Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
SPECIALTY CABLES
Noramco carries a variety of specialty cables designed to meet
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PORTABLE CORD
Standard service; special purpose; thermoplastic; multi-
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TECK CABLE
Teck cables known for their quality of design and manufacture,
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leum facilities, or in similar areas where there is a risk of cable
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with voltages of 600V through 25000V, with either aluminum or
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include UL Type TC-ER and c(UL) CIC/TC 600V interference. These cables have an oil resistant and The copper tape shield provides 100% protection
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w&c4col4pp 4/18/06 4:46 PM Page 1
Dissection
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WWW.BOCAWIRE.COM
Wire & Cable handbook vol. 4/17/06 3:11 PM Page 1
w w w. e l e c t r i c i t y f o r u m . c o m
Wire & Cable handbook vol. 4/17/06 3:11 PM Page 2
Don Horne
Editor
Cover Design
Alla Krutous
Handbook Sales
Lisa Kassmann
Advertising Sales
Carol Gardner
Beverly Hilton
Barbara John
TABLE OF CONTENTS
How Can I Wire it? Hazardous Location Wiring Methods Simplified
Courtesy of Summit Electric Supply Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Electrical Cables for Industrial Machinery: Do You Know Which Ones Do and Do Not Comply With NFPA 79?
By Gary J. Locke. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Electrical Wiring
Courtesy of Answers.com. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Home Networking Using “No New Wires” Phoneline and Powerline Interconnection Technologies
By Amit Dhir and Saeid Mousavi of XILINX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
Don’t Judge a Crimp by its Cover: Potentially Dangerous Electrical Failures of Insulated Flag-Type Connectors in Portable
Electrical Appliances
By Scott G. Davis, Andrew Diamond, Will Gans, Peter Hinze, and Harri Kytomaa, Exponent Failures Analysis Associates . . .41
Two-Inch Cable Bend Radius: a New Standard for Wire and Cable Management Systems
Courtesy of Wiremold/Legrand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
*Allowed in certain industrial environments. See 1996 NEC Section 501-4(a) and 502-2(a).
Sources: IEEE Std. 141-1993, 1996NEC
Wire & Cable handbook vol. 4/17/06 3:11 PM Page 6
HOW DO YOU DEFINE A CABLE? mitted. Exposed cables shall be installed to closely follow the
surface and structural members of the machinery.
WHAT DO WE KNOW FOR CERTAIN?
According to Section 14.1.4.1, cable cannot be rejected
NFPA 79 cable definition summary by the AHJ if properly applied. There is, however, still a prob-
Some industrial processing and manufacturing machin- lem – cable has not been defined. NFPA 79 tells us how to safe-
ery can be built and listed to a product standard. Such equip- ly apply cables, but it doesn’t tell us what a cable is. This lack
ment we readily power up. Many times, however, industrial pro- of clarity creates confusion and makes it difficult to decide
cessing and manufacturing equipment is not listed. The control which cables can and cannot be used.
cabinet might have a listing mark, but the machinery itself lacks
third party accreditation. Encountering this type of machinery HOW DO YOU DEFINE A CABLE?
can create uncertainty, and we are not so quick to pull a feeder,
Defining what a cable is sounds simple, but the follow-
especially when we see cables and cords all over the machine.
ing illustration demonstrates the opposite. Try asking a co-
Our quick assessment is that the machinery builder may have
worker for a definition of cable. Does it agree with your defini-
taken some unsafe shortcuts when it came to selecting a wiring
tion? It is a relatively safe bet to suggest that although we all
method.
think we know what a cable is – based on experiences and frame
Very often industrial machinery is of a special purpose
of reference – universal agreement rarely occurs. We may all
type, and is produced in limited quantities, which makes the
know a cable when we see one, but we can’t readily define it,
development of a product standard for a third party to use for
especially to the satisfaction of others.
listing purposes impractical. When such unlisted machinery is
It would be wonderful if this article could provide a clear
encountered we turn to NFPA 79, Electrical Standard for
definition for cable, but regrettably such a definition has been
Industrial Machinery. NFPA 79 picks up where the National
foggy for decades. So let’s see what might plausibly constitute
Electrical Code (NEC) Article 670 – Industrial Machinery
a cable for the purposes of NFPA 79.
leaves off. NFPA 79 addresses the unique application circum-
To further illustrate the point, let’s look to the NEC for a
stances associated with industrial machinery in a manner that
cable definition, since that is where we are directed to go when
complements the requirements of the NEC. The electrical com-
NFPA 79 is silent on an issue. A search of the NEC indicates that
munity – machinery designers, builders, installers, inspectors
although there are 1,510 references to cable, there are no defini-
and maintainers – can turn to NFPA 79 because it addresses the
tions in Article 100. (Article 800 Communications Circuits does
use of cables and cords among many other machinery electrical
offer a limited definition intended strictly for Article 800 pur-
system safety criteria.
poses, which indicates that a cable is a factory assembly of two
All of us have encountered cables and cords on industri-
or more covered conductors.) At first glance, the NEC does not
al processing and manufacturing equipment that seem to have
define a cable – at least not in a straightforward manner. (We’ll
been applied in an arbitrary manner. By adding the application
re-visit the NEC later.)
of cables and cords on industrial machinery, NFPA 79 2002
There are some respected sources beyond the NEC for a
Edition has filled a void in the Standard. The previous edition of
definition of cable that could be considered. For example, the
NFPA 79 (1997) alluded to cords and flexible cables somewhat
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) Standard
interchangeably. As a result, it could’ve been concluded that the
Dictionary of Electrical and Electronics Terms – which per
two were the same, and whereas cords could be applied in a
IEEE is applicable only to IEEE material, is nevertheless a com-
restricted fashion, what might otherwise be considered a cable
monly used reference. It states:
was not permissible. In reality, cabling on industrial machinery,
Cable (1) (electric power): Either a stranded conductor
however common, was implemented in an uncontrolled manner
(single-conductor cable), or a combination of conductors insu-
that was ungoverned by safety standards. The most recent edi-
lated from one another (multiple-conductor cable). Note: the
tion of NFPA 79, however, has clearly established the permissi-
first kind of cable is single conductor, while the second kind of
ble use of cabling on industrial machinery and has defined
cable is a group of several conductors. The component conduc-
installation criteria for safe cabling.
tors of the second kind of cable may be either solid or stranded,
and this kind of cable may or may not have a common insulat-
NFPA 79 SECTION 14.1.4.1 STATES:
ing covering. The term cable is applied by some manufacturers
Exposed cables installed along the structure of the equip- to a solid wire heavily insulated and lead covered; this usage
ment or system or in the chases of the machinery shall be per- arises from the manner of the insulation, but such a conductor is
Wire & Cable handbook vol. 4/17/06 3:11 PM Page 14
ELECTRICAL WIRING
Courtesy of Answers.com
Electrical wiring in general refers to conductors used to NEC or CSA C22.2, exemplify the common objectives of IEC
carry electricity, and their accessories. This article describes 60364, and provide rules in a form that allows for guidance of
general aspects of electrical wiring as used to provide power in persons installing and inspecting electrical systems.
or to buildings and structures, commonly referred to as building National codes are often amended by regional or munic-
wiring. Electrical wiring practices vary greatly by locality. This ipal authorities. These amendments may be to “grandfather”
article is intended to describe common features of electrical existing practices and make them acceptable for local use, or
wiring that that should apply worldwide. may be to incorporate local requirements not addressed by the
national code.
