41

In conventional mine detection, an area is divided into grids and a deminer using a metal detector

and a prodding stick, sweeps the detector close to the ground and slowly advances forward.

When the detector sounds an alert, the deminer probes the area with the stick. If the object is

6
determined to be a mine, il is detonated using one of an array of detonation methods. This type

of mine detection is extremely dangerous and slow, it has changed little in the past 40years. The

RAND report, Alternatives for Landmine Detection, evaluated multiple emerging and innovative

mine detection technologies. RAND grouped the landmine detection systems into five major

categories: Electromagnetic, Acoustic/Seismic, Bulk Explosives, Advanced Prodders/Probes and

Explosive Vapor; each system has strengths and limitations. 42 Detection of explosive vapors is

the method which identifies the location of mines by their emanating odor. This category

includes the use of trained sniffing dogs and more recently the use of trained honey bees in free

flight landmine detection. 43

Nearly all buried landmines leak expl?sives or chemical derivatives into the ground. 44

Approximately "95 percent of the explosive will absorb to the surrounding soil, the remaining 5

percent will travel away from the mine, mostly through dissolution in water in the soil pores.

Some of this explosive will migrate to the ground surface in vapor form." 45 Thus the

concentrations of vapors present for detection are exceptionally low, requiring the sensor (i.e.

dogs or bees) to be able to perform detection at an incredibly low threshold. 46 Demining dogs

are valuable assets in locating landmines; some dogs possess a higher olfactory sensitivity than

mechanical detection instruments. 47 Demining dogs, trained to react to the odor of trinitrotoluene

(TNT) and other explosive compounds, proceed through minefields followed by their handlers.

When the dog detects an explosive scent, it sits down and the handler or another deminer

examines the area with a probe to determine if it is a mine ..Although sniffing dogs are effective,

the degree of effectiveness varies from dog to dog. A dog's training and the ability of its handler

are factors, as well as environmental conditions such as weather and terrain. 48 Utilizing

7
demining dogs is problematic in that the dog's weight can trigger landmines, multiple dogs
····--~-····~-··· ·-------------------

cannot be deployed at once, making the search process slow, and because a minefield must be

searched thoroughly and repeatedly dogs quickly become fatigued. 49

DARPA has a billion dollar a year b_udget to test innovative ideas for defense applications. 5°

DARPA began seeking researchers to develop safer, more efficient methods of locating

landmines. Aware that scientists at the University of Montana (UM) had already capitalized on

the foraging characteristics of honey bees to assist in monitoring environmental conditions, ., .

DARPA contracted. the UM to perform research to determine if the honey bees' keen sense of

smell could be. exploited. to detectexplosives. 51___ _

For the previous thirty years, UM researchers had been utilizing honey bees to collect samples of

the environment. Honey bees are natural foragers; they forage for water, nectar, propolis, and

pollen. Honey bees are diligent workers and cover large distances; in order to create one pint of

52
honey, the bees visit approximately 5 million flowers. Additionally, bees from just one hive

often make tens of thousands of foraging flights a day ... They routinely !ravel within a two-three

mile radius, encompassing almost 6000 acres. 53 Honey bees have branched hairs all over their

bodies which create a static charge. The hairs pick up chemical and biological particles from the

environment. UM researchers positioned hives near areas of interest, such as landfills or

chemical plants, and relied on the bees to take passive samples. When the bees returned to their

hive, the trace particles on the bees were tested, as well as the honey and the bees wax. Through

the sampling data scientist are able to evaluate the environment by testing for pollutants. The

8
 method also has a military application because the environment can be assessed in the same way
~---·-·---·--· ·-·---· - - - - ·

for the presence of biological warfare agents or explosives.54

At DARPA's direction, UM scientist subsequently focused their efforts on conditioning their

bees to seek specific "odors of interest." 55 The bees' sense of smell, or olfactory abilities, is

extraordinary. Bees' two antennae consist of 3,000 microscopic sensory organs, which can

