Catena 156 (2017) 184–196

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Catena
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/catena

Comparison of the results of a small-plot and a large-plot rainfall simulator – MARK

Effects of land use and land cover on surface runoff in Alpine catchments
Christoph Mayerhofera, Gertraud Meißla,⁎, Klaus Klebinderb, Bernhard Kohlb, Gerhard Markartb
a
Institute of Geography, University of Innsbruck; Innrain 52f, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
b
Department of Natural Hazards, Federal Research Centre for Forests (BFW), Rennweg 1, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Many surveys with differently sized rainfall simulators have been conducted in the past to study runoff and
Rainfall simulator erosion processes on the plot scale. Concerning the understanding of runoff processes on the slope scale,
Surface runoff comparative studies have shown that sprinkling devices with large plot sizes (≥40 m2) produce more
Runoff formation representative results than small-plot rainfall simulators (4 m2 and less). Nevertheless, the latter ones are
Land use
frequently used due to their portability and the reduced effort and water demand compared to large-plot
Grazing
simulations. In this study the results of torrential rain (100 mm h− 1) experiments using a small (1 m2) dripper
Torrential rain
device and a large (40–80 m2) spray device are compared regarding to identify site characteristics which allow
estimating the representativeness of surface runoff coefficients measured with a small-plot rainfall simulator. We
conducted 39 small-plot (1 m2) and 14 large-plot (40–80 m2) rainfall simulations at eight selected experimental
sites in the Eastern Alps with differing land cover, land use, intensity of grazing and antecedent soil moisture
content. At sites with intensive grazing, due to topsoil compaction and the shortened flow path, the small-plot
device delivered significantly higher runoff coefficients than the large-plot device. At mainly mowed grassland
sites with at most a short grazing period in autumn both sprinkling devices showed similar results or even lower
runoff coefficients compared with the results of the large-plot simulator. The measured surface runoff
coefficients strongly depended on antecedent soil moisture content and grazing intensity.

1. Introduction commonly irrigate plots between 40 and 100 m2 (Auerswald et al.,

Rainfall simulators for convective rain events have proved to be
reliable instruments for the identification and quantification of hydro-
logical processes (Bunza, 1978; Bunza and Schauer, 1989; Dobmann,
2009; Hümann and Müller, 2013; Kienzler and Naef, 2007; Kienzler and
Naef, 2008; Markart and Kohl, 1995; Martínez-Murillo et al., 2013;
Retter, 2006; Scherrer, 1996; Schmocker-Fackel et al., 2007; Weiler and
Naef, 2003; Wilcox and Wood, 1988) and erosion rates (Aksoy et al.,
2016; Fister et al., 2012; Hiltbrunner et al., 2005; Iserloh et al., 2012;
Karl and Porzelt, 1977/78; Keesstra et al., 2016; Klaghofer, 1988; Lassu
et al., 2015; Prosdocimi et al., 2016; Rodrigo Comino et al., 2016;
Schindler Wildhaber et al., 2012). However, the results of rainfall
simulations cannot be easily compared as the used rainfall simulators
are differing significantly regarding their set-up, i.e. the size of the
irrigated plot, the type of the nozzles as well as the size and fall height
of the rain drops (Schindler Wildhaber et al., 2012).
As to the size of the rainfall devices, large-plot and small-plot
rainfall simulators can be distinguished. Large-plot rainfall simulators
1992a, 1992b; Bunza, 1978; Bunza, 1989; Bunza et al., 1985; Markart
and Kohl, 1995; Scherrer, 1996). Small-plot rainfall simulators on the
contrary sprinkle areas with a size as little as 0.06 m2 (Hiltbrunner
et al., 2005; Iserloh et al., 2013a), a plot size of 1 m2 being a frequently
used format (Iserloh et al., 2013a, 2013b; Naef et al., 2002; Schmocker-
Fackel et al., 2007).
The results of comparative studies (Auerswald et al., 1992a, 1992b;
Kainz et al., 1992; Markart and Kohl, 1995; Wainwright et al., 2000)
show a strong dependence of the measured surface runoff coefficient
from the size of the irrigated plot (Fig. 1). Experiments with small-plot
devices often produce higher surface runoff coefficients compared to a
large-plot rainfall simulation, presumably due to the shortened flow
path at small-plot rainfall simulations (Guggenberger, 1980; Sharpley
and Kleinman, 2003). After its impact on the soil, water flows a certain
distance on the surface before infiltrating (Ghadiri and Payne, 1988).
Especially at high precipitation intensities, the possible flow length
within the small plot is truncated. Thus, water could possibly infiltrate
further down the hillslope but is already caught by the drain

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: gertraud.meissl@uibk.ac.at (G. Meißl), klaus.klebinder@bfw.gv.at (K. Klebinder), bernhard.kohl@bfw.gv.at (B. Kohl), gerhard.markart@bfw.gv.at (G. Markart).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2017.04.009
Received 22 August 2016; Received in revised form 10 March 2017; Accepted 7 April 2017
Available online 26 April 2017
0341-8162/ © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
C. Mayerhofer et al. Catena 156 (2017) 184–196

Fig. 1. Comparison of the results of rainfall simulations with a small (4 m2) and a large device (75 m2) at Löhnersbach catchment (modified after Markart and Kohl, 1995). The small
device was a simulator with swayable nozzles, carried out by Peringer (unpublished), the large simulator was equal to the large device in this study.

(Guggenberger, 1980; Markart and Kohl, 1995). In Sharpley and saturated. On the contrary, the results of 1 m2 sprinkling experiments
Kleinman (2003), the higher surface runoff values on a small plot may also be regarded to represent the lower limit of possible runoff
(2 m2) compared to a larger plot (32.6 m2) were attributed to the fact coefficients as water may rapidly percolate in the not irrigated areas
that a greater area of the smaller plots, namely > 75% of area, became outside the sprinkled plot (Dobmann, 2009). Thus, in order to reduce