WIRING SAFETY CODES
In the U.S., U.K, Canada and other industrialized coun- WIRING METHODS
tries installation of wiring is governed by national or local reg- Materials for wiring interior electrical systems in build-
ulations. Often a national technical standards-setting organiza- ings vary depending on:
tion will produce a model electrical code, which is then adopt- • Rating of the circuit
ed, perhaps with local amendments, by state/provincial or city • Type of occupancy of the building
regulations. The intention of wiring safety codes is to provide • Type of electrical system
technical, performance and material standards that will allow • National and local regulations
efficient distribution of electrical energy and communication • Conditions which the wiring must operate.
signals, at the same time protecting persons in the building from Wiring systems in a home, for example, are simple, with
electric shock and preventing fire or explosion. Electrical codes relatively low power requirements, infrequent changes to the
arose in the 1880s with the early commercial introduction of building structure and layout, usually with dry, moderate tem-
electrcal power, since many conflicting standards existed for the perature, and non-corrosive environmental conditions. In a light
selection of wire sizes and other design rules for electrical commercial environment, more frequent wiring changes can be
installations. expected, large apparatus may be installed, and special condi-
The first electrical codes in the United States originated tions of heat or moisture may apply. Heavy industries have more
in New York in 1881 to regulate installations of electric lighting. demanding wiring requirements, such as very large currents and
The U.S. National Fire Protection Association, a private non- power ratings, frequent changes of equipment layout, corrosive,
profit association, produced the first draft of the U.S. National wet or explosive atmospheres.
Electrical Code in 1885.
Since 1927, the Canadian Standards Association has pro- EARLY WIRING METHODS
duced the Canadian Safety Standard for Electrical Installations, The very first interior power wiring systems used con-
which is the basis for provincial electrical codes. ductors that were bare or covered with cloth, which were
In the United Kingdom, wiring installations are regulat- secured by staples to the framing of the building or on running
ed by the IEE Requirements for Electrical Installations: IEE boards. Where conductors went through walls, they were pro-
Wiring Regulations, BS 7671: 2001 which is now in its 16th tected with cloth tape. Splices were done similarly to telegraph
edition. connections, and soldered for security. Underground conductors
Although these three national standards all deal with the were insulated with wrappings of cloth tape soaked in pitch, and
same physical phenomena and broadly similar objectives, they laid in wooden troughs which were then buried. Such wiring
differ significantly in technical detail. As part of the NAFTA systems were unsatisfactory due to the danger of electrocution
program, US and Canadian standards are slowly converging and fire, and due to the high labor cost for installation.
towards each other, in a process known as harmonization. Small
countries, with relatively small technical societies, may adopt KNOB AND TUBE
one of these three standards as their national standard, and con- The earliest standardized method of wiring in buildings,
centrate on developing local regulatory amendments instead of from about 1880 to the 1940s, was single insulated copper con-
redeveloping the basic requirements of a national code. ductors run across interior walls or within ceiling cavities, pass-
In European countries, an attempt has been made to har- ing through holes in porcelain insulating tubes, and supported
monize national wiring standards in an IEC standard, IEC along their length on porcelain insulators. This system is known
60364 Electrical Installations for Buildings. However, this stan- as “knob-and-tube” from the insulators used. Where conductors
dard is not written in such language that it can readily be adapt- entered a wiring device such as a lamp or switch, they were pro-
ed as a national wiring code. Neither is it designed for field use tected by flexible insulating sleeving. Wire splices in such
by electrical tradesmen and inspectors for verification of com- installations were typically soldered and wrapped with cloth
pliance to national wiring standards. National codes, such as the
Wire & Cable handbook vol. 4/17/06 3:11 PM Page 18
CABLES
The first cables for building wiring were introduced in
1922. These were two or more solid copper wires, with woven
cloth and paper insulation, sometimes impregnated with tar as a
protection from small amounts of moisture. The advantages
were that the conductors were insulated, and since they were
Mineral insulated cables at a panel board
paired, less labor was required in installation. A cable could be
“fished” (pulled) into existing wall cavities or between roof
joists, without opening the space as would be required for knob- Because conductors in a cable are in contact and so can-
and-tube installation. not dissipate heat as easily as single insulated conductors, they
Later, thermoplastic insulation was introduced which usually are rated at a lower current carrying capacity. Tables in
improved the flexibility and durability of the wiring system. electrical safety codes give the maximum allowable current for
After World War II, the cost and other advantages of cable a particular size of conductor and for a temperature rating of the
resulted in a decline in new knob-and-tube installations. cable insulation conductors. The allowable working temperature
The simplest form of cable is two insulated conductors of the cables is limited by the ratings of the insulation, and the
twisted together to form a unit; such unjacketed cables with two same cable may have different temperature ratings in wet or dry
or three conductors are still commonly used for low-voltage sig- applications.
Wire & Cable handbook vol. 4/17/06 3:11 PM Page 19
HAZARDOUS LOCATION
CLASSIFICATIONS
The first step in selecting a
cable for a specific application is
to determine the classification of
the hazardous location in which
the cable will be installed.
The process of classifying
an area is often complex, so it is
generally determined by the facili-
ty’s engineering staff. “Class I,
Division 1” is the most hazardous
classification, but “Class I,
Division 2” is the type most often
of concern to cable users. The var-
ious classifications are summa-
rized in the table below. Class I
and II materials are further subdi-
vided by the NEC into “Groups”
(A, B, C, etc.) as shown. However,
the type of Group has no effect on
the type of cable required.
OK - SO WHAT CABLES GO
WHERE?