56
distinguish over 170 various scents in nature: Bees use their olfactory abilities to locate food,

but also as a method of communication. Be.es produce a variety of pheromones, which at:e _.1,_.

chemical scents. The release of pheromones triggers behavioral responses from other bees. The

scent c~~~ use~ ~sa navigati~J1~!-~i~; it can commu11i9ate a bee's developmental status,

wellbeing, sexual attraction, urgency for productivity, or alarm. 57

FREE FLIGHT LAND MINE DETECTION

UM researchers succeeded in orientating honey bees to specific "odors of interest" by

supplementing the bees' food with trace amounts of explosive byproducts used in landmines. 58

The bees quickly learned to associate the scent of the explosives with food. 59 Caffeine, which

improves the bees' memory was also added to the bee food along with a unique mixture of 0 ther
60
substances (patent p·ending), which bees actually prefer over their natural food sources. After

9
just one or two days of conditioning, a colony of bees (approximately 40,000) can be released in
--------·-·--·-------------------
the area of a minefield and they will seek out the scent of the explosive compounds they were

conditioned for, while completely ignoring the flora. 61 The conditioning method requires very

little effort, is inexpensive, and can be used to train tens of thousands of bees at one time to

detect a variety of explosive compounds.

The University of Montana, DARPA, Sandia National Laboratories (SNL) and the Air Force

Research Laboratory (AFRL), have participatl~~d in a number of trials held at Fort Leonard V{pQd .

Army base in Missouri. Fort Leonard Wood maintains minefields and utilizes them for testing

purposes. The mines are_a~~i~~_!:JlJt are Uf1fused. Colonies of_~o.E~H!.oned be~~_'.Y~re__position.~d

safely on the outer perimeter of one of the minefields. Within minutes of being released, the bees

detected the landmines' vapor plumes and followed the scent of the plume several meters to its

62
source. The bees dwelled above the source and although they didn't receive a food reward,

they continued to visit the spot repeatedly. Those areas which became densely covered with bees

and where bees·exhibited longer dwelling time indicated where the explosives were buried. 63

The tests were conducted with explosive chemical concentrations so small that they are

measured in parts-per-billion (ppb) and parts-per trillion (ppt). An example of one ppb is the

equivalent of a single drop of ink in one of the largest tanker trucks used to haul gasoline; the

64
ink concentration would be 1 ppb. The concentration of one ppt is equivalent to one drop of

65
ink in a string of railroad tanker cars· ten miles long; the ink concentration would be 1 ppt.

The explosive chemical 2,4-dinitrotoluene (DNT), which is a byproduct of trinitrotoluene (TNT)

manufacturing, is the overriding chemical found from the majority of landmines. 66 In the tests,

using 2,4 DNT in vapor concentrations at ppb and ppt, the bees' detection rate was between 97

10
 67
and 99 percent. The average vapor concentration in minefields is approximately 0.01 -100
-----------------··-~·

pptr; therefore, is well within the range of detection by honey bees. 68 Additionally, scientists

"calculated a 1.0-2.5 probability of false positive, and less than a 1 percent probability of false

negative, based on three different statistical sampling strategies. Calculated receiver operating

characteristics (ROC) curves for 10 pph through 0.0001 ppb indicated that for doses higher than

0:01 ppb (10 ppt), the bee system behaves like a very fine-tuned, nearly ideal, detector." 69

The be,,.;:s' ability to detect explosive odors.at low concentration exceeds, that, of nearly all

manmade detection methods and can equal that of demining dogs. 70 The bees were able to

__ ___ correctly identify the targets over a plot_ted are~--~~!~~~--t~an o~::_~1~ur, ~l!ile a search of the sam~----
-;c·- ---

There are several additio~al

71
area by demining dogs would have taken hours or days.

advantages of utilizing bees rather than dogs: 1) bees weigh one-tenth of a gram so they won't

trigger mines; 2) bees do not require a handler to enter the minefield; 3) bees can be trained and

deployed within a day; 4) bees operate autonomously and search areas repeatedly; 6) once

deployed the bees need no guidance and they independently return to the hive at dusk; 7) bees

from local beekeepers across the globe can be used, and 7) overall costs are far lower than dog

72
teams.

