Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
1. Fundamentals
1.1 Introduction
Example for portable computers as portable ticket machine by Czech Railways in 1990s.
Many types of mobile computers have been introduced since the 1990s, including the:
Wearable computer
Personal digital assistant/Enterprise digital assistant
Smartphone
Carputer
Ultra Mobile PC
A Personal digital assistant (PDA) is a small, usually pocket-sized, computer with limited
functionality. It is intended to supplement and to synchronize with a desktop computer,
giving access to contacts, address book, notes, e-mail and other features.
Ultra Mobile PC
Smart phone
Carputer
Insufficient bandwidth
Mobile internet access is generally slower than direct cable connections, using
technologies such as GPRS and EDGE, and more recently 3G networks. These networks
are usually available within range of commercial cell phone towers. Higher speed
wireless LANs are inexpensive, but have very limited range.
Security standards
When working mobile one is dependent on public networks, requiring careful use of
VPNs.
Power consumption
When a power outlet or portable generator is not available, mobile computers must rely
entirely on battery power. Combined with the compact size of many mobile devices, this
often means unusually expensive batteries must be used to obtain the necessary battery
life.
Transmission interferences
Weather, terrain, and the range from the nearest signal point can all interfere with signal
reception. Reception in tunnels, some buildings, and rural areas is often poor.
More car accidents are related to drivers who were talking through a mobile device. Cell
phones may interfere with sensitive medical devices. There are allegations that cell phone
signals may cause health problems.
Screens and keyboards tend to be small, which may make them harder to use. Alternate
input methods such as speech or handwriting recognition require training.
The frequencies used vary according to the cellular network technology implemented.
For GSM, 890 - 915 MHz range is used for transmission and 935 -960 MHz for
reception. The DCS techology uses frequencies in the 1800MHz range while PCS in the
1900MHz range.
Each cell has a number of channels associated with it. These are assigned to subscribers
on demand. When a Mobile Station (MS) becomes 'active' it registers with the nearest
BS. The corresponding MSC stores the information about that MS and its position. This
information is used to direct incoming calls to the MS.
If during a call the MS moves to an adjacent cell then a change of frequency will
necessarily occur - since adjacent cells never use the same channels. This procedure is
called hand over and is the key to Mobile communications. As the MS is approaching
the edge of a cell, the BS monitors the decrease in signal power. The strength of the
signal is compared with adjacent cells and the call is handed over to the cell with the
strongest signal.
During the switch, the line is lost for about 400ms. When the MS is going from one area
to another it registers itself to the new MSC. Its location information is updated, thus
allowing MSs to be used outside their 'home' areas.
Data Communications have been achieved using a variety of networks such as PSTN,
leased-lines and more recently ISDN (Integrated Services Data Network) and ATM
Circuit switching
Circuit switching implies that data from one user (sender) to another (receiver)
has to follow a prespecified path. If a link to be used is busy , the message can not be
redirected , a property which causes many delays.
Packet switching
The most widely used are the Virtual Circuit-Switching system, which implies
that packets have to be sent through the same path, and
The Datagram system which allows packets to be sent at various paths depending
on the network availability.
To define "Mobile Computing Application Server (MCAS or simple MAS)" as a software program
which runs in a server and provides the following functionality:
transforms the data on a specific thin client (or a thick client like a PC) considering its
presentation space characteristics and limitations. This is also called GUI (Graphical
User Interface) in some cases though some handheld are more like older text terminals
than PC. It includes breaking the messages into smaller chunks, filtering redundant
information, and even logically compressing the data , etc.
Transaction services, in some cases - including multi-threading for heavy volumes and
persistency i.e. recovery across session failures
An application server may be considered as part of a multi-tier (mostly three tier) architecture.