After the hazardous loca-
tion is classified as to Class and
Division, the next step is to decide
what types of cable to use and how
they will be installed. The NEC is
very precise in its language in this
area, since even one misunder- stock (Anixter catalog no. 128685).
stood word can result in the loss of life or increase the cost of a Why not spend a few minutes looking through the Wiring
project by millions of dollars. A summary of the wiring methods Methods sections of Articles 501, 502 and 503 of the NEC? The
permitted by the NEC in hazardous locations is shown below. Code probably won’t keep you “on the edge of your seat” with
For additional details, please refer to the applicable article of the literary excitement, but it will increase your knowledge of the
NEC. Copies of the NEC (NFPA 70) are available from the proper cables to use in hazardous locations!
National Fire Protection Association at 800-344-3555 or from
Wire & Cable handbook vol. 4/17/06 3:11 PM Page 22
HOMEPNA
The HomePNA is a group of more
than 130 companies seeking to develop spec-
ifications for interoperable, home networked Figure 1: HomePNA Data Frame
devices using existing phone wiring. The
group was founded in June 1998 by 11 companies (3Com, the challenges presented by the home phoneline environment. It
AMD, AT&T, Wireless, Compaq, Conexant, Broadcom, includes standard IEEE 802.3 compliant Media Access Control
Hewlett-Packard, IBM, Intel, Lucent Technologies, and Tut (MAC) and Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detect
Systems). Towards the end of 1998, the group created a de facto (CSMA/CD) as the access method for sharing the base-band
industry standard when it published an easy-to-use, cost-effec- signal on the home network bus. Under the Ethernet standard,
tive, and proven 1 Mbps home phoneline networking technolo- information is bundled into a package called a frame. Figure 1
gy in its 1.0 specification. The technology allows computers, depicts the home phoneline networking data frame.
peripherals, and other information appliances to connect with Data originating from applications within an information
each other and to the Internet without interrupting standard tele- appliance connected to a home network is formed into standard
phone service. Utilizing existing telephone wiring, it requires no 802.3 Ethernet data frames and is passed to the phoneline phys-
costly or disruptive rewiring of the home. ical layer (PHY). The PHY circuitry then strips off the first eight
HomePNA members began producing HomePNA-com- octets of the Ethernet frame (the preamble and delimiter fields),
pliant products in December 1998. On July 27, 1999, and replaces it with a PHY header designed specifically for the
HomePNA announced its first step in the development of its rigors of phoneline networking. At the receiver, the reverse
second-generation home phoneline networking technology process is executed.
(HomePNA 2.0). In December of 1999, the organization This approach enables home phoneline networking to
announced the completion and release of its much-anticipated leverage the tremendous amount of Ethernet-compatible soft-
second-generation home phoneline networking technology. The ware that exists today, while meeting the needs of the home
new specification brings a faster 10 Mbps technology to phone- environment. An additional requirement of home phoneline net-
line networking, while at the same time maintaining backward working is the coexistence of multiple services on a single piece
compatibility with existing 1 Mbps HomePNA technology. The of telephone wire. For example, members of the household will
new technology uses selective portions of the 2-30 MHz fre- need to make telephone calls, while other members of the fam-
quency band to achieve these data rates. The technology foun- ily may be using the home network for data transfer purposes.
dation for the 10 Mbps HomePNA 2.0 standard is currently One of the most common methods for simultaneously
based on chipsets from Broadcom Corporation. operating multiple data and voice services over a single pair of
In addition to increasing data speeds within the home, wires is multiplexing. Multiplexing is a technical term used to
HomePNA is working to incorporate their technologies into a describe the combination of multiple signals (analog or digital)
range of electronic appliances including: PCs, ADSL modems, for transmission over a single line or media. There are a number
cable modems, digital televisions, set-top boxes, and IP based of different multiplexing techniques used to combine different
Web phones. Let’s examine each component of a HomePNA- types of signals. HomePNA decided to use a technique called
based network and see how they work together. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM). This is a multiplexing
technique that assigns each communications service a frequen-
HOMEPNA 2.0 TECHNICAL ARCHITECTURE cy spectrum that is different from all others. Through the use of
HomePNA has come to be known as the de facto indus- frequency-selective filters, devices using one type of service can
try standard for telephone based home networking. It is a robust exchange information without interference from other services
technology that can achieve data rates up to 32 Mbps in approx- that communicate in another frequency band.
imately the same bandwidth as the HPNA 1.0 system and be for- Note: A filter is a device that contains a pattern through
ward compatible with future appliances operating at speeds up which data is passed. Only data that matches the pattern is
to 100 Mbps. It supports up to 500 feet of phone wire between allowed to pass through the filter.
devices connected to RJ-11 jacks. Let’s now examine in greater The home network operates in the frequency range
detail the key components that make up a phoneline based home between 5.5 MHz and 9.5 MHz.
network. Figure 2 depicts the spectral usage of three services that
can share home phone wiring. POTS, UADSL (universal asyn-
NETWORK TRANSPORT TECHNOLOGIES chronous DSL) Internet connectivity, and home phoneline net-
Home phoneline networking technology uses standard working share the same line by operating at different frequen-
Ethernet technology, adapting it where necessary to overcome cies.
Wire & Cable handbook vol. 4/17/06 3:11 PM Page 27
SOFTWARE
As mentioned previously, every device on a
home network needs an operating system with net-
working capabilities. Once a NIC is installed, a driver
is required to communicate with other appliances on
the network. It is also very important that the driver is
configured correctly for the card to operate efficiently.
If the card is not configured correctly by the driver, the
card will perform less effectively and slow up network
performance. HomePNA has decided to use the
Network Driver Interface Specification (NDIS) driver
Figure 2: HomePNA Spectral Usage model that is integrated with most of the Microsoft
Windows operating systems (Figure 3).
WIRING
The Ethernet technology found in corporate office envi-
ronments was originally designed to support four types of
wiring systems:
• Thick coaxial cable
• Thin coaxial cable
• Unshielded twisted pair
• Fiber-optic cable
These types of expensive cabling systems are not avail-
able in most residential homes.
Consequently, HomePNA decided to leverage existing
infrastructure provided by phone wire inside the home. The use
of the phone wiring system means that every RJ-11 modular
jack in the house becomes a port on the home network as well
as a phone extension.