There are limitations to utilizing bees for the detection of mines; bees do not fly at night, during

beavyrain or strong winds, and they remain in the hive when temperatures are below 40 degrees

73
Fahrenheit. These limitations are almost inconsequential given mine detection is not a

nighttime activity and detection based on vapors will be severely hampered in rain or winds in

and of itself.

11
-···----~·-····--·----
·--~---------------------------

A major obstacle to deploying bees over large areas to locate landmines is the ability to track and

plot the bees effectively. 74 Bees can easily fly upward of2 Y2 miles from the hive in a single

foraging trip; therefore, visual observations and use of cameras or video are only feasible at

short-range. 75 Initial, and since abandoned tracking techniques included dusting the bees with a

reflective florescent powder and fittin'g the bees with miniature radio frequency tags. 76 At the

Fort Leonard Wood trials tracking became far more proficient with the use of Light Detection

and Ranging (LIDAR) technoLogy .. In coordination with the. National Oce.anic. and. Atmosphe..r_ic ·,·:

Administration (NOAA), a LIDAR system which was developed and utilized for tracking fish

__ '_YaS adapted to map the position of the bees. 77

-------··- ,,. - - - · · - - · - · - -

LIDAR is similar to radar which uses radio waves, and to sonar which uses sound waves.

LIDAR emits a pulsed laser light in conjunction with a photomultiplier. The unit scans back and

forth, horizontally over a specified area. 78 As it strikes the bees, the light is reflected back and

the return signal indicates the location of the bees. 79 Essentially, "Individual bees are located by

synchronizing the detection of scattered light with the timing emitted laser pulses and the

position of the beam." 80 With the generated data, the location and dwell time of the bees was

mapped and showed an accurate depiction of the placement of the mines. 81 Interestingly, in the

same trial, the LIDAR also detected bee congregation in an area outside the mine area, in what

was believed to be a mine free control area. Throughout the three day trial, a numbero:f the bees

gathered on the exact same spot in the control area. A sample was taken of the pinpointed soil

and was determined to contain TNT and DNT. The bees had located an explosive contaminate

82
in the control area which no one had been aware of previously. The LIDAR systen1 is

12
 undergoing refinement and modifications to make it more light-weight and field-portable. 83

Although further sophistication in LIDAR is being sought by researchers, the simplicity of the

bee detection system still allows beekeepers across the globe to rapidly and inexpensively use the

low-technology version. Theoretically, a beekeeper only needs a sampling ofmine contaminated

soils and sugar water to train his bees, along with a ladder and binoculars to observe the bees in a

suspected mine laden area. 84

The use of bees for mine detection is most beneficial-in area reducti0n,which is the process

which reduces the size of an initial area thought to be contaminated with mines to a smaller area .

. .-Area reduction frees_ up land so that it can be repopulated, serve_a,s_ transPQrtatiQ_I'!JOU!~·s,b_~_~seg _ _ _,________. .

for farming or other post war recovery purposes. During war, bee colonies can be disturbed or

destroyed; therefore, establishment of additional bee hives also assists in the recovery process

because bees are essential for pollinating many crops. 85 It is unlikely that bees will r~place the

use of dogs in mine detection; however, bees can be used in combination with the effort? of

demining dogs and other methods, decreasing the time and costs of demining. 86

CONTAINED DETECTION DEVICES -PROBOSCIS EXTENSION REFLEX (PER)

After determining honey bees could be trained to detect explosive chemicals, researchers began

seel{ing military applications in addition to the free flight method used for landmirie detection.