Conventional tiers are:
1. First tier - A thin client based on handheld devices or a thick client on a PC - typically a
browser-based interface in the Web context
3. Third Tier - backend legacy data base systems and mission-critical ERP systems on a
large server or mainframe
Example of CSMA/CD
a radio can usually not transmit and receive at the same time
signal strength decreases proportionally to the square of the distance or even more
the sender would apply CS and CD, but the collisions happen at the receiver
it might be the case that a sender cannot “hear” the collision, i.e., CD does not
work
furthermore, CS might not work if, e.g., a terminal is “hidden”
Hidden terminals
A B C
Exposed terminals
A B C
If C for example was an arbiter for sending rights, terminal B would drown out terminal
A already on the physical layer
CARMA
417 µs
1 1 1 1
1 2 3 1 2 3
1 2 1 2
downlin uplin t
k k
f downlin
960 MHz k
124
20 MHz
915 MHz 124
1
890.2 MHz
t
uplin
k
Aloha/slotted aloha
Mechanism
Aloha
collision
sender A
sender B
sender C
Slotted Aloha
collision
sender A
sender B
sender C
t
1.2.4 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
1-Persistent CSMA
Stations having a packet to send sense the channel continuously, waiting until the
channel becomes idle.
As soon as the channel is sensed idle, they transmit their packet.
If more than one station is waiting, a collision occurs.
Stations involved in a collision perform a the backoff algorithm to schedule a
future time for resensing the channel
Optional backoff algorithm may be used in addition for fairness
Non-Persistent CSMA
Attempts to reduce the incidence of collisions
Stations with a packet to transmit sense the channel
If the channel is busy, the station immediately runs the back-off algorithm and
reschedules a future sensing time
If the channel is idle, then the station transmits
Channel efficiency only 18% for Aloha, 36% for Slotted Aloha
Reservation can increase efficiency to 80%
a sender reserves a future time-slot
sending within this reserved time-slot is possible without collision
reservation also causes higher delays
typical scheme for satellite links
Examples for reservation algorithms:
Explicit Reservation (Reservation-ALOHA)
Implicit Reservation (PRMA)
Reservation-TDMA
DAMA / Explicit Reservation
collision
t
Aloha reserved Aloha reserved Aloha reserved Aloha
DAMA / Packet reservation (PRMA)
Implicit reservation
based on slotted Aloha
a certain number of slots form a frame, frames are repeated
stations compete for empty slots according to the slotted aloha principle
once a station reserves a slot successfully, this slot is automatically assigned to
this station in all following frames as long as the station has data to send
competition for a slot starts again as soon as the slot was empty in the last frame
reservation
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 time-lot
ACDABA-F
frame1 A C D A B A F
ACDABA-F
frame2 A C A B A
AC-ABAF-
frame3 A B A F
A---BAFD
frame4 A B A F
D
ACEEBAFD
frame5 A C E E B A F D
DAMA / Reservation-TDMA
Reservation Time Division Multiple Access
every frame consists of N mini-slots and x data-slots
every station has its own mini-slot and can reserve up to k data-slots using this
mini-slot (i.e. x = N * k).
other stations can send data in unused data-slots according to a round-robin
sending scheme (best-effort traffic)
e.g. N=6,
N * k data- k=2
N mini-
slots slots
the base station signals on the downlink (base station to terminals) if the medium
is free or not
terminals must not send if the medium is busy
terminals can access the medium as soon as the busy tone stops
the base station signals collisions and successful transmissions via the busy tone
and acknowledgements, respectively (media access is not coordinated within this
approach)
mechanism used, e.g., for CDPD (Cellular Digital Packet Data)
Similar approach was proposed
for Packet Radio Networks
(Kleinrock + Tobagi, 1975)
Advantages:
all terminals can use the same frequency, no planning needed
huge code space (e.g., 232) compared to frequency space
more robust to eavesdropping and jamming (military applications…)
forward error correction and encryption can be easily integrated
Principle (very simplified)
Spreading Despreading
Ak
Ak
Ad X As X Ad
C+
D
As + Bs
Bk Bk
Bd X Bs X Bd
C+
D
Example:
Sender A
sends Ad = 1, key Ak = 010011 (assign: „0“= -1, „1“= +1)
sending signal As = Ad * Ak = (-1, +1, -1, -1, +1, +1)
Sender B
sends Bd = 0, key Bk = 110101 (assign: „0“= -1, „1“= +1)
sending signal Bs = Bd * Bk = (-1, -1, +1, -1, +1, -1)
Both signals superimpose in space
interference neglected (noise etc.)
As + Bs = (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0)
sender 1 0 1 narro
A
sender w
0 1 1
B band
send for a
shorter period
with higher
power
spread the signal e.g. using the chipping sequence 110101 („CDMA without
CD“)
t
Problem: find a chipping sequence with good
characteristics
Rapid increase in the demand for data services, is the primary thrust for the
mobile industry to advance. However the radio access platforms that are different by
different service provides has been the inhibitor for the growth as there are a number of
different access 2 G technologies. International Telecommunications Union (ITU ) has
specified the International Mobile Telecommunication 2000 (IMT 2000). IMT 2000 is
the Radio and Network access specifications defining several methods or technology
platforms that meet the overall goals of the final specifications. It is meant to be unifying
specifications enabling mobile and fixed high speed data services to use one or several
radio channels with fixed network platforms for delivering the services envisioned. Some
IMT specifications are:
Global standard.
Compatibility of service within IMT 2000 and other fixed networks.
High quality
Worldwide common frequency band
TD-SCDMA
(CHINA)
EDGE
(800,1900) TD-CDMA
(JAPAN)
MIGRATION
WiDEN
PATH i DEN
If a single user access a multiple time slots, then speeds such as 40.2 , 53.6
kbps becomes available. To the user
CS-2 has robust error correction over the air interface. CS - , 4 may have
higher data output rate, but have no error correction schemes which may
require retransmission leading wastage of transmission.
Biggest advantage of GPRS is not that it provides higher data rate, but it
facilitates packet switching wherein the network is connected as per
requirement rather than like in circuit switched for the full call duration.
When no data is transferred, channel is used by the other users.
Can attach eith GSM or GPRS but cannot attach both simultaneously. That is
at a given instant a class C device is either a GSM device or a GPRS device.
Other aspects of device are multislot capability of the device which directly
affects the supported data rate. Some device support three slot, others only two. As
the data down load requirement is asymmetric – high data rate in the down link and
lower data rate in the uplink, some devices may have different slot for both up and
down link.
GPRS offers a point to point (PTP) packet service known as PTP CONS (Point to
Point Connection Oriented Network Service.) This is the ability of GPRS to maintain
the virtual circuit upon change of the cell with the GSM network. This type or
service corresponds to X.25 The other service PTP – CLNS – is the point to point
connection less network service that supports applications based on the internet
protocol IP.
It uses MAP (Mobile Application Part ) over SS7.It is used when GGSN wants to
know the serving SGSN for any subscriber.
At the MS, there is RF interface, above which are Radio Link Control and
Medium Access Control functions. Above these are Logical Link Control (LLC) which
provides a logical link and framing structure for communication between the MS and the
SGSN. Any data between MS and SGSN is sent as Logical Link – Protocol Data Units
(LLPDU ). LLC supports management of this transfer, including mechanism for the
detection and recovery from, lost or corrupted LL-PDU, ciphering and flow control.
Above LLC, is Sub Network Dependent Convergence Protocol (SNDCP) which
resides between LLC and the network layer (such as IP and X.25) . The purpose of
SNDCP is to enable support for multiple network protocols without having to change
the lower layers such as LLC. It also help to multiplex several packet streams into a
single logical channel between MS and SGSN.
At the BSS, a relay function relays LL_PDU from Gb interface to the air interface
( the Um interface). Similarly, at SSGN, a relay function relays PDP PDUs between the
Gb interface and the Gn interface.
GTP- GPRS Tunneling Protocol: All data within GPRS backbone is transferred GTP.
It can use different transport protocols either the reliable TCP (needed for reliable
transfer of X.25 packets) or the non reliable UDP – used for packet IP. Tunneling is the
procedure of wrapping up the connection and its associated packets in a wrapper for
transmission through the IP network between GGSN and SGSN. In this case, the IP
network nodes (routers) between the SGSN and GGSN consider the GTP packets to be
application and those routers do not examine the contents of the GTP layer. At the
SGSN, the wrapper is removed and the packet is passed to the MS using SNDCP, LLC
and the lower layers. For the packets from MS to external network- such as internet, the
GGSN removes the wrapper and forwards the IP packets.
System Architecture:
Different DECT entities can be integrated into one physical unit or entities can
be distribute, replicated etc. However, the basic reference model is shown above. In
this a global network connects the local communication network to the outside world
and offers its services via a interface D. Global network could be ISDN, PSTN, PLMN
eg GSM or Packet Switched Public Data Network (PSPDN). The service offered by the
networks include transportation of data on one hand and the transition of address and
routing of data between the local networks on the other.
Local networks provides simple service to everything such as switching to call
forwarding, address translation etc. HDB – Home Data Base and VDB visitor data base
are also located at the local network.
The DECT core network consists of the fixed radio termination (FT) and the portable
Radio Termination PT and basically only provides multiplexing service.
Protocol Architecture:
DECT protocol reference architecture follows the OSI reference mode.
Following figures shows the layers covered by this standard.
Physical Layer
The physical layer, medium access control, and data link control for both the control
place (C – Plane) and the user plane (U-Plane). Only for the C place, an additional
network layer has been specified so that the user data from layer two is directly
forwarded top the U plane. A management plane covers all lower layers of a DECT
system.
Physical layer comprises all functions for modulation / demodulation, incoming
signal detection,, sender / receiver synchronization, and collection of status information
for the management plane. On request from MAC layer, the physical layer assigns a
channel for data transmission.
Following diagram shows the TDMA frame structure used in DECT:
Each frame has a duration of 10 ms and contains 12 slots for down link and 12 slots
for uplink. In basic connection mode. If a mobile receives data in slot n, it returns data in
n+ 12 slot. After leaving for sync bits and guard space, 388 bits are used for network
control (A field) and user data(B field).
With a data rate of 6.4 kbps, (64 bits per 10 ms) , the user data rate depends on
additional error correction mechanism. Simplex bearer provides a data rate of 32 kbps in
unprotected mode while using 16 bit CRC checksum for data block of 64 bits in the
protected mode. This reduces the data rate to 25.6 kbps.
U plane:
In case of User plane, several services exists. Transparent unprotected service.
As forward error correction service, rate adaptation service, services for future
enhancement.
Network Layer:
Network layer exist only in C plane. This layer provides services to
request, check, reserve control and release resources at the fixed station and the mobile
terminal
Mobility Management:
Mobility Management within the network layer is responsible for identity
management, authentication and management of the location data bases.
Connection Oriented
Message Service
Message Service
Message Service
Message Service
Connectionless
Connectionless
Supplementary
Supplementary
Management
Management
Call control
Call control
Mobility
Mobility
Services
Services
DECT
message
Data Link control
Data Link control
Medium Access Control
Medium Access Control
Physical link
Physical
control
frames
radio link
TDMA radio access, with its low radio interference characteristics, provides high
system capacity to handle up to 100'000 users per km² floor space in an office
environment.
Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation:
ADPCM (Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation) speech encoding ensures a
DECT cordless phone very high speech quality, comparable to wire line telephony.
The proposals came mainly from three standards developing organization (SDO)such as
a. ETSI – European Telecommunication Standard Institute
b. ARIB (Association of Radio Industries and Broadcasting )and TTC
(Telecommunication Technology Council) of Japan) and
c. ANSI – American National Standard Institute.
1.3.5 Universal Mobile Telecommunication System
The European proposal is called Universal Mobile Telecommunication System
(UMTS)
The proposal for the Radio Transmission Technology (RTT) specified by the
UMTS is known as UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access (UTRA). AS UMTS is evolved
from the GSM technology, Many solution to UTRA were smooth transition from 2G
GSM to 3Generation systems. .EDGE is one such enhancement wherein the data rates
went upto 384 kbps. ETSI developed Global Multimedia Network GMM which
provides architecture to integrate mobile and fixed terminals, many different access
networks, (GSM BSS, DECT, ISDN, UMTS, LAN, WAN, CATV etc) . With these basic
requirements, ETSI developed basic requirements for UMT and for UTRA, the radio
interface. The key requirements are minimum data rates of 144 kbps on a high speed
vehicle, 384 kbps for a pedestrian and 2 mbps data rate access for fixed indoor facility.
In addition, UMTS was supposed to be providing other bearer services such as, rela
time and non real time services (multimedia), circuit and packet switched services.
Smooth handover must be possible, between, WLAN, DECT, GMS, Satellite networks.
UMTS should provide variable link data rates. For down link and uplink. ETSI adopted
paired band technology based on W-CDMA(using FDD Duplex mechanism) and TD –
CDMA for unpaired band (Using TDD CDMA).
UE UTRAN CN
Uu Iu
UTRA Network handles cell level mobility and comprises several Radio Network
Subsystem (RNS). The function of RNS include radio channel ciphering and
deciphering, handover control, radio resource management etc. UTRN is connected to
user equipment via Uu interface and via Iu to the core network CN. CN contains system
for intersystem handover, gateways to other networks etc.
UMTS separates signaling data and user data by introducing C-Plane and U-Plane.
The three lower layers of architectures includes,
physical layer comprising, radio interface, functions for FEC, signal level
mechanism, multiplexing, de multiplexing, modulation, spreading
synchronization and power control, priority handling.
MAC Layer (Layer Two) consists of MAC connections, medium access control,
priority handling contention resolution, and scheduling of data packets.
Layer three contains function for connection set up, etc.
Similar to GSM, there are several physical and logical channel are defined. On the
uplink, user data is transported over the uplink dedicated physical data channel
(uplink DPDCH) and layer one control data (power control) is transported via the
uplink dedicated physical control channel (Uplink DPCCH). For the both channels,
different spreading factors are possible..
Both channels are transmitted in parallel with uplink DPCCH on the Q ranch and
uplink DPCCH on the I branch. The Physical Random Access Channel (PRACH)
carries random access control information from mobile station. It uses slotted ALOHA
with 1.25 ms slot.
On the Down link , the downlink dedicated physical channel (down DPCH)
carries user data and control data from layer one in a time multiplexed fashion. In
addition, UTRA defines additional physical channel for radio control.
Above figures shows the URTA in FDD mode and selected channels. A superframe
with a duration of 720 ms consists of 72 frames. A frame contains 16 slots and has a
duration of 10 ms. The example shows three different channels that can use a slot. The
uplink DPCCH contains a pilot to support channel estimation, the Transmit Power
Control (TPC), and the optional Transport Format Identifier (TFI) The uplink
DPCH which is transmitted at the same time, contains the user data. The down link
DPCH contain the fields – pilot, TPC, TFI and data.
Both Schemes FDD and TDD can coexists. Handover between the schemes is
feasible due to frame structure and the duration of 10 ms. Furthermore, the
multiframe structure for the UTRA modes allows for a seamless handover to GSM
system.
The first three layers are common for both Control Plane (C-Plane) and User Plane
(U-Plane). The network layer has been specified only for U-Plane, so that user data from
layer two is directly forwarded to the U-Plane.
21. Specify the standards offered by TETRA.
TETRA offers two standards. They are:
Voice+Data (V+D).
Packet Data Optimized (PDO).
22. How many ITU standardized groups of 3G radio access technologies are there in
IMT-2000?
There are five groups. They are:
IMT-DS
IMT-TC
IMT-MC
IMT-SC
IMT-FT
23. What are the steps perform during the search for a cell after power on?
The steps perform during the search for a cell after power on is:
Primary Synchronization.
Secondary Synchronization.
Identification of the scrambling code.
24. What are the two basic classes of handover?
The two basic classes of handover are:
Hard Handover.
Soft Handover.
25. What are the two basic transport mechanisms used by DAB?
The two basic transport mechanisms used by DAB are:
Main Service Channel (MSC).
Fast Information Channel (FIC).
26. What are the two transport modes defined for MSC?
The two transport modes defined for MSC are:
Stream Mode
Packet Mode.
27. Define the terms:
i. Earth Station.
ii. Uplink.
iii. Downlink.
Earth Station:-
The antenna systems on or near the earth are referred to as Earth Station.
Uplink:-
A transmission from an earth station to the satellite is referred to as Uplink.
Downlink:-
A transmission from the satellite to the earth station is referred to as Downlink.
28. Define Elevation Angle.
The Elevation angle is the angle from the horizontal to the point on the center of
the main beam of the antenna when the antenna is pointed directlyat the satellite.
29. What are the factors limited the number of sub channels provided within the
satellite channel?
There are three factors limited the number of sub channels provided
within the satellite channel. They are:-
Thermal Noise.
Intermodulation Noise.
Crosstalk.
ASSIGNMENT