FUTURE COMPATIBILITY
Once installed, home net-
works are likely to remain in
place for many years. Worse yet,
as home network interfaces
become embedded in appliances,
it may become almost impossible
to replace them. Thus, a good
home networking technology ide-
ally has built into the current gen- Figure 5: HomePNA and Ethernet MAC Layer
Wire & Cable handbook vol. 4/17/06 3:11 PM Page 29
The National Electrical Code, NFPA 70 is part of the STRUCTURE OF THE NEC
National Fire Codes published by the National Fire Protection
The NEC is composed of an introduction, nine chapters,
Association (NFPA). It is comprised of a set of rules that, when
annexes A thru F, and the index. The Introduction sets forth the
properly applied are intended to provide requirements for safe
purpose, scope, enforcement and rules or information that are
installation of electrical wiring and equipment. It is used
general in nature. The first four chapters cover definitions and
throughout the USA as well as in many other countries.
rules for installations (voltages, connections, markings, etc), cir-
The reason for the National
cuits and circuit protection, methods and materials for wiring
Electrical Code’s existence is to
(wiring devices, conductors, cables, etc), and general-purpose
codify the requirements for safe
equipment (cords, receptacles, switches, heaters, etc). The next
electrical installations into a sin-
three chapters deal with special occupancies (high risk to multi-
gle, standardized source.
ple persons), specific equipment (signs, machinery, etc) and
The NEC is usually adopt-
special conditions (emergency systems, alarms, etc). Chapter 8
ed at the state, county, or city level
is specific to additional requirements for communications sys-
as the rules for how electrical
tems (telephone, radio/TV, etc) and Chapter 9 is composed of 10
work is to be done. This means the
tables regarding conductor, cable and conduit properties, among
NEC carries the force of law in
other things. Annexes A-F relates to referenced standards, cal-
many jurisdictions.
culations, examples, and additional tables for proper implemen-
The NEC is developed by NFPA’s Committee on the
tation of various code articles (e.g., how many wires fit in a con-
National Electrical Code NEC. It is sponsored by the National
duit).
Fire Protection Association (NFPA), and it is approved as an
The introduction and the first 8 chapters contain num-
American National Standard by the American National
bered Articles, Parts, Sections (or Lists or Tables) italicized
Standards Institute ANSI. It is identified as ANSI/ NFPA 70.
Exceptions, and Fine Print Notes (FPN) - explanations that are
The 108-year-old NEC is updated and published every 3
not part of the rules. Articles are coded with numerals and let-
years. Recent publication dates were 1999, 2002 and 2005.
ters, as ###.###(A)(#)(a) e.g., 804.22(C)(3)(b) could be read as
Most states adopt the most recent edition within a couple of
“Section 804 point 22(C)(3)(b).” and would be found in Chapter
years of its publication. As with any “uniform” code, a few
8. For internal references, some lengthy articles are further bro-
jurisdictions regularly omit or modify some sections, or add
ken into “parts” with roman-numerals (Parts I, II, III, etc).
their own requirements (sometimes based upon earlier versions
The NFPA also publishes a 1,100-page NEC Handbook
of the NEC, or locally accepted practices). However, the NEC
(for each new NEC edition) that contains the entire code, plus
is the least amended model code.
additional illustrations and explanations, and helpful cross-ref-
In the U.S., anyone, including the city issuing building
erences within the code and to earlier versions of the code.
permits, may face a civil liability lawsuit (sued) for negligently
Many NEC requirements refer to “listed” or “labeled”
creating a situation that results in loss of life or property. Failure
devices, and this means that the device has been designed, man-
to adhere to well known best practices for safety has been held
ufactured and marked in accordance with its relevant standards.
to be negligent. This means that
To be listed, the device has to meet the testing and other require-
the city should adopt and enforce
ments set by a listing agency such as Underwriters Laboratories
building codes that specify stan-
(UL) or Canadian Standards Association (CSA), with reference
dards and practices for electrical
to appropriate testing standards. Only a listed device can carry
systems (as well as other depart-
the listing brand of the listing agency. To be labeled as fit for a
ments such as water and fuel-gas
particular purpose (e.g., “wet locations”) a device must be test-
systems). This creates a system
ed for that specific use by the listing agency and then the appro-
whereby a city can best avoid law-
priate label applied to the device (typically in addition to the
suits by adopting a single, stan-
listing marks).
dard set of building code laws.
This has led to the NEC becoming
the de facto standard set of electri-
DETAILS OF SELECTED NEC REQUIREMENTS
cal requirements. A licensed elec- Articles 210 addresses “branch circuits” (as opposed to
trician will have spent years of service or feeder circuits) and receptacles and fixtures on branch
apprenticeship studying and prac- circuits. There are requirements for the minimum number of
ticing the NEC requirements prior branches, and placement of receptacles, according to the loca-
to obtaining his or her license. tion and purpose of the receptacle outlet. A ground fault circuit
Wire & Cable handbook vol. 4/17/06 3:11 PM Page 36
Conductor clearances for electrical utility installations are prescribed in the Alberta Electrical and Communication Utility Code.
In over ten years of manufacturing, a problem- ance shut off when a given set point was reached);
atic pattern began to emerge for five different models however, the appliance continuously operated at
of portable electrical appliances. The appliances were maximum load in certain extreme cases when the
returned for service to the manufacturer with electri- set point was not attained.
cal failures. Initially, the exact cause was unknown
despite preliminary investigations by the manufactur- INVESTIGATION
er. When the recurring failures became associated The team examined twenty crimped connec-
with a fire hazard, however, the manufacturer imme- tors from the service-returned units under a micro-
diately assembled an engineering team to look in to scope to qualitatively determine the crimp quality.
the cause of the failures. The twenty connectors chosen were representative
To begin the investigation, the team inspected of all of the 16 AWG connectors found in the appli-
twenty-seven service-returned appliances, revealing a ance (power cord and internal neutral wire, insulat-
consistent pattern of failure. Specifically, the failures ed and uninsulated connectors) at various degrees
occurred on the insulated crimp connectors on the power cord or of failure. In addition to the twenty connectors from the returned
neutral wires, and were characterized by discoloration of the units, the engineers examined four unused connectors. These
crimp connector insula- unused crimp connections were randomly chosen from batches
tion (see Fig. 1). These that were pre-assembled by the overseas suppliers and recently
observations were consis- delivered to the appliance manufacturer for installation.
tent with overheating of To prepare
the connector at the junc- the connectors for
tion between the wire and microscopic
the crimp connector. In a examination, they
few cases, the connector were encapsulated
FIGURE 1. Insulated crimp connectors showed vary-
insulation and surround- in an epoxy resin
ing levels of heat damage (left) and burn damage
(right). ing material ignited, and cured for
resulting in fire damage approximately ten
to the connector and unit. hours. With the
Determining the cause of the connector failures required a FIGURE 2. The crimp connectors were encapsulated in an
epoxy resin to reveal the plane of cross sectioning through epoxy resin set,
detailed investigation of the crimp connections. the connector was
the crimp connector (left) and to enable the resulting cross-
The appliance design called for 16 AWG and 18 AWG sectional view of the top section (right). sectioned roughly
stranded multiconductor wiring, rated to 105°C. The 16 AWG in half at the area
wires carried the full electrical load (nominally 1,500 W) and of interest, reveal-
were comprised of the power cord and neutral wires. All power ing the cross section of the crimp (see Fig. 2). Each cut surface
wiring was fastened to the appliance with crimped, quick-con- was polished to a 0.05-µm finish. After polishing, the crimp
nect flag-type connectors. The manufacturer outsourced assem- cross sections were examined and photographed under an opti-
bly of all wires and crimp connections to overseas suppliers. cal microscope with a 6X objective lens.