With sponsorship from DARPA, the Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL), in New Mexico,

initiated the Stealthy Insect Senor Project, as a collaborative effort of its Bioscience; Chemistry

and Environmental Protection Divisions. 87 In this instance, researchers keyed on the bee's

natural instinct of extending its straw like tongue, a proboscis, when the bee encounters odors it

13
 associates with food. Again usi_n&£~~~?-~~~~- conditioning techniques, the bees were exposed to

puffs of air which contained vapors from explosives and immediately afterward were then given

a reward of sugar water. As the bees became conditioned, they exhibited the Proboscis
88
Extension Reflex (PER) when they detected the chemicals in the air.

http :IIabidhussaini .coh1/info/research/phd/proj ect -1/honeybee-condi ti oning

. Since bees only use their proboscis for feeding, the PER indicates a positive detection response

for substances it associates with food. LANL researchers developed a shoebox sized prototype

unit, called a sniffer box, in which tlu·ee restrained bees were placed. A camera inside the box

was focused on the heads of the bees and the image was transmitted to a laptop computer. 89

When activated, the unit obtained air samples from the exterior, pulled it into the box and blew it

over the bees. The bees showed no reaction when exposed to uncontaminated air samples and
90
exhibited PER when exposed to air samples containing trace explosive vapors. In 2005,

LANL researchers held a demonstration for representatives of DARPA, the US Southern

Command, and the US Marines. 91 The researchers constructed three test settings designed to

simulate real life explosive detec,tion scenarios. In a curbside explosive scenario, the sniffer unit

was exposed to an uncontaminated crate and a crate containing TNT. For a ten-orist scenario,

14.
 two individuals were checked by the sniffer unit, one individual wore a vest containing C4 and
·····---··-·-··-·· -------------------
the other did not. During a checkpoint scenario, an empty vehicle and a vehicle loaded with

both C4 and TNT were subjected to the sniffer unit. The guest representatives along with the

researchers were able to observe the bees' images on the laptop computer and in each scenario;

the bees correctly identified the objects containing explosives by exhibiting the PER. 92

A United Kingdom (UK) based biotechnology company, Inscentinel Ltd., improved upon

· · ··LANL's· prototype sniffer box:93 -When air samples were drmy,ninto LANUs.sniffer box, a

human operator was required to observe the bees' image on a computer screen, determine if all

qr some ofthe bees were_e'll:hil?iting the PER, and make a con~l1Jsionjf_the bees' behavior w~s a

positive or a negative response. 94 In the more advanced Inscentinel's detection unit the VASOR

136, which uses Volatile Analysis by Specific Olfactory Recognition (VAS OR), the need for

human observation and interpretation are eliminated. A camera inside the VAS OR 136 is linked

to movement and pattern-recognition software which statistically translates the bees' behaviors

into an electronic response and is then displayed on a Personal Data Assistant (PDA) screen. 95 A

single dysfunctional bee. will not cause the software to trigger a false alarm. 96

The VAS OR 136 detection unit is a hand held device that resembles an automobile vacuum. In

order to load and operate the unit, conditioned bees are first subjected to cooler temperatures

which do not harm the bees but slows down their movements for ease of handling. Thirty-six

(36) bees are then placed into humane, reusable bee harnesses; once secured, they are allowed

time to acclimate. The harnesses are then snapped into six (6) cassettes and loaded into the

unit. 97 Inside the unit, a clean filtered airstream is continuously passed over the bees until the

15
 operator activates a button which draws in an unfiltered sample of air from the immedia'te area.