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side effects, plot sizes > 40 m2 (Auerswald et al., 1992b) or > 10–50
m2 (Schindler Wildhaber et al., 2012) are often recommended.
In general, it can be assumed that the larger the plot is, the more
representative the results are with respect to the understanding of
runoff processes at the slope scale. However, the realization of large-
plot rainfall experiments is associated with a considerable effort.
Demand of time and staff as well as financial and technical issues
(e.g. availability of water) are increasing with the size of the plot. This
is why small-plot rainfall simulators – which are suitable to investigate
initial runoff generation and splash-, interrill- and rill erosion (e.g.
Iserloh et al., 2013a, 2013b) – have also been used very frequently to
study runoff and erosion processes on the slope scale (e.g. Dobmann,
2009). Thus, it is necessary to compare differently sized rainfall
simulations according to their sensitivity to local characteristics,
influencing factors and hydrological parameters (Dobmann, 2009).
This could result into a better understanding of the interaction between
the environment and their influence on surface runoff generation at the
plot-scale and hence allow a more reliable assessment and application
of the results found with small-plot sprinkling experiments. Therefore, a
systematic approach to determine the correlation of hydrological
parameters and surface runoff at different experimental scales during
rainfall simulations is preferable, but still missing. The presented survey
refers to this subject and aims at answering the following research
questions:
• How do the results of small-plot rainfall simulations agree with
those of large-plot simulations? What is the variation between the
results of the two simulator types?
• Does the variation of the results follow any specific pattern
depending on local characteristics? Can a statement be found to
explicate the variation?
• How can effects of antecedent soil moisture content and mechanical
impact (grazing) on surface runoff be described with different sized
simulators?
In order to answer these questions, we performed rainfall simulation
with two different rainfall simulators (small plot device: 1 m2, large
plot device: 40–80 m2) at eight different sites in Alpine catchments
(grassland and forests). The comparison of the results is supported by
laboratory analysis of soil physical properties of the sites.
2. Material and methods
2.1. Rainfall simulators
Two rainfall simulators were used:
a) The transportable spray irrigation installation for large plots (width
5 m; variable length up to 20 m, typically irrigated plot size
40–80 m2) uses quadrant (0.18 m3 s- 1), semi-circle (0.36 m3 s- 1)
and full-circle commercial nozzles (0.72 m3 s- 1). The application of
different nozzles allows a more exact coverage of the test plot. Thus,
in the edges and along the upper boundary line of the irrigation unit
quadrant circles are used. Half circle nozzles are used for the
segments in the line of the greatest slope. If water supply is not
restricted, the outer sides in the line of the greatest slope are
irrigated too to equalize losses due to wind and side outflow. In this
case semi-circle and full-circle nozzles are used, raining half part
into the investigated plot and half part outside. The nozzles are
PIPELIFE products (BW-STDF-series). As this special type is not
produced any longer, a larger quantity of theses nozzles was bought
in time to secure the operation of the spray irrigation installation for
the future.
The surface runoff resulting from the applied artificial rainfall is
collected in a drain which is placed in a trench at the lower end of
the irrigated area and led to calibrated measuring tanks (Fig. 2) (for
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Catena 156 (2017) 184–196
detailed description see Markart and Kohl, 1995; Markart et al.,
2011). As the plastic tarp, guiding the water into the drain, is
positioned about 5–10 cm below soil surface, the collected discharge
also includes near surface runoff. Soil moisture content is measured
at two profiles in about the middle of the experimental plot in four
depths (5 cm, 15 cm, 25 cm and 40 cm) with TDR sensors.
b) The centrepiece of the small-plot simulator is a commercial micro-
drip irrigation system constructed with drip heads and connecting
pipes by Gardena attached to a 1 × 1 m aluminium frame. The drip
system has been preferred as the irrigation of an exact plot size of
one m2 is very difficult with spraying nozzles. The device is
positioned on telescopic sticks which are adjustable in height in
order to adapt the simulator to the experimental hillslope site. A
second aluminium frame with a fine-meshed grid attached below
the drip system distributes the drops in an irregular pattern to the
surface. Surface runoff is collected in a similar manner like at the
large-plot simulator (Fig. 2). Soil moisture content is measured at
the upper edge of the drainage trench with two FD sensors.
According to the large set of previously realized rainfall simulations
(Markart et al., 2011), a constant rain intensity of 100 mm h− 1 and an
experiment duration of 1 h was chosen for each experiment. Fuel-
operated water pumps and different types of hoses were used for the
water-supply of both rainfall simulators. Pump capacity for each
sprinkler was chosen due to the required amount of water. Valves were
used to generate a consistent flow rate and thus a constant intensity of
the applied artificial rainfall. A variable area flowmeter by Krohne
(Model: DK32; measuring range: 40–150 l/h; measuring accuracy:
4.0%; directive VDI/VDE 3513-2) was used to generate an accurate
and constant flow rate during the small-scale rainfall simulations. At
the device for the large plot, precipitation input is also controlled by a
pressure gauge, an automatically registering flow meter with a data
logger.
Both rainfall simulators differ regarding to the drop generation:
while rainfall is sprayed at the large plot (maximum drop size 5 mm,
approx. 5% of atomized spray), the small simulator generates drops
with a size of 3–5 mm. Due to constructional reasons of the small-plot
device, it is not possible to irrigate outside the investigated plot in order
to reduce side effects. For the large-plot device, a lateral co-irrigation of
the neighbouring areas was not conducted within the presented study
due to limitations in water availability.
Regarding the uniformity of rainfall distribution over the whole
plot, the size and the construction of the small-plot device supports
homogeneous conditions. Newesely et al. (2015) tested a smaller, but
similarly constructed (20 m2) device like the large-plot device pre-
sented here with a satisfying uniformity apart from the upper and lower
boundary of the plot where the rainfall intensities were too low. This
problem does not occur at the large-plot device used for the presented
study due to the usage of nozzles with different apertures. A systematic
distribution of rain gutters within the plot showed good results.
2.2. Study area
The rainfall simulations were conducted at eight experimental sites
located in Tyrol and Vorarlberg in Western Austria (Fig. 3 and Tables 1,
2). At each site one plot was irrigated with the large-plot simulator
once, partly also repeatedly in order to simulate the influence of
increased soil moisture content. Plot size had to be chosen according
to the site's topography and water availability between 40 m2 and
80 m2. At each site several plots were sprinkled with the small-plot
device (1 m2), also partly repeatedly. At some sites (Brix, Lutz, Steg),
the large- and the small-plot simulations were done simultaneously side
by side. In order to increase the number of experiments, small-plot
rainfall simulations were also carried out at sites where the large-plot
simulation had been accomplished in the past within the last three
years (Rech, Rech F, Tal 1, Tal 2 and Watt). At those sites, the small-plot
C. Mayerhofer et al.
Fig. 2. Rainfall simulators used in this study: large-plot rainfall simulator (left); small-plot rainfall simulator (right; here at Brixenbachalm Brix).
simulations were carried out within exactly the same plots like the
large-plot simulations. At Rech and Tal 1, brilliant blue was added to
the sprinkling water in order to visualize the infiltration and percola-
tion paths in the soil. On the day after the rainfall simulation several
vertical cross sections of the irrigated soil were photographed (Schader,
2013).
A systematic experimental set-up was selected to reveal factors
influencing the surface runoff generation and to discuss the compar-
ability of the large-plot and the small-plot sprinkling device:
• Rainfall simulations were conducted at sites characterised
different types of land cover and land use (Table 1).
• To assess the influence of antecedent soil moisture content on
surface runoff, experiments at Rech, Lutz and Steg were repeated
after a short break. The break between the first and second
experiment was about 1 h for the large-plot and 20 min for the
small plot (as the flow length is shorter at the small plot, a shorter
break was regarded to be justifiable and allowed the execution of
more experiments). At Brix the repetition experiments at the small
plot were conducted on the next day within 24 h due to logistical
reasons.
• Most experiments were performed at grassland sites differing in
vegetation cover and in grazing intensity. To demonstrate the
influence of intensive cattle grazing during the summer, one of the
Fig. 3. Location of the experimental sites in Western Austria (Eastern Alps): 1 Ruggbachtal, 2 Brixenbachtal, 3 Wattental.
Catena 156 (2017) 184–196
large plots and six small plots at Brix were irrigated in May prior to
the grazing season and in September after the cattle had left the
pastures. All experimental plots were marked allowing a repetition
of the rain simulations at exactly the same spots.
The results of the experiments were compared by means of three
characteristic numbers: the total surface runoff coefficient Ψtot, the
surface runoff coefficient at runoff constancy Ψconst and the time to
runoff. The latter is the time span between the start of the rainfall
simulation and the first occurrence of surface runoff in the drain at the
by lower end of the experimental plot (Fig. 4). The time to runoff depends
on the amount of interception and water storage in soil depressions
(Kohl and Markart, 2002; Markart et al., 2011). After the start of
surface runoff, during most of the rainfall simulations a constant level
of surface runoff is reached, which marks a kind of equilibrium state.
Thus, the dimensionless surface runoff coefficient at runoff constancy
Ψconst is calculated by dividing current surface runoff by the actual
applied precipitation during the time in which equilibrium state is
reached (Fig. 4). The dimensionless total surface runoff coefficient Ψtot
is the sum of surface runoff divided by the applied rain sum at the end
of the experiment. According to the definitions, Ψtot has to be smaller
than Ψconst.
After the rainfall simulations loose soil material and undisturbed
soil cores (200 cm3 cylinders) were taken from the irrigated sites for the
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analysis of the most important soil physical parameters. To analyse the