The appliance power cord used insulated crimp connec-
tors exclusively, while the internal neutral wires had either insu- OBSERVATIONS
lated or uninsulated crimp connectors, depending on model All observed failures occurred in the crimps of the insu-
design. Electrical measurements conducted on new units sup- lated power cord or neutral wire connectors, which carry the
plied by the manufacturer indicated a maximum load current of maximum current load. These failed connectors show evidence
12.5 A on the 16 AWG power cord, neutral wires, and associat- of prolonged overheating, and in certain cases, fire damage.
ed connectors. Under normal operation, the appliance was Furthermore, the failed connectors consistently exhibited other
designed to operate under cyclic conditions (meaning the appli-
Wire & Cable handbook vol. 4/17/06 3:11 PM Page 42
SUMMARY
The CRC error test indicates that in a nonmetallic race- Figure 6. Effect of separation on network transfer time.
way system EFT noise from typical office disturbers induced
from power line to data cables have no detectable impact on the
The test results illustrate that the physical separation pro-
performance of Fast Ethernet running on unshielded copper
vided by the 1/8 in. raceway divider is sufficient to achieve sat-
media.
isfactory LAN performance in the presence of EFT amplitudes
The file transfer time test provided the most valuable
from typical office disturbers like pencil sharpeners, copiers,
information for the LAN end user. It indicates that in a typical
and light switches. There is no evidence that separation between
office environment, multichannel plastic raceway systems can
power lines and Fast Ethernet Category 5 data cables is
be used to conveniently route power and data cables to the point
required.
of use without affecting the speed or quality of data transmis-
sions over high-speed UTP LANs.
Wire & Cable handbook vol. 4/17/06 3:11 PM Page 46
EFFECTS OF BEND RADIUS ON CABLE PERFORMANCE RG 58 (50 ohm) coaxial 1.2 inch 6 x diameter
In any cable installation, the primary concern RG 59 (75 ohm) coaxial 1.5 inch 6 x diameter
should be safeguarding the integrity of data transmission RG 6 (75 ohm) coaxial 1.65 inch 6 x diameter
through the cable. Physical protection for the cable is an Optical fiber simplex 1.2 inch 10 x diameter
obvious necessity. More subtle, however, is the need to Optical fiber zipcord (2 fiber) 1.0 - 1.5 inch* 10 x diameter
maintain the recommended cable bend radius at all times Optical fiber Round Distribution (2 fiber) 1.8 - 1.9 inch* 10 x diameter
and in all locations. The reasons for this requirement dif- Optical fiber Round Distribution (4 fiber) 1.9 - 2.0 inch* 10 x diameter
fer depending on whether the cable is copper or optical Optical fiber Round Distribution (6 fiber) 2.0 - 2.1 inch* 10 x diameter
fiber.
Copper cable, such as Category 5 UTP, can support Figure 1. Minimum cable bend radius recommendations
high-speed, high-bandwidth data transmission largely due
to the precision with which the individual pairs of conductors There is a common perception of an “industry standard”
are twisted together. Excessive bending of the cable can disturb cable bend radius of 1.0 inch for high performance cable,
the critical geometry of the twists, reducing performance including optical fiber. This perception is not accurate. There is
through increased sensitivity to external noise and increased currently no industry standard for cable bend radius that covers
near-end cross talk within the cable. In addition, long-term dam- all types of high performance communications cable used in
age to the cable jacketing and insulating material can result horizontal cabling. The often-quoted TIA 1.0 inch minimum
from bending stress. cable bend radius is derived from a TIA standard test for four-
The effect on optical fiber is completely different. When pair UTP Category 5 cable which assures that the cable “shall
Wire & Cable handbook vol. 4/17/06 3:11 PM Page 48
Abstract: This article describes an alternative solution for ity to withstand the operating conditions caused by the drive
cables used with Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) system (ii) How it influences the life of other drive system com-
Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs). New IGBT technology has ponents.
introduced voltage stresses on motors and cables that lead to
unpredictable system performance and reliability. This paper
includes a performance and cost comparison between a contin-
uously welded armored option, the option of lead wire in con-
duit, and a proposed shielded tray cable. Unique physical char-
acteristics of the cables are discussed. A proposed cable with
increased insulation thickness is discussed, that insures long-
term cable service life under VFD operation, while the shielded
coaxial braid contains VFD EMI emissions. Other applications,
options, and termination considerations with respect to the
Fig. 1 Focus Cable is a UL Shielded Tray Cable with 3 XLPE increased insulation conductors
petro-chem industry is discussed. Cable performance is docu-
(black with white T1, T2, T3 marking), full insulated green ground wire, one or more drain
mented with theoretical and experimental support. wires for ease of braid/foil shield connection, and 90oC wet or dry rating with an external
PVC outer jacket.
I. INTRODUCTION
Advantages of IGBT VFDs are well known, as are some
of the problems associated with their operation. Motor insula-
tion failure was first identified as the “weakest link” in the B. APPLICATION SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONS
IGBT drive system. As a solution, new motor insulation tech- As longevity of the system is a goal for nearly every
nology provided motors with repetitive 1,600 Vpk withstand application, there are some applications which may require
capability per NEMA MG-1 part 31 [1]. Careful selection of the additional cable properties, and some that may not be as
VFD cable is necessary to insure it does not become the next demanding.