Air samples containing even trace vapors of a substance the bees are conditioned for, will cause

the bees to PER. The responses of all 36 bees are immediately interpreted by the software and a

result is displayed on the PDA screen which can be read by any operator. 98 The PDA displays

red for a positive result, meaning the bees detected the targeted substance; a green display

indicates a negative result. 99 The bees are resilient and diligent; they can easily perform a

weeklong tour of duty before being returned to their hives. 100

....
·.;

In addition to DNT, TNT and C4, bees can be trained to exhibit PER when they detect a wide

-----~r!~X~f explosives co~po_~~9_s._ Bees can det_~~~ Ho~~~~~r_e~9J:J~l!ant grains which can be used, ....
·····~-·~·-~·~~;,; ···---------

in Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs). 101 They can also detect Semtex, PE4, DMNB,

gunpowder, and hydrogen peroxide which is sometimes an ingredient of homemade bombs. 102

Triacetone triperoxide (TATP), an explosive used by Richard Reid, the shoe bomber, is often

difficult for dogs to detect but not for bees. 103 The design of the VASOR 136 is more versatile

than most electronic units. The majority of electronic sensing units are either narrowly specific

to a single compound or to just a few compounds. The VASOR 136 contains 36 bees, each

performing as an individual senor. 104 Depending on which explosive compounds an operator

105
desires to screen for, the bees could be trained differently for those tasks. It allows for "all

36 bees can be trained to a single target odour to produce maximum confirmation of a detected

target substance. Alternatively, bees can be trained in small groups to detect multiple target

substances effectively resulting in a versatile screening system. Detection always relies on a

statistical group of bees." 106 In cases in which an enemy attempts to circumvent detection by

substituting a previously unusedcompound, bees can be retrained to detect the new compound

16
 107
and be ready for redeployment in less than a day. The cost of retraining bees is minimal, but
----··---·~---------

it would take 4-6 months and cost roughly $38,000 to train a dog to detect an alternate

108
compound. In an environment where counter detection measures are continually evolving,

sensor technology can be outpaced and the adaptability of the bee becomes more valuable.

Inscentinel Ltd., is currently developing a detection unit which will house seventy-eight (78)

bees and be capable of detecting twelve (12) different chemicals at once. 109

The VASOR 136 has been independently tested OLttside of laboratory settings. In 2004, the L)S

military funded and performed a test of InScentinel 's bee sensor technology in order to evaluate

its effectiveness in detecting car bombs. At a military facility inArizona, local honey bees were
--- ---··-- .,.. -------------

trained, placed in Inscentinel sensing instruments, and were proven able to successfully detect

110
car bombs from a string of vehicles. In an independent test conducted by the UK Office for

Security and Counter Terrorism (OSCT), the Inscentinel VASOR 136 was evaluated against an

electronic detector, the Smith's Detection Sabre4000, in airport checkpoint scenarios. During

the trial, the Inscentinel VASOR 136 was abJe to detect explosives in concentrations in the ppb

111
range. Detection units such as the Inscentinel V ASOR 136, can be used for defense and

security to detect roadside bombs, persons wearing explosives, persons having handled

explosives, car bombs and explosive packages. The detection unit can be used as a portable

device, remain static as persons or objects are passed by it, or it can be loaded on robotic

equipment to be used in conjunction with bomb handling and disposal.

In order to survive in the wild, bees are very skilled at isolating the scent of specific t1owers

which are preferred food sources. Bees can detect and follow a single preferred scent through a

17
bouquet to other scents. 112 Through the sugar reward training, bees prioritize the scent they are
~ ··-
conditioned for above others. Researchers found the bees to be incredibly diligent in their duties,

despite attempts to distract them by masking the targeted scent with lotions, oils and even

insectiddes; the bees still performed the PER when presented with the conditioned scent. 113

Reinforcing the bees' training is as simple as exposing the bees to a "boost" of the targeted scent

with food each morning. 114

Researchers have found that the ability to learn and to detect scents do differ in individual

bees. 115 : Some bees have keener olfaction characteristics and researchers are exploring genetic

and physiological differences between bees. Studies are also being conducted on bees' antennae,
... - - = - - - - - - - - - -
biochemical and molecular mechanisms have been discovered which may lead to a better

understanding of bees' differing learning and retention abilities. 116 Ideally, a superior bee could

be developed though genetic engineering

Honey bees can be trained to target almost any odor; so there are many other application

possibilities. "In 2010, bee training in the fields of defense and security, medicine, food, and

building industries is big business. Bee training is essentially the same as it was in 1999, but the

results are attained with more sophisticated and less expensive technology." 117 Bees have

already been trained to detect illicit narcotics, and could be taught to seek cadavers. 118 . Simply

by being exposed to a patient's breath, bees can detect the scent of certain diseases and

hormones; bees are "being used as early detectors of lung and skin cancers, diabetes and TB, as

well as to monitor fertility cycles and confirm pregnancies." 119 Detection of rapidly spreading

bacteria such as ~scherichia coli and salmonella in foods are also being tested. 120

18
------------------· -----------~------- ----------

HYBRID INSECT MICRO-ELECTRO-MECHANICAL SYSTEMS (HI-MEMS)

Since 2007, DARPA has been utilizing bees in an innovative defense project entitled Hybrid

Insect Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (HI-MEMS). 121 The HI-MEMS project is attempting

122
to develop technology to create cybernetic organisms, cyborgs, out of bees and other insects.

DARPA has provided funding to a number of universities and businesses, including the

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cornell University, University of California, University

of Michigan, and the Boyce Thompson Institute, to perform fundamental research and embed

micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) chips into developing insects' pupae during the

_______ initial stages of metamorphosis. 123 11

Since a majority of the tissu~_dev~lopm~nt in__insects _QC::F-l:!_r§__ _ __

in the later stages of metamorphosis, the renewed tissue growth around the MEMS will tend to
'
heal, and form a reliable and stable tissue-machine interface." 124 The objective is to control the

cyborgs', or fondly called cybugs', flight and motions by remote control, using Global

Positioning Systems (GPS), Radio Frequencies (RF), optical or ultrasonic signals. 125 Once

remote control is accomplished, the cyborgs would be outfitted with one or multiple sensors,

such as a microphone, video camera or gas sensor and would have tbe capability to stream the

126
collected data. The design of the MEMS chip seeks to "harvest enough energy from the

127
insects' movements to power its wireless transceiver, sensors and probes." Plans also include

integrating very small fluidic devices to carry chemicals that could be delivered through the

128
cyborgs' sting. Ultimately, DARPA hopes to 11 hack into the insects' own natural senses,

allowing the remote-control operatot to look out of the insects own eyes, instead of attaching a

video camera for it to carry." 129 Used individually or in swarms, cyborgs could potentially

19
 conduct reconnaissance missions, deliver toxins, collect intelligence, track targets, and retrieve
---- --·-·~·-----·-~----··--------

samples, all while blending in with the environment. 130

DARPA spokespersons have confirmed that 11 this technology is being developed with defensive,

offensive and national security strategies in mind. 11131 The DARPA HI-MEMS website contends

11
We have used horses and elephants for locomotion in wars 11 and 11 more recently, olfactory

training of bees has been used to locate mines and weapons of mass destruction; 11 therefore, the

. HI~MEMS ,technology is being develope<;} to provide 11 rnOre c:;optrot8ver i~~ectlocOI)l~tion, just

as saddles and horseshoes are needed for horses locomotion control." 132 DARPA asserts the

"derived technologies will enable many robotic capabilities at low cost, impacting the

development of future autonomous defense systems. The realization of cyborgs with most of the

machine components inside the insect body will provide stealthy robots that use muscLe actuators

which have been developed over millions of years. 11133 DARPA's enthusiasm is not universally

shared; certainly there are ethical and legal implications of creating living robots for military and

security purposes, especially if the cyborgs are weaponized with biological agents or other

toxins. Concerns about the potential domestic use of the cyborgs for surveillance purposes have

already been raised by the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF), a digital rights and civil

liberties group. EEF Spokesman Peter Eckersley said '1Anyone who is just a little bit creative

can imagine both useful and non-productive applications of remote-controlled animals--

especially if ordinary people mistake them for normal animals. 11134

DARPA's primary interest is in creating cyborgs from flying insects; however, it also offers

5
funding for research on hopping and swimming insects.U As of2009, DARPA had invested

20
$12 million into the project. 136 The HI-MEMs project is to be developed through three phases:
-------~-----··--······~

the first phase is to create bio-electro-mechanical interfaces to the insects, the second phase is to

control the locomotion using MEMS platforms, and the third phase is to scavenge power from

the insects. 137 "To be considered successful, the final};II-MEMS cybernetic bug must fly 100

meters from a starting point and then be steered into a controlled landing within 5 meters of a

specified end point. On landing, the insect must stay in place." 138 Despite many skeptics, the

project is reported to be "progressing at a rapid pace. "139 Phase one has been accomplished,

"DARPA funded research groups have succeeded in inserting a MEMS Ghip into an insect's _ .

°
pupae, with the adult being hatched successfully." 14 Cornell University demonstrated it had

passed phase two in 2008, when tobacco hornworms implanted with MEMS chips developed
--~--·

into mature "moths whose muscles could be controlled with the implanted electronics. " 141 Since

2009, videos have surfaced of various other cyborg insects taking flight which include horned

beetles, butterflies, wasps, and naturally, bees. 142

CONCLUSION

The free flight method of landmine detection is highly effective and is a promising technique

which will likely be utilized on a· global scale for humanitarian de mining. However, time

constraints and conditions for bee management make it unfeasible for mine detection on the

battlefield. The PER detection units have had outstanding results in laboratory tests, in

controlled field tests,· and in independent testing; however, units need to be impleme1'1ted in

prolonged actual real life conditions before its military operability can be determined. Even if

these detections unit are never implemented on the battlefield, they can be of great value

domestically at border crossings, airports, seaports and post offices. The HI-MEMS project is

21
 still under development and a large portion of the project is classified; therefore, its actual
----~-

viability is publically unknown. Conceivably, in addition to reconnaissance, cyborg insects

could be fully weaponized and a single cyborg swarm could be used to simultaneously spread

disease, destroy crops, infect food supplies, and engage in attacks on humans. The unique

characteristics of the honey bee can be exploited to advance demining, security, and other

military capabilities in the future.

22
bttp ://www .inseen tinel. com/In seen tinelLtd/Pages/technology .html

23
 Figur.e 6: Pupal stage insertion (iJ and .s·ucces.~jf.r!
- eme:ngen·ce· (if).· The rnicros_;-•stem platform on- (ii) is held
Tvitih tlF·ee:ers to shont 1ving openirtg o.l !he moth. The .:r-Rcu:
hnage r.J;,{ the dotted part (.4) sho1vs the probes fnserted into
the t:iorsoventrcd ant! dm~solcmgitudinal jlight musdes. CT
_________. ___ . ___~i1r-iages rB)-sh~o1-~:,. (-:orriponents ojhigfi .cr1i.'io1-:ban(~-e In~lrcaifng -~-
tissue· gri;lvfh around the probe,

http://www .sott.net/articles/show/2063 73-A -Cyborg-Space-Race

24
 Endnotes--···------------------~-~

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2
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3
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4
Lockwood, Six-Legged, 5.
5
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6
Lockwood, Six-Legged, 23.
7
John Ambrose, "Insects in Warfare," Army (Dec 1974): 33.
s Ambrose, "Insects," 34.
9
Ambrose, "Insects," 34.
10
Ambrose, "Insects," 35.
11
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Lockwood, Six-Legged, 17.
14
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1
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·---------------:~
16
Lockwood,Six-Legged,21._ _____ _ ---····-
17
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19
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22
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24
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25
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26
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27
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28
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25
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26
--- -"----·- 85 Bra mensllen~"Honef Bee;"7.___
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