Löhnersbach Formation: sand-, silt- and claystone

grain size distribution and the content of skeleton, loose soil material

Blasseneck-Porphyroid: rhyolitic ignimbrite and

was mechanically sieved in multi-stage process (20–6.3 mm; 6.3–2 mm;
2000–630 μm; 630–200 μm; 200–63 μm; 63–40 μm). Additionally, the
distribution of finest grained material was analysed by an optical light
diffraction procedure. The pore volume of the soil is the result of a

conglomerate, sand- and claystone

conglomerate, sand- and claystone

Schattberg Formation: sandstone
North Tyrolean Greywacke zone

multiple analyse method: i) saturated undisturbed soil cores were

epiclastic porphyroid material

analysed by a capillary method as well as with a pressure plate

apparatus (330 hPa), ii) saturated loose material was analysed at a

Fresh Water Molasse

pressure levels (1000 hPa; 3000 hPa; 5000 hPa and 15,000 hPa). The

Lower Austroalpine
moraine material

bulk density was identified gravimetrically just like the content of

Quartz phyllite
Talus material

organic matter, the latter measured after loss on ignition at 430C. The
saturated vertical conductivity was measured at the undisturbed soil
Geology

cores with a constant pressure head of 1 cm.

3. Results
Cambisol - based on calcareous unconsolidated

Non calcareous gleyic cambisol – glacial

3.1. Total runoff coefficient, coefficient at runoff constancy and time to

Cambisol; silty loamy sand – sandy silt

runoff
Cambisol; loamy sand – sandy silt

The surface runoff coefficients Ψtot and Ψconst achieved in the field
Cambisol; silty – loamy sand
Cambisol; sand – silty sand

Cambisol; sand – silty sand

experiments are displayed in Fig. 5 for all first rainfall simulations (for
unconsolidated sediment

Cambisol; loamy sand

the results of the repeated experiments see chapter 3.2, Figs. 7 and 8).
At the experimental site Brix, all small-plot rainfall simulations showed
a higher surface runoff than the large-plot experiment prior to the
grazing season (Brix bg), the Ψconst-values from five out of six small-plot
sediment

experiments exceeded the results from the large-plot after the grazing
Soil

season (Brix ag). Also at the pasture sites Rech and Tal 1 and the forest
site Rech F, the small-plot simulations delivered significantly higher
runoff coefficients compared with the large-plot experiments. At the
pasture site Tal 2, however, both sprinkling devices produced almost
Mowing; short grazing

Mowing; short grazing

Mowing; short grazing

the same amount of surface runoff. Ψconst-values determined at the hay

period in autumn

period in autumn

period in autumn
Intensive grazing
Intensive grazing

Intensive grazing

Intensive grazing

meadow Lutz ranged between 0.01 and 0.53, with eight out of nine
small-plot rainfall simulations below the result from the large-plot
simulator (0.45). At Steg (hay meadow), two small-plot experiments
Land use

Forestry

were conducted. One showed a Ψtot-value (0.49) slightly above the

large-plot experiment (0.47). At the other small plot site the Ψconst-
value (0.67) corresponded well with that of large-plot (0.7). The small-
Alpine pasture with mat grass (Nardus

Alpine pasture with mat grass (Nardus

Dense mat grass heath (Nardus stricta

plot rainfall simulations in Watt showed runoff coefficients above

(0.63) and below (0.26, 0.36) those measured at the large-plot (0.47).
Thus, we found a very heterogeneous relationship between the
Grassland (white clover)

results of the small-plot and large-plot rainfall simulations with a

minimum difference of 0.01 and a maximum difference of 0.56 (for ψtot
stricta L.) and Fern

and ψconst respectively). The runoff coefficients produced with the

Spruce-Fir-Forest
Alpine pasture

small-plot device vary strongly within a few meters (maximum range of

Vegetation

ψconst 0.52 at Lutz, of ψtot 0.35 at Watt) and may over- (18 out of 32
Grassland

Grassland
stricta L.)

experiments for ψconst, 21 out of 32 experiments for ψtot) and under-

L.)

estimate the results gained with the large-plot device.