“weakest link” in the system. The cable technology selected Application specific issues are industry independent and
must guarantee a minimum 20-year cable life in the presence of can be summed into a list that is manageable. From this list, sev-
the repetitive 1,600 Vpk voltage spikes from 600V IGBT drives. eral tables have been developed in the paper for use as a quick
The cable must also minimize the effect of high frequency noise reference when choosing a cable construction. All connection
induced into the plant ground system as a result of faster switch- methods have their benefits, but they must all first meet the
ing speeds of the new IGBT drives. As a result of customer requirements of expected system longevity before the applica-
demand, another option for VFD to motor cabling was devel- tion specific attributes are considered. All components of a
oped to provide an alternate to continuously welded aluminum cable type are critical.
armored cable [2,3] or conduit [4]. It is shown that this cable
also provides advantages when used as the connection method C. CABLES COMPARED
between the VFD and input power source. This paper discusses Cables compared in this paper are those that have had
other application specific considerations, conducted and radiat- some history in industrial applications and have been found as a
ed noise, environmental concerns, installation difficulties, cost, recommended cable type for VFD applications. The compo-
and plant layout that should be addressed when choosing a cable nents of cables have physical characteristics and electrical char-
type. acteristics that are dependent. What may have good electrical
characteristics, may also be very structurally weak and vice
A. DRIVE SYSTEM LONGEVITY versa. The tables and cross-references contained in this paper
Drive system longevity has been the subject of many only compare the following three constructions. Two of the con-
papers since the advent of the VFD. Subjects of failure consist structions are UL Type Tray Cables, and differ mostly with
of motor winding insulation failure, cable failure, motor bearing respect to conductor dielectric insulation and use of an overall
failure, and unexpected drive over-current alarms, susceptible shield.
external circuit malfunction, and more. As part of the system, (1) Focus Cable: The Focus cable is a 90oC, wet or dry,
the cable plays an integral role in optimizing longevity and per- direct burial Underwriter’s Lab (UL) listed, Type Tray Cable
formance. The role of the cable consists of two parts: (i) Its abil- (TC) with three labeled Cross-Linked Poly-Ethylene (XLPE)
Wire & Cable handbook vol. 4/17/06 3:11 PM Page 50
Fig. 2 Vinyl Nylon Tray Cable using 4 PVC-Nylon THHN conductors, fillers and an overall
PVC outer jacket.
Fig. 4 PWM Drive output voltage waveform and resulting motor terminal voltage with 1.8x
Fig. 3 Type MC continuous welded aluminum armor cable with 3 XLPE insulated conductors, the drive output voltage peak caused by reflected wave cable to motor surge impedance
ground wires and external PVC outer jacket. mismatch
Fig. 6Predicted Motor Overvoltage transient vs. output cable distance for typical IGBT rise-
times when using bundled PVC cable or bundled XLPE cables.
cable length.
Fig. 6 data shows that for various IGBT risetimes used
with short drive to motor cable runs, the XLPE bundled cables
have ~ 5% to 10 % lower peak reflected wave voltage than bun- Fig. 7 Predicted Motor Failure Probability vs. applied peak line to line reflected wave volt-
dled VNTC cables for the same output cable length. Thus, the age for various motor manufacturer’s tested.
Wire & Cable handbook vol. 4/17/06 3:11 PM Page 52
Fig. 11 Degradation of XLPE dielectric breakdown voltage strength vs. life under utility
based service conditions [23]
Fig. 14 Prediction of 600V PVC and XLPE insulation service life and 2 kV XLPE insulation
service life obtained by using measured corona inception values for each material type and
Fig. 13 Conservative estimate of 600V PVC and XLPE insulation service life under sinewave thickness, and applying the well documented time aging degradation factor from Fig. 11.
system voltage stress obtained by using measured corona inception values for each materi- Cable life predictions are for 480V BJT & IGBT peak reflected wave cable voltage stress.
al and applying the well documented time aging degradation factor from Fig. 11.
The 20-mil XLPE insulation is the minimum thickness Insulation that is dielectrically tested at (2 Vrated + 1,000
value for 600V rated cable of Table 3. A 100-year cable service V) with 60 Hz sinewave voltage may have as many as 6,000
life is predicted from Fig. 13 when operated on a 575 Vrms (813 partial discharges occurring at the positive and negative peaks
Wire & Cable handbook vol. 4/17/06 3:11 PM Page 57
Fig. 17 CM high frequency noise path taken for a Non-Recommended drive installation with
3 random output wires or unshielded tray cable laid in cable tray and connected to a motor
with separate ground wire to the closet pole ground.
Fig. 22 Relative low frequency shielding effectiveness of standard unshielded cable com-
pared to Focus cable using only 85% coverage braid. Data obtained for one complete PWM Fig. 23 Relative high frequency shielding effectiveness of tray cable compared to Type TC
cycle using a voltage pickup antenna coil in direct contact with outer cable surface. plus foil vs. Focus cable braid/foil/ground wire system.
Wire & Cable handbook vol. 4/17/06 3:11 PM Page 61
Fig. 24 Recommended Focus cable and connector installation at drive and motor when CE compliance is not required.
Wire & Cable handbook vol. 4/17/06 3:11 PM Page 62
Fig. 25 Recommended Focus cable and special 360° shield connector installation at drive and motor when CE compliance is required.
tion box or drive cabinet. This will insure maximum shield dental ground contact of conduit and potential increase in
effectiveness. Common Mode noise.
The Focus Cable can be made to meet an OPEN
WIRING rating according to NEC article 340, by UL. This VI. FIELD COMPARISON, SO VS. FOCUS CABLE
allows installation of the cable without the use of conduit or Figs. 26 and 27 show a comparison of an actual field
cable tray for the first and/or last 50 feet of the run. The benefit application of the Focus cable (Fig. 27), vs. the same identical
realized is both cost reduction and an isolation of a conduit from installation of an unshielded 4 conductor SO cord. The compar-
the motor PE to the drive frame ground that could cause acci- ison is from an OEM machine builder who used the Focus cable
to reduce supply and encoder noise in a new process. The out-
puts compare noise coupled to the motor position encoder sig-
nal while the motor was sitting still and the signals were high.
As seen in Fig. 26 the noise could result in false encoder feed-
back using the unshielded cable, even with the ground wire in
place. Under the same situation but using the Focus cable, the
encoder feedback has near zero coupled noise, allowing error
free encoder feedback to the controller as a result of reduced
radiated and Common Mode noise.
VII. CONCLUSION
The design and application of a 600 V shielded Tray
Fig. 26 Coupled noise to motor position encoder using SO cord with full size ground, but no Cable suitable for use on 600 V IGBT variable frequency drives
shield. was discussed. The main electrical feature discussed was
increased XLPE insulation thickness on smaller gauge cables to
guarantee long service life under wet or dry conditions with 600
V IGBT drives having 2 pu and 3 pu reflected wave transient
voltage spikes. A methodology to predict cable life at 2 pu and
3 pu voltage spikes for various insulation thickness was pro-
posed. Increased XLPE insulation thickness also minimizes
cable capacitance, which reduces drive over-current trip prob-
lems due to cable charging current.
Another electrical feature of the Focus shielded Tray
Cable is the low common mode surge impedance that was
demonstrated to be effective in containing VFD conducted and
radiate emissions. The VFD noise current paths were described
Fig 27 Coupled noise to motor position encoder using Focus cable with full size for various wiring practices and cable constructions possible.
ground/drain/foil/braid shield. Mechanical and environmental application specific
Wire & Cable handbook vol. 4/17/06 3:11 PM Page 63
TABLES
Table 1 Compound Comparison, Jacket Options and Insulation
Voltage (rms) 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600
Temperature 90C 90C 90C 90C 90C 90C 90C 105C 105C 105C
Type MC TC TC wire wire wire wire wire wire
Insulation XLPE/ XLPE/ PVC XLP EPR PVC PVC PVC PVC PVC
XLP XLP
NEC listing MC TC TC VW-1 VW-1 YHHN, MTW, -
using XHHW2 RHW2 PVC (+) TW
THHN RHH Nylon No nylon
USE2 jacket jacket
UL spec 1569 MTW 1015 1015 -
&SO
CSA spec TEW- TEW-105 -
105
Military spec W-76B W-76B 16878D
Note: “/” in Table implies multiple manufacturers with different insulation thickness listed
Wire & Cable handbook vol. 4/17/06 3:11 PM Page 65
Class I Division 1 (NEC art. 501-4(a) (1) Exception 2 ) YES YES (requires conduit)
Class II Division 1 (NEC art. 502-4(a) Exception) YES YES (requires conduit)
Class I Division 2 (NEC art. 501-4(b) ) YES YES
Class II Division 2 (NEC art. 502-4(b) ) YES YES
Indoor/ Outdoor YES YES
Intermediate Metal Conduit YES YES
Electrical Metallic Tubing YES YES
Direct Buried YES YES
Cable Trays YES YES
Raceways YES YES
Open Wiring (per NEC article 340) YES YES
Wet Locations YES YES
Wire & Cable handbook vol. 4/17/06 3:11 PM Page 66
CALCULATION OF UNDERGROUND
CABLE AMPACITY
By Francisco de León, CYME International T&D
Abstract - This paper introduces the heat transfer mech- space in the conduit.
anisms in underground cable installations and analyzes the Convection of heat occurs in moving fluids (air, water,
available solution methods of the diffusion equation. The heat etc.) and obeys Newton’s Law. The flow of heat is proportional
sources and thermal resistances of the different layers of a cable to the temperature difference. In an underground cable installa-
installation are described. The basic concepts behind the Neher- tion, convection takes place in the air space inside the ducts and
McGrath method (IEEE) are discussed, along with its differ- at the surface of the earth.
ences with the IEC standards for underground cable installa- The Stefan-Boltzmann Law describes the radiation of
tions. The available commercial computer programs, designed heat phenomenon as being proportional to the difference in the
to perform ampacity calculations are listed along with a descrip- temperatures at the power of four (tf 4 –t0 4). In underground
tion of the modeling capabilities of CYME’s CYMCAP. cables, radiation of heat occurs from the cable(s) to the ducts.
Figure 1 shows a typical temperature distribution for a
I. INTRODUCTION TO CABLE AMPACITY duct bank installation using an engineered backfill on top of the
AMPACITY is a term given by Del Mar in 1951 to the duct bank. From the figure, one can appreciate the diffusion of
current-carrying capacity of a cable. Ampacity in an under- heat that occurs in underground cable systems. Diffusion is a
ground cable system is determined by the capacity of the instal- process by which heat is transferred for one region to another in
lation to extract heat from the cable and dissipate it in the sur- a slow, space-limited fashion described by decaying exponen-
rounding soil and atmosphere. The maximum operating temper- tials. Therefore, there is a practical distance, away from the heat
ature of a cable is a function of the damage that the insulation source, beyond which the heating effects are not felt.
can suffer as a consequence of high operating temperatures. The
insulation withstands different temperatures as function of the
duration of the current circulating in the conductors. There are
three standardized ampacity ratings: steady state, transient (or
emergency) and short-circuit. Only steady state ampacity rat-
ings are discussed in this paper.
Ampacity calculation techniques are as old as the cables
themselves. Anders has summarized the history of ampacity cal-
culations in his 1997 book [1]. There are analytical and numer-
ical approaches to calculate cable ampacity. The two major
international standard associations, the IEEE and the IEC, have
adopted the analytical methods as the basis for their standards
[2], [3-9]. The numerical approaches are mainly based on finite
differences or finite elements techniques. The finite elements
technique is better suited for cable ampacity because of the
round geometry of cables. Figure 1. Typical temperature distribution of an underground cable installation
This paper focuses on the analytical techniques for the
computation of cable ampacity in steady-state through the use
of assumptions that simplify the problem. For transient (or
emergency) calculations the reader is referred to [1], [8], [9], III. HEAT SOURCES IN CABLE SYSTEMS
[12] and [13]. Calculation of short-circuit ratings is described in The heat sources in cable installations can be divided into
[14] for both adiabatic and non-adiabatic conditions. two generic groups: heat generated in conductors and heat gen-
erated in insulators. Figure 2 shows a complex cable construc-
II. AN OVERVIEW OF HEAT FLOW tion, for illustration purposes, containing many of the possible
There are three physical mechanisms for heat transfer: layers in a cable. The losses in the metallic (conductors) ele-
• Conduction ments are by far the most significant losses in a cable and they
• Convection are caused by: (a) Joule losses due to impressed currents, circu-
• Radiation lating currents or induced (eddy current) losses; (b) Hysteresis
Fourier Law describes the heat transferred by conduc- losses in conductors that are also magnetic.
tion. The following metallic components of a cable system
In very simple terms, the heat flux is proportional to the will produce heat:
ratio of temperature over space. In an underground cable instal- • Core conductors
lation, heat conduction occurs everywhere except in the air • Sheaths
Wire & Cable handbook vol. 4/17/06 3:11 PM Page 68
VIII. CYMCAP
The values for ys and yp are computed from simplified CYMCAP is a dedicated computer program for perform-
analytical expressions particular to each cable core construction ing ampacity and temperature rise calculations for power cable
(solid, stranded, segmented, etc.). installations. A description of its main features is given below.
VI. IEC VERSUS NEHER-MCGRATH ANALYTICAL CAPABILITIES
A detailed description of the difference between the two • Iterative techniques based on the IEC Standards.
methods can be found in Appendix F of [1]. For steady state • A detailed graphical representation of virtually any type
ampacity simulations, the two approaches are virtually the of power cable. This facility can be used to modify existing
same. The greatest difference is that the IEC equations use the cables and enrich the program’s cable library with new ones,
metric system while Neher-McGrath uses the imperial system. including single-core, three-core, belted, pipe-type, submarine,
Thus, equations look very different, but the two methods sheathed, and armored cables.
are equivalent. In the Neher-McGrath method, there are explic- • Different cable installation conditions such as directly
it equations for the transient rating, while in the IEC, detailed buried, thermal backfill, underground ducts, duct banks and
methodologies are given. In general, IEC methods are more up multiple soil layers with different thermal resistivity.
to date and consider more cases than the Neher-McGrath • Cables in pipes with the pipe directly buried or in a ther-
method. Following is a description of the most important mod- mal backfill.
eling differences: • Independent libraries and databases for cables, duct-
banks, load curves, heat sources and installations.
EDDY LOSSES • Simulation of cables on riser poles, groups of cables in
• In the Neher-McGrath approach, only the eddy losses air, moisture migration, nearby heat sources and heat sinks, etc.
for triangular configurations are computed. IEC includes flat • Different cable types within one installation.
formations as well. • Non-isothermal earth surface modeling.
• In the IEC standards, the magnetic armors are consid- • Cyclic loading patterns as per IEC-60853.
ered, while they are not in the Neher-McGrath method. • Multiple cables per phase with proper modeling of the
sheath mutual inductances, which greatly influence circulating
THERMAL RESISTANCES current losses, and thus derating.
• IEC gives expressions for geometric factors of three- • All bonding arrangements for flat and triangular forma-
core, oil-filled, belted, etc., cables. tions are supported with explicit modeling of minor section
• IEC considers more insulation materials than Neher- lengths, unequal cable spacing, etc.
McGrath. Figure 5 presents a typical graphical display screen of a
• IEC makes a distinction between trefoil and flat config- duct bank installation containing trefoil arrangements, threecore
urations (touching and not touching) for T4. cables and single-phase circuits. Also, any of its cables can be
• IEC considers in detail unequally loaded cables. displayed and edited simultaneously.
• Soil dry-out is considered in IEC.
VALIDATION
CYMCAP has been validated against field tests. In
Figure 9 a comparison between time simulations and field tests
is presented. One can appreciate that the simulated and meas-
Fluke Networks DSPxx series Digital Signal Processing techniques using FFT and inverse FFT algorithms
Microtest OmniScanner series Analog signals used to stimulate and analyze response for certain parameters
Agilent HP350, Wirescope 155
Wire & Cable handbook vol. 4/17/06 3:11 PM Page 75
CONCLUSION
In a perfect world, testing is not required. In the real
world, testing is the ONLY way transmission channels can be
assessed for performance to established criteria.
This method is suitable for short links and patch cords, The observed and the observer together determine the
where the connector loss is the most significant loss in the link. outcome of the test process!
For long optical fibre links, another test method is used, where
Wire & Cable handbook vol. 4/17/06 3:11 PM Page 76
ELECTRIC SHOCK
The “hot” wire is at 120 volts or 230 volts (depending on This short circuit situation causes very high current surge
the mains voltage) and the other wire is neutral or ground. If a to flow in the circuit which will cause the distribution panel fuse
person were to touch the neutral wire only, no shock would to blow almost immediately. The current in a short circuit situ-
result simply because there is no voltage on it. If he were to ation can be extremely high because of the low resistance of the
touch the hot wire only, again nothing would happen to him mains distribution wiring.
unless some other part of his body were to become grounded. A The integrity of the separate ground path is directly relat-
person is considered to be grounded if he comes in contact with ed to the quality of the chassis/green wire/ground pin combina-
a water pipe, metal conduit, the neutral or ground wire, or stands tion. When the ground pin is removed, the separate ground path
barefoot on a concrete floor. is destroyed and then fault conditions may cause shock hazards.
Wire & Cable handbook vol. 4/17/06 3:11 PM Page 80
NEEDED IF PRODUCT MEETS THE STANDARD? or even worse due to the quality of the electronics. The 2 volt
The word “tuned” has been used by several manufactur- nominal signal for both drops away due to signal strength past
ers to describe products that deliver headroom to the Category 6 295 feet in the link, which then allows for a further 33 feet for
standard. This is outside the scope of the Category 6 standard. patching and cross connecting. 10BaseT uses a 5-volt nominal
The component requirements of the standard have been careful- signal that can support further distances more frequently, but it
ly designed and analyzed to assure channel compliance and still comes down to the quality of the transceivers. For example,
electrical/mechanical interoperability. just because port 1 in a switch can support a 110% of the rec-
ommended length for a particular protocol doesn’t mean that
WHAT IS IMPEDANCE MATCHING BETWEEN CABLE AND HARDWARE? IS THIS REALLY port 2 will. You can have great noise reduction, but if your sig-
NEEDED IF PRODUCT MEETS THE STANDARD? nal strength isn’t sufficient, any extended length support is lost.
The impedance matching requirements of the standard The problem network administrators face is that they don’t
are addressed by having return loss requirements for cables, know which ports have the best signal strength to support longer
connectors and patch cords. than standard runs. Cycling back to 10BaseT half duplex is the
safest bet for such circumstances, but then not only slows the
IS THERE A USE FOR CATEGORY 6 IN THE RESIDENTIAL MARKET? speed, but introduces localized collisions and in many cases
CRC/FCS errors.
Yes, Category 6 will be very effective in the residential
The use of a repeater/hub/switch can be implemented to
market to support higher Internet access speeds while facilitat-
support extended runs at the end of the link. This will then allow
ing the more stringent Class B EMC requirements (see also the
for further extension, but add an additional hop and latency. As
entire FCC Rules and Regulations, Title 47, Part 15). The better
extended runs are typically the exception rather than the rule,
balance of Category 6 will make it easier to meet the residential
this solution will ensure full speed is supported, but will limit
EMC requirements compared to Category 5e cabling. Also, the
the amount of network management on the drops extended,
growth of streaming media applications to the home will
without SNMP at the repeater.
increase the need for higher data rates which are supported more
It is also important to check the full length of the cable
easily and efficiently by Category 6 cabling.
run to be sure that there is not interference being introduced
such as a cable sitting on top of a fluorescent light or having
WHY WOULDN’T I SKIP CATEGORY 6 AND GO STRAIGHT TO OPTICAL FIBER?
sheaths cut. Consult the manufacturer for specific warranty pro-
You can certainly do that, but you will find that a fiber visions that may be applicable.
system is still very expensive. Ultimately, economics drive cus-
tomer decisions and today optical fiber, together with optical CATEGORY 6 CONNECTING HARDWARE QUESTIONS
transceivers, is about twice as expensive as an equivalent sys-
ARE THE CONNECTORS FOR CATEGORY 5E AND CATEGORY 6 DIFFERