The American geneticists George Beadle and Edward Tatum established the connection

between genes and enzymes. In other words, a gene is a portion of DNA that contains the
instructions for the synthesis of specific RNA or protein.
Each nucleotide contains three diff. components
1. 1 P with 4 O (Phosphate group)
2. 5 carbon sugar (deoxyribose/sugar group)
3. Nitrogen base (single-ringed pyrimidine, T and C or double-ringed, A and G)

Erwin Chargaff’s rule of DNA

1. Adenine must pair with Thymine
2. Cytosine must be paired with guanine
3. The bases form weak hydrogen bonds
Deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA) is a molecule that carries genetic functions for growth,
development, functioning and reproduction of living organisms and viruses.
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a polymeric molecule that is essential for various biological roles in
coding, decoding, regulation and expression of genes.
First, RNA is single stranded – whereas DNA is double stranded. Second, the sugar in RNA is
ribose; DNA has deoxyribose. Finally, both DNA and RNA contain four nitrogenous bases, but
instead of thymine, RNA contains a similar base called uracil (U). The uracil pairs with adenine.
The major types of RNA include: messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and
transfer RNA (tRNA).
Messenger RNA is a large family of RNA molecules that carries genetic infos from DNA to the
ribosomes. (codon)
Ribosomal RNA is the RNA component of the ribosome and is essential for proteins in
organisms.
Transfer RNA (Soluble RNA) is an adaptor molecule composed of RNA that is 76-90
nucleotides in length, it physically linked RNA and amino acid sequence of proteins. (Anti-
codon)
In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick worked out that DNA is double helix like a twisted
staircase. The sugar-phosphate backbones in the sides and the base pairs compose the stairs or
rungs in the twisted staircase.
The process of making copies of DNA is replication. When DNA replicates, two identical
copies of DNA molecules were produced (Same as the original)
There are four replication enzymes: DNA helicase, DNA primase, DNA polymerases and
DNA ligase.
Helicase- unwinds and separates double stranded DNA. It forms a replication fork by breaking
the hydrogen bonds.
Primase- generates primers. Primers are short piece of RNA that acts as templates for the starting
point of DNA replication.
Polymerases- synthesizes DNA by adding nucleotides in the leading and lagging strand.
Ligase- joins DNA fragments together by forming phosphodiester bonds.
 Replication Fork Formation- Before the replication of DNA, the double stranded must be
unzipped into two single strands by the helicase. Helicase disrupts the hydrogen bonding between pairs
to separate into a Y shape known relipcation fork.

Primer Binding- the primer (short piece of RNA) binds to the 3' end of the strand. the primer always
binds to the starting point for replication. Primers are generated by the enzyme, DNA primase.
The directionality is important for replication (5' to 3' direction) However, the replication fork is
bidirectional. One strand is bind into the 3' to 5' direction(leading strand) and the lagging strand (5' to
3' direction)

Elongation- Enzymes called DNA polymerases are responsible for creating the new strand in a process
called elongation.

Termination- DNA ligase joins Okazaki fragments forming a single strand. Telomerase catakyzes the
synthesis of telomere sequences

Central dogma of molecular biology is an explanation of flow of genetic infos within

biological system.
Transcription is the first step of gene expression, in which a particular segment of the DNA is
copied into RNA (mRNA) by the enzyme RNA polymerase. It uses one of the two exposed DNA
strands as a template called template strand.
The RNA product is complementary to the template strand and is almost identical to the other
DNA strand called the non-template/coding strand. Both DNA and RNA are nucleic acids,
which use base pairs of nucleotides as a complementary language.
During transcription, a DNA sequence is read by an RNA polymerase, which produces a
complementary, anti-parallel RNA strand called a primary transcript.
 Initiation- The RNA polymerase binds to the
DNA of the gene at a region called
promoter(contains DNA sequences that let RNA
polymerase/its helper proteins attach to the
DNA. once the transcription bubble has formed,
the polymerase can start tanscribing. Many After termination, transcription is
eukaryotic promoters have a sequence called finished. An RNA transcript that is
TATA BOX. it's recognized by one of the
general transcription factors allowingother trans ready to e used n translation is
factors and eventually RNA polymerase to bind. called a messenger RNA.
it also contains a lot of As and Ts, which makes
it easy to pull the strands of DNA apart

Termination- RNA polemrase will start

ELongation is the stage when the RNA
gets longer (addition of nucleotied)
transcribing until it gets signal to stop.
The process of ending transcription is
called termination. it happens once the
polymerase transcribes a sequence of
DNA known as terminator.

Ribonucleic Acid polymerase enzyme binds and opens the DNA molecule
that will be transcribed.

As the DNA molecule opens, the RNA polymerase slides along the
DNA strand and links free RNA nucleotides that pair with the
nitrogenous bases of the complementary DNA strand. Hence, if the
sequence of bases on the DNA strand were CCG TTA CAT, the
sequence of bases on the RNA strand would be GGC AAU GUA.

When the process of base-pairing is completed, the RNA molecule

breaks away as the DNA strands rejoin. The RNA leaves the nucleus
and goes to the cytoplasm.

KEY CONCEPTS:
• The sequence of nucleotides in DNA directs the order of nucleotides in messenger RNA in a
process called transcription.
• There are three major types of RNA that help build proteins: mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA.
• The mRNA carries the information in DNA to the ribosomes found in the cytoplasm.

Translation- In molecular biology and genetics, translation is a process in which cellular

ribosomes create proteins. The mrna is decoded to build a protein that contains specific series of
amino acids.
a) In translation, messenger RNA (mRNA)– produced by transcription from DNA– is
decoded by a ribosome to produce a specific amino acid chain, or polypeptide. The
polypeptide later folds into an active protein and performs its functions in the cell. The
ribosome facilitates decoding by inducing the binding of complementary tRNA anticodon
sequences to mRNA codons.
 b) The tRNAs carry specific amino acids that are chained together into a polypeptide as the
mRNA passes through and is “read” by the ribosome. The entire process is a part of gene
expression.
c) In translation, each set of three nucleotides in an mRNA molecule codes for one amino
acid in a protein. This explains why each set of three nucleotides in the mRNA is called a
codon. Each codon specifies a particular amino acid. For example, the first codon which
is, cytosine-guanine-uracil (CGU), instructs the ribosome to put the amino acid arg
(arginine) in the protein. The sequence of codons in the mRNA determines the sequence
of amino acids in the protein.
Steps:
Step 1. As translation begins, mRNA binds to a ribosome. Then, tRNA molecules, each carrying
a specific amino acid, approach the ribosome. The tRNA anticodon pairs with the first mRNA
(start) codon argenine-uracil-guanine (AUG), to form the initiation complex. The two molecules
temporarily join together.
Step 2. Usually, the first codon on mRNA is AUG, which codes for the amino acid methionine.
AUG signals the start of protein synthesis. Then, the ribosome slides along the mRNA to the
next codon.
Step 3. A new tRNA molecule carrying an amino acid pairs with the second mRNA codon.
Step 4. When the first and second amino acids are in place, an enzyme joins them by forming a
peptide bond between them.
Step 5. As the process continues, a chain of amino acids is formed until the ribosome reaches a
stop codon (e.g., UAA,UAG,UGA) on the mRNA strand. The polypeptide chain is released.
Protein synthesis is complete.

Initiation- the ribosome

Finishing up: Termination-
assembles around the mrna Extending the chain:
the finished polypeptide
to be read and the first Elongation- the amino acids
chain is released. it begings
trna(AUG). the initiation get longe. the mrna is read
when a stop codon enters
complex is needed to get one codon at a time
the ribosome.
the transaltion started.

The genetic code is the set of rules by which information encoded within genetic material (DNA
or mRNA sequences) is translated into proteins by living cells.
The code defines how sequences of nucleotide triplets, called codons, specify which amino acid
will be added next during protein synthesis.
Mutation is the changed in genetic material. Mutation may be induced by factors called
mutagens.
Mutagens are commonly in the form of toxic chemicals, and harmful radiation. Sometimes,
mistakes occur in DNA replication, mitosis, and meiosis. All of these can alter the DNA
sequence and length.
Somatic mutation occurs in non-reproductive cells and will not passed onto the offspring.
Germinal/gene mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence that makes up a gene.
Chromosomal mutation occurs at the chromosome level resulting in gene deletion, duplication
or rearrangement that may occur during the cell cycle and meiosis. It maybe caused by parts of
chromosomes breaking off or rejoining incorrectly.
Most mutations are harmful. Some mutations in a body cell are known to cause cancer, while
mutations in sex cells can cause birth defects. A severe mutation may lead to cell death and may
have no effect on the body. Sometimes mutations may be useful for the species. For example, a
mutation in blood proteins prevents viruses or parasites to thrive in host organisms.
Translocation is a chromosome abnormality caused by rearrangement of parts between
nonhomologous chromosomes. A gene fusion may be created when the translocation joins two
otherwise-separated genes, it is detected on cytogenetics or a karyotype of affected cells.
Happens when a part of chromosome breaks off and is combined to another chromosome.
Insertion is a genetic material added from another chromosome
Deletion happens when there is a loss part of chromosome.
Duplication happens if there are extra copies of a part of a chromosome.
Inversion happens when the direction of a part of chromosome is reversed.
Cri du chat (Chromosome 5p deletion syndrome) is caused by the deletion of part of the short
arm of chromosome 5. “Cri du chat” is French, and the condition is so named because affected
babies make high-pitched cries that sound like a cat. Affected individuals have wide-set eyes, a
small head and jaw, are moderately to severely mentally retarded, and very short.
Down syndrome is usually caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21(trisomy 21). Rather a
part of a third copy of chromosome 21. Characteristics include decreased muscle tone, stockier
build, asymmetrical skull, slanting eyes and mild to moderate mental retardation.
Edwards syndrome, which is the second most common trisomy after Down’s syndrome, is a
trisomy of chromosome 18. Third copy of chromosome 18.
Jacobsen syndrome is also called terminal 11q deletion disorder. This is a very rare disorder.
Klinefelter’s syndrome (XXY).One more extra x chromosome. Men with this condition are
usually sterile and tend to have longer arms and legs and to be taller than their peers.
Turner’s syndrome (X instead of XX or XY). Female sexual characteristics are present but
underdeveloped.
Karyotypes may reveal the gender of a fetus or test for certain defects through examination of
cells from uterine fluid – a procedure called amniocentesis – or through sampling of placental
membranes.
A modern biotechnology called genetic engineering produces transgenic or GM crops of
organisms. Scientists have developed methods to move genes from one species into another.
When DNA from two different species are joined together, it is called recombinant DNA.
Dolly the sheep was a female domestic sheep (Finn-Dorset) and the first mammal cloned from
an adult somatic cell using the process of somatic nuclear transfer.