All small-plot experiments delivered a shorter time to runoff than
1086 m
1217 m

1160 m
1490 m

1450 m

1240 m
m a.s.l.

880 m

the large-plot experiments (Fig. 6) with two exceptions where the

810

reliability of the small-plot measurements was affected by a horizon-

tally convex form of the plot (Tal 2) and a high root density (Lutz)
respectively. Especially the small-plot experiments at the site Lutz
Tyrol, Austria
Tyrol, Austria

Tyrol, Austria
Tyrol, Austria

Tyrol, Austria

Tyrol, Austria
Vorarlberg,

Vorarlberg,

showed a wide range of results (from 2.0 up to 11.5 min) with a

Location

Austria

Austria

maximal difference of ± 4.7 min compared to the results generated

Characteristics of the experimental sites.

with the large device. However small-plot experiments at Steg and Rech
resulted in similar measurements.
Abbrev.

Rech F

Thus it can be concluded that the small-plot devices usually result in

Tal 1

Tal 2
Rech

Watt
Lutz

Steg
Brix

significant shorter time to runoff. Furthermore, the small device

showed a wide range of time to runoff-values at most of the sites.
Rechentalalm Forest
Investigated sites

Brixenbachalm

3.2. Effect of antecedent soil moisture content and cattle grazing

Talkaseralm 1

Talkaseralm 2
Brixenbachtal

Rechentalalm

Ruggbachtal
Lutzenreute

Wattenberg
Wattental

At some sites, the sprinkling experiments were repeated after a

Stegen
Table 1

break in order to get information about the influence of antecedent

precipitation on the runoff reaction of the test sites as well as how the

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Table 2
Rainfall simulations.

Abbrev. Large-plot rainfall simulations Small-plot rainfall simulations

Number of irrigated plots Among them: repeatedly irrigated plots Plot size (m2) Number of irrigated plots Among them: repeatedly irrigated plots

Date Date Date Date

Brix bg 1 31.05.2012 1 31.05.2012 80 6 Plot 1–4: 31.05.2012; 3 Plot 1, 3 & 4: 01.06.2012

Plot 5–6: 01.06.2012
Brix ag 1 04.09.2012 1 04.09.2012 80 6 Plot 1–2: 04.09.2012; – –
Plot 3–6: 06.09.2012
Rech 1 26.07.2011 1 26.07.2011 40 2 21.08.2012 1 21.08.2012
Rech F 1 06.07.2011 – – 50 1 22.08.2012 – –
Tal 1 1 12.07.2011 – – 50 2 07.09.2012 – –
Tal 2 1 04.07.2011 – – 50 1 07.09.2012 – –
Lutz 1 02.07.2012 1 02.07.2012 80 9 Plot 1–2: 02.07.2012; 2 Plot 2: 02.07.2012;
Plot 3–6: 03.07.2012; Plot 5: 03.07.2012
Plot 7–9: 04.07.2012
Steg 1 05.07.2012 1 05.07.2012 80 2 05.07.2012 1 05.07.2012
Watt 1 28.07.2009 – – 80 3 24.07.2012 – –

1.0
saturated runoff
precipitation coefficient Ψconst
0.8
runoff coefficient Ψ

measured runoff
coefficient Ψ per
0.6 time step
time to runoff
begin of experiment

end of experiment

0.4

0.2

0.0
15:30 16:00 16:30 17:00 17:30
time
start/end precipitation
measured runoff coefficient smoothed runoff coefficient

Fig. 4. Hydrograph from a rainfall simulation (modified after (Kohl and Markart, 2002)). Fig. 6. Time to runoff for all first rainfall simulations with the large-plot device (square)
and the small-plot device (triangle), repetition experiments with increased antecedent soil
moisture content are not shown. No surface runoff for the large-plot experiment at Rech F.
(Abbreviations see Tables 1 and 2).

Fig. 7. Surface runoff coefficients Ψconst in relation to antecedent soil moisture content
from all double sprinkling experiments. Grey-first experiment, black-repeated experi-
ment, ӿ Brix bg plot 1,+ Brix bg plot 3, x Brix bg plot 4 (explanation of abbreviations see
Table 1).

different sized simulators display changes of the runoff behaviour of the

site. The results of the repeated rainfall simulations are shown in Fig. 7.
Fig. 5. Surface runoff coefficients Ψtot (above) and Ψconst (below) for all first sprinkling At all sites, the antecedent soil moisture content increased from the first
experiments with the large-plot device (square) and the small-plot device (triangle), to the repetition experiments. With exception of the small plot
repetition experiments with increased antecedent soil moisture content are not shown. experiment Rech, surface runoff coefficients grew as well while the
(Abbreviations see Tables 1 and 2).
time to runoff decreased from the first to the repetition experiments. In

189
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Fig. 8. Results from the experimental plots at Brixenbachalm before and after the grazing season: (left) Ψtot and Ψconst, time to runoff (right, value for Brix_2 missing).
general, both simulators react to changes in antecedent soil moisture in
a comparable manner.
At Brix, the results of the experiments showed the effect of intensive
grazing by cattle on the runoff reaction (Fig. 8). With exception of two
small-plot simulations (Brix_1 and Brix_2) all experiments delivered a
significant increase of surface runoff after the grazing season. Apart
from Brix_6, the time to runoff was reduced in autumn. Both, small-plot
as well as large-plot experiments showed the impact of grazing on the
surface runoff, the large-plot simulations indicated a higher increase
after the grazing season than the small-plot simulations.
3.3. Soil physics
The soil at the Brix site was characterised by a very high content of
skeleton (> 50%, Fig. 9), predominantly gravel from talus material.
The grain distribution showed a high percentage of sand (> 60% of fine
soil material), the soil texture was classified as sandy loam. Due to the
soil material and the content of coarsest pores (> 20%), the saturated
hydraulic conductivity increased towards the deeper layers. The top
layer had a limited infiltration capacity due to the reduced coarse pore
volume, which is a result of the intensive trampling.
The sites Rech and Tal 1 showed also a high content of skeleton
(> 30%). While the fine soil fraction at Tal 1, situated in the geological
Schattberg Formation (paleozoic sandstones), was characterised by the
high content of sand (60%–70% of fines, texture sandy loam), the Rech
site (porphyroid) showed a content of silt between 50% and 60%
(texture silty loam). The rapidly drainable coarsest pores increased
towards deeper situated soil layers, which is a result of the decreasing
mechanical compaction due to trampling. The values of the saturated
hydraulic conductivity were low (1.2–21.2 cm d− 1, Table 3) at Tal 1.
In contrast, the forested site Rech F showed a high infiltration
capacity (mean 93 cm d− 1). This can be explained by the loose packing
(bulk density < 0.5 g cm− 3) and the very high percentage of very
coarse pores. Deeper layers had a higher content of skeleton while the
content of silt increases (45%–55%, texture loam/silty loam).
The Tal 2 site had an unfavourable distribution of the pore volume.
While fine and medium pores were sufficient, the content of drainable
pores was poor. Thus, values of the saturated hydraulic conductivity
were low (about 28 cm d− 1 till a depth of 20 cm). In a depth of
20 cm–30 cm, the hydraulic conductivity decreased to < 10 cm d− 1. In
this depth, percolation was hampered which explains the dammed-up
water during the snowmelt season.
Due to the geological/geomorphological situation of the experi-
mental site Ruggbachtal, which was characterised by small-scaled
sequences of glacial sediments and Fresh Water Molasse, the soil at
the sites Lutz and Steg showed a high amount of silt (45%, 54% of fine
grained soil material) and clay (9%, 6%). Thus, the soils belonged to the
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Catena 156 (2017) 184–196
texture classes silty loam, loam and sandy loam. The coarse material
was enclosed by the soil matrix. Fine and medium pores had a major
proportion of the total pore volume.
Knowledge on the physical characteristics of the site Wattenberg is
unfortunately poor due to the loss of the soil samples of the two upper
layers. The existing data showed a low bulk density and a medium
hydraulic conductivity (about 50 cm d− 1).
4. Discussion
In general, rainfall simulations are approximation techniques to
determine runoff generation at experimental sites. The representative-
ness of the found information is increasing with the plot-size
(Auerswald et al., 1992a, 1992b; Schindler Wildhaber et al., 2012;
Wainwright et al., 2000). Here it is assumed that the results of the large-
plot sprinkling experiments produce a realistic estimation of the runoff
reaction of the investigated sites. Thus, the surface runoff values
measured at the large-plot experiments are regarded to be the reference
values. In the following, deviations of the results of the small-plot
device therefrom are discussed.
4.1. Runoff behaviour at the experimental sites
4.1.1. Brixenbachalm before grazing season (Brix bg) and after grazing
season (Brix ag)
At Brix bg (May 2012) the surface runoff coefficients (Ψtot and
Ψconst) of all small-plot experiments exceeded the result of the large-
plot experiments. The small-plot experimental site with the lowest
vegetation coverage during the whole survey (approximately 65%)
showed by far the highest Ψconst (0.78). This corresponds with a
previous study (Dadkah and Gifford, 1980) in which an increased
runoff potential was noticed for areas covered by < 70% of vegetation.
The low vegetation coverage could be an explanation for the extremely
high surface runoff coefficient Ψconst compared to the remaining small-
plot rainfall simulations. Regarding Ψtot, this plot showed also the
highest value within the measured range at Brix bg (0.6), however the
same value was also produced at another plot with a higher vegetation
coverage (75%). This might lead to the conclusion that the Ψconst might
reveal a stronger dependence on vegetation coverage than Ψtot.
However, as no other sites with < 70% vegetation coverage were
included in this study, no reliable conclusion can be drawn.
The small-plot experimental sites with the lowest and second lowest
runoff coefficients at Brix bg also offered a specific site characteristic.
Massive cattle trampling in previous years led to the forming of a small
depression of 1 m length and 25 cm height at the small-plot with the
lowest surface runoff coefficients (Ψtot = 0.37, Ψconst = 0.42). Thus,
retaining of water in the reservoir and a delayed runoff could be
C. Mayerhofer et al. Catena 156 (2017) 184–196

Brix Rech

5 5

15 15

Depth [cm]
Depth [cm] 25 25

40 40

60 60

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Volume Volume

RechF Tal1

5 5

15 15

Depth [cm]
Depth [cm]

25 25

40 40

60 60

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Volume Volume

Tal2 Lutz

5 5

15 15
Depth [cm]
Depth [cm]

25 25

40 40

60 60

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Volume Volume

Steg Watt

5 2,5

15
Depth [cm]
Depth [cm]

15
25
25
40

60 35

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Volume Volume

coarse frac. sand silt clay organic matter Very coarse pores coarse p. medium p. fine p.

Fig. 9. Grain and pore size distribution of the experimental sites (due to loss of soil core material, the data for Watt are incomplete).

observed. At the other site a high content of skeleton in the soil, loosely
embedded in a sandy soil matrix, was observed (see Table 3). This
favours infiltration and decrease of surface runoff since soil skeleton
boundaries can serve as preferential flow paths (Scherrer, 2006;
Spreafico et al., 2003).
After the grazing season (September 2012), the small-plot runoff
coefficients still exceeded the large-plot results. Again, the experimental
site massively trampled by cattle in previous years showed the lowest
surface runoff coefficients of the small-plot experiments due to retain-
ing of water in a reservoir formed by cattle trampling. After intense
grazing, the difference of the small-plot and large-plot Ψtot and Ψconst
was smaller than prior to the grazing season. Obviously intensive
grazing leads to a homogenization of the whole slope, thus the
characteristics of the small plots don't differ so strongly leading to
more homogeneous surface runoff coefficients.
4.1.2. Rechentalalm (Rech), Talkaseralm 1 (Tal 1) and Stegen (Steg)
The experimental sites at Rech, Tal 1 and Steg had a more or less
homogenous structure than the Brix site. Constant vegetation coverage
of approx. 95% and uniform topsoil characteristics led to a small
variance of the surface runoff coefficients for the small-plot sprinkling
experiments. However, due to logistical reasons only two small-plot
experiments each were conducted at the plots, thus it cannot be ruled
out that a larger number of simulations would not have led to a broader
range of results. At the sites Rech and Tal 1 (Fig. 10), the surface runoff
coefficients (Ψtot and Ψconst) measured with the small-plot devices
overestimated the values gained with the large-plot device. At these two
sites, the small-plot simulations with brilliant blue showed matrix
infiltration in the compacted top soil and macropore flow in the deeper
layers with decreasing interaction with the matrix (Fig. 11).
At the site Steg (Fig. 10), both the small-plot and the large-plot
rainfall simulations showed intensive runoff contributions from the
surface and additionally a pipe flow caused by preferential flow in

191
C. Mayerhofer et al. Catena 156 (2017) 184–196

Table 3 with the small device occurred without delay and reached a high level
Results of the soil-physical analysis of core samples at the experimental sites. quickly. Increased surface runoff at the small device is attributed to the
shortened flow path for surface water compared to large-plot systems,
Plot Depth Bulk Density Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity [cm/d]
[cm] [g/cm3] as there is less time and area for surface water to infiltrate into the soil
Num. of Values Mean (Markart and Kohl, 1995). In contrast, a higher infiltration rate at the
samples large device is to be expected due to a higher overland flow depth
(Wallach et al., 1997). The length of the large sprinkling device results
Brix 0–10 0.92 3 13.7; 23.9;47.2 28.24
10–20 1.20 3 13.7; 54.4; 60.85 in a longer time of concentration. Consequently, the level of more or
114.5 less constant runoff occurs later at large device experiments. However,
20–30 1.66 1 335.7 335.7 both sprinkling devices respond to the differing soil characteristics of
30–50 – – – – the sites in a similar manner. The higher runoff at Tal 1 can be
Rech 0–10 0.95 3 34.5; 38.9; 41.30
explained with a significant higher bulk density and a reduced
50.6
10–20 1.05 2 80.0; 168.4 124.20 hydraulic conductivity in a depth of 10–30 cm.
20–30 1.09 2 103.2; 175.1 139.15
30–50 0.89 – – – 4.1.3. Talkaseralm site 2 (Tal 2)
Rech F 0–10 0.49 3 6.8; 75.5; 92.78
At Tal 2, very high and almost identical surface runoff coefficients
196.0
10–20 0.67 2 19.3; 36.9 28.11 for the large-plot and the small-plot simulation were found. Since the
20–30 0.94 3 8.2; 11.2; 22.1 13.85 site – also quite intensively grazed - was covered with dense mat grass
30–50 – – – – vegetation (Nardus stricta L.), organic matter can act like a thatched
Tal 1 0–10 0.84 3 4.4; 9.2; 21.2 11.59 roof and cause high surface runoff (Markart and Kohl, 1995; Markart
10–20 1.29 3 1.2;6.2; 16.8 8.04
20–30 1.18 3 2.9; 5.2; 14.5 7.53
et al., 2011). The low infiltration capacity at this site appears also in
30–50 – – – – spring after snowmelt, when the organic layer is nearly saturated. The
Tal 2 0–10 0.69 3 8.9; 18.6; 55.3 27.58 good correspondence between the results of the large-plot and small-
10–20 1.06 3 4.0; 27.4; 51.9 27.75 plot devices at Tal 2 support the assumption expressed above, that at
20–30 0.99 3 3.3; 10.0; 11.3 8.2
sites with very low infiltration potential the influence of the plot size of
30–50 – – – –
Lutz 0–10 1.04 3 15.4; 20.0; 35.11 the sprinkling device diminishes.
70.0
10–20 1.31 3 6.1; 9.7; 76.3 30.71 4.1.4. Rechentalalm Forest (Rech F)
20–30 1.33 3 5.7; 13.7; 94.5 37.97
At the spruce forest site of Rech F, no surface runoff occurred at the
30–50 1.34 5 1.7–121.2 45.19
Steg 0–10 1.03 3 4.8; 6.2; 17.7 9.55
large-plot mainly due to the loosely layered forest soil, intensively
10–20 1.34 3 5.3; 6.3; 8.1 6.57 rooted and rich in macro-pores. At the small-plot, surface runoff started
20–30 1.46 3 2.2; 26.8; 57.1 28.70 quickly due to hydrophobic effects of the litter layer at the beginning.
30–50 1.40 3 17.0; 26.0; 37.43 About 10 min after starting the rainfall simulation, the temporary water
69.3
repellency ceased and surface runoff decreased. Such hydrophobic
Watt 0–5 0.64 1 14.4 14.4
10–20 1.00 1 50.4 50.4 effects are known from other studies (Burch et al., 1989; Butzen
20–30 1.20 1 52.1 52.1 et al., 2015; Markart and Kohl, 1995; Kohl, 2011; Scherrer, 1996).
30–40 – – – The detected low runoff coefficients (Ψtot = 0.11, Ψconst = 0.12) in
contrast to Ψtot = Ψconst = 0.00 of the large-plot simulator can be
explained with these initial hydrophobic effects of the surface com-
mouse holes during the experiment. In comparison with the large-plot,
bined with the short surface flow path of the small-plot. Surface runoff,
small-plot experiments led to relatively similar or a slightly under-
which also occurred at the large-plot due to hydrophobic effects,
estimated results regarding Ψconst. On the contrary the Ψtot-values
shallow rocks and uncovered roots, could infiltrate in the soil at
gained with the small-plot device overestimated the value of the large-
numerous small sinks, along rotted wood fragments and at zones
plot simulator.
covered by dense ground vegetation (grass, herbs, moss). The high
However, the chronological development of the runoff differs
amount of large soil pores (> 50 μm) (Fig. 9) allow an instantaneous
between both devices at all sites. While the large device produced a
percolation of the rain to the deeper soil layers, which are loosely
delayed beginning and gradual increase of runoff, runoff generated
bedded and capacious at this site.

0
00:00 00:00
Time [hh:mm] Time [hh:mm]

Fig. 10. Experiments Rech, Tal 1 and Steg with the large-plot (black) and the small-plot device (dark and light grey) showing an overestimation of runoff (both Ψtot and Ψconst) and a
shorter time to runoff with the small-plot device.

192
C. Mayerhofer et al.
Fig. 11. Result of a small-plot rainfall simulation with a dye tracer (brilliant blue) at Rech. Photograph (left), colored pixels (middle), histogram of colored pixels (right), medium dotted
line 50%, right dotted line 100%. While matrix infiltration takes place in the compacted top-soil layer, macropore infiltraton and exfiltration into the matrix dominate in the lower layers
(bar for depth in 10 cm steps, modified after Schader, 2013.) (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
4.1.5. Lutzenreute (Lutz)
The meadow at Lutz was situated close to a forest edge dominated
by Quercus robur, Abies alba and Acer platanoides, which are known for
their strong and up to 17 m long horizontal rooting, intense topsoil
rooting as well as up- and downwards growth of their roots (Kutschera,
1960). The three small-plot rainfall simulations which delivered the
three lowest surface runoff values were carried out only a few meters
apart the forest edge following the wish of the land owner to reduce
mechanical impacts on the meadow by the investigations to a mini-
mum. A dense root penetration was noticed at these experimental sites
which may influence the infiltration capacity (Dunne et al., 1991).
Besides the root penetration, a high activity of soil fauna (e.g. ants,
earthworms and voles) was observed. Thus, these three rainfall
simulation plots are characterised by a dense net of preferential flow
paths considerably increasing the infiltration rate (Hümann et al., 2011;
Scherrer, 2006; Weiler and Naef, 2003). Therefore, the small-plot
experiments with the three lowest surface runoff coefficient values
should be considered separately as their characteristics turned out to
differ from the site characteristics of the large-plot simulation. In future,
sprinkling experiments on grassland should not be conducted at sites
situated that close to forest edges.
Within the remaining six small-scale experiments, five (Ψtot) or four
(Ψconst) small-scale simulations yielded runoff coefficients smaller than
the one gained with the large-plot device which might be explained by
irregularly distributed vole holes and channels which may occur on a
large proportion of the small plot, but only smaller areas of the large
plot.
4.1.6. Wattenberg (Watt)
At the site Watt the large-plot experiment was accomplished in July
2009, the small-plot experiments followed three years later in July
2012. The varying surface runoff coefficients of the three conducted
small-plot experiments could be explained by the high proportion of
soil skeleton including up to 30 cm × 15 cm large flat quartz phyllite
stones. Thus, the generation of surface runoff depends on the way how
the skeleton is embedded in the soil matrix and to what extent the fine
soil is compacted due to mechanical impact from grazing in late
summer. 14.6 mm of precipitation were measured in the night before
the large-plot rain simulation (gauge Weerberg HZB 102475, ehyd.gv.
at). Thus, initial soil water content was 45 Vol-% at the start of the
experiment. No rainfall had taken place within the same time span
before the small-plot experiments were conducted. The antecedent soil
moisture content at the small-plots ranged between 8 and 27 Vol-%.
The lower antecedent soil moisture content and an infiltration favour-
ing size and position of the flat large stones in the soil could explain that
two out of three small-plot experiments showed a lower runoff
coefficient than the large-plot. At the third plot, the skeleton content
obviously hampered infiltration. The surface runoff generation on a
skeleton/fine grained soil pattern is more balanced at large experi-
193
Catena 156 (2017) 184–196
mental sites.
4.2. Does the variation of the results follow any specific patterns?
Alpine sites are characterised by a strong difference in altitude
within short distances. Thus, topography controlled morphodynamic
processes, micro-climatic conditions and water balance lead to the
development of soils and vegetation cover whose characteristics (soil
type, pore distribution, root density etc.) show a strong small-scale
variability (Geitner et al., 2011) resulting in strongly variable runoff
reactions. This is mirrored by the large range of surface runoff
coefficients measured with the small-plot device. The simulations at
Watt (3 experiments), Brix (6 experiments) and Lutz (9 experiments)
revealed that increasing the number of small-scale experiments does
not necessarily reduce the uncertainty if a surface runoff coefficient
value has to be chosen for characterizing/modelling runoff reaction of a
slope. As at the other sites due to logistical reasons only 1–2 experi-
ments were carried out, results have to be interpreted with caution.
Nevertheless, some conclusions may be drawn.
Assuming that the large-plot simulations produce surface runoff
coefficients appropriate for the runoff characterization of the consid-
ered slope/soil-vegetation unit, the investigated sites can be divided
into three groups:
a) Sites, at which the surface runoff coefficients delivered by the small-
plot device exceed the values measured by the large-plot device. In
our study, these sites were all situated in an intensively grazed area
(Brixenbachtal) with small patterned site transformation such as
inhomogeneous topsoil compaction, small pattern of vegetation
covered and bare of vegetation, and the development of a small-
area micro-relief (Leitinger et al., 2010; Pietola et al., 2005). Here
the shortened flow path at the small plot (Ghadiri and Payne, 1988;
Guggenberger, 1980; Markart and Kohl, 1995) has an overestimat-
ing effect. The same is the case for the spruce forest site where
hydrophobic effects in combination with the truncated flow path led
to a slightly higher surface runoff coefficient at the small plot. At
these sites side losses obviously do not play a decisive role.
b) Sites, at which the surface runoff coefficients delivered by the small-
plot device may also go below the values measured by the large-plot
device. In our study, these sites were mainly used as hay meadows
(Lutz, Steg and Watt) which are mowed several times a year with a
short cattle grazing period in autumn. Here the losses at the plots'
sides are affecting the runoff generation to a greater extent than they
do at large-plot experiments and outrun the above mentioned effect
of the short flow paths. As the ratio of circumference to area is much
larger for small plots than for large plots, water fluxes from the
irrigated plot to the surrounding dry areas (surface runoff, macro-
pore flow near the surface, wind) may lead to significant losses
(Dobmann, 2009).
C. Mayerhofer et al.
c) We identified one site (Tal 2), at which the surface runoff
coefficients delivered by the small-plot device was nearly equal to
the values measured by the large-plot device. High surface runoff
coefficients result at large plots, if a high proportion of the area
shows surface runoff producing characteristics (e.g. impermeable
root felt, compacted top soil, saturated top soil). Thus, the site is
quite uniform and there a balanced ratio between influencing
factors (side losses, shortened flow path) may have led to very
similar surface runoff coefficients at the small and large plots.
However, due to logistical reasons, only one small-plot experiment
took place. It cannot be ruled out that a greater amount of rainfall
simulations would have led to different results. Also at Brix ag, Lutz
and Steg singular small-plot experiments produced surface runoff
coefficients very close those of the large-plot simulations. Further
experiments are necessary to verify these findings.
Summarizing it can be stated that at our investigated Alpine sites we
found both relationships between the surface runoff coefficients
produced by the small-plot and large-plot rainfall simulations, with
the small-plot values underrunning the large-plot values as expected by
Dobmann (2009) as well as exceeding them as reported by several
authors (Guggenberger, 1980; Markart and Kohl, 1995; Sharpley and
Kleinman, 2003). As the conduction of large-plot rainfall simulations
evolve a greater effort, it would be helpful if the results of a small-plot
rainfalls simulator [1 m2] could be related to the more representative
results of the large-plot device by a correction factor or even a power
law as formulated for comparative plot size studies under natural rain
(Asadzadeh et al., 2012). Although some characteristics were pointed
out which may help to identify plots at which the small-plot device will
produce too low or too high surface runoff coefficients, no evidence on
the magnitude of the deviation can be given.
It may be hypothesized that increased antecedent soil moisture
leads to smaller differences between the runoff coefficients of the large-
plot and small-plot simulations because of the increasing connectivity
of the flow paths within the plots. This is true for the repetition
experiments at Lutz, Steg and Rech (Fig. 7). However, as at all three
sites, only one repetition experiment at the small plot is available due to
logistical reasons, the significance of these findings cannot be evalu-
ated. At the site Brix, where three small-plot repetition experiments
were carried out, the above stated hypothesis was not confirmed. This
might be because of the low antecedent soil moisture content at the
large-plot, even in the repetition experiment. Further rainfall simula-
tions are necessary to get reliable results.
According to the time to runoff, with the exception of Tal 2 and each
two plots at Lutz and Watt, all small-plot experiments delivered a
shorter time span until surface runoff was measured in the drain than
the large-plot simulations. These findings are contrary to the results of
Auerswald et al. (1992a) and Newesely et al. (2015) where runoff
started later with decreasing plot size. In this study the explanation for
the shorter initial time could be given in the spatial pattern of the
artificial rain. While raindrops at the small simulator fall close to the
drain, the rain intensity at the lowest part of the irrigated area is
reduced at the large simulator (Newesely et al., 2015) in order to avoid
direct rain into the drain. Thus the flow length and the time of first
runoff are increased.
Due to the flow distance of surface runoff at the large sprinkling
device, the runoff generation process takes more time at the large
simulator. Thus it takes more time till a constant runoff level is reached.
Beside the area of the sprinkling device, the proportion between the
length and the area of the simulator must be respected comparing the
runoff volume.
4.3. Influence of grazing and antecedent soil moisture content on surface
runoff
Repeated rainfall simulations before the grazing season (May 2012)
194
Catena 156 (2017) 184–196
and after the grazing season (September 2012) at Brix showed a strong
influence of grazing to the generation of surface runoff (Fig. 8). The
antecedent soil moisture contents were similar at both times despite of
differences in the three days sum of antecedent precipitation (48.7 mm
in May; 0.9 mm in September). The strong surface runoff increasing
effect of the grazing seasons, measured at the large plot and four of the
six small plots, confirms other studies (Kohl and Markart, 2002;
Leitinger et al., 2010; Pietola et al., 2005). After grazing, less water is
able to infiltrate into the soil due to the reduction of the vegetation
cover, the compacted soil surface owing to mechanical impact by
grazing livestock and hydrophobic effects initiated by accumulated
dead organic matter (Markart et al., 2011; Markart et al., 2004;
Sharrow, 2007). During the non-grazing season a recovering process
of the soil (decreasing of bulk density, increasing of macroporosity and
hydraulic conductivity) occurs as a consequence of a number of
processes including shrinkage and swelling, frost slacking, earthworms
burrowing and root penetration (Cournane et al., 2011; Unger, 1991).
Thus an increased infiltration potential exists in spring before grazing
season begins (Leitinger et al., 2010). This explains the relatively low
surface runoff coefficient (Ψtot = 0.14, Ψconst = 0.22) at the large plot
measured in May 2012 at Brix. Such effects of restructuring of the
topsoil as well as their limitations are known from different studies (e.g.
Czell, 1972; da Silva et al., 2003; Sharrow, 2007).
In order to investigate the effect of antecedent soil moisture content,
repetition experiments were conducted at Brix, Rech, Lutz and Steg.
Apart from one exception (Rech 1) all sprinkling experiments at the
small plot resulted in a higher surface runoff at the repetition experi-
ment (Fig. 7). The increase of the surface runoff values ranged between
0.07 and 0.18 at the small plots and between 0.06 and 0.17 at the large
plots and showed a similar trend for both sprinkling devices and both
surface runoff coefficients.
5. Conclusions
This study targeted at providing a possibility to a better under-
standing of the information found with small-plot sprinkling experi-
ments (1 m2) compared to – in the context with runoff estimation in
hydrological catchments – more representative but labour intensive
large-plot simulations (40–80 m2). Similar conditions provided, the
following considerations may allow a better evaluation of the results of
small-plot rainfall simulations in relation to large-plot experiments.
If the runoff reaction shall be analysed by a small-plot rainfall
simulation, it is highly recommended to conduct several experiments at
one site. Due to the small patterned site characteristics the resulting
runoff coefficients often vary within a broad range.
Runoff measurement executed by different sprinkling devices
(sprinkled area, side proportions, type of sprinkler or nozzles) will
mostly lead to deviating results of surface runoff parameters (Markart
and Kohl, 1995; Iserloh et al., 2013a, 2013b) as confirmed in this study.
However, based on the present results it seems possible to assign
following general characteristics:
• At sites intensively grazed by cattle, the small-plot device is
expected to deliver surface runoff coefficients higher than the
large-plot rainfall simulator, due to topsoil compaction and the
shortened flow path. If the site additionally is characterised by low
vegetation coverage (≤ 70%) the overestimation can be signifi-
cantly higher.
• At mainly mowed grassland sites, surface runoff coefficients pro-
duced with the small-plot device are similar or even lower than the
results of the large-plot rainfall simulator. Caution is required at
sites indicating high macropore content. There, the small-plot
simulator shows a tendency to significantly underestimate the
realistic runoff coefficient.
• Experiments with the small-plot simulator may result in a higher
surface runoff coefficient in forested sites with low ground cover due
C. Mayerhofer et al.
to the shortened flow path and the initially hydrophobic surface.
• Repetition of rainfall simulations at nearly saturated soil moisture
conditions on the one hand and at the end of the grazing season on
the other hand led to significantly increased surface runoff coeffi-
cients (both, Ψtot and Ψconst).
The temporal development of the runoff process is greatly influ-
enced by the area and the length of the experimental site.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank Clemens Geitner for fruitful discussions, Klaus
Suntinger, Bernadette Sotier, René Schader, Charly Lentz for supporting
the field measurements, René Schader for conducting sprinkling
experiments with brilliant blue and analysing the resulting pictures.
We thank Artemí Cerdà, Johannes Ries and an anonymous reviewer for
helping to significantly improve the manuscript by their valuable
review comments
Funding: This study was carried out within the research project
“Sensitivity of the Runoff Characteristics of Small Alpine Catchments to
Climate Change (SeRAC-CC)” funded by the Austrian Climate and
Energy Fund (B068680 - K10AC1K00076) (ACRP-Programme:
Austrian Climate Research Programme, 3rd call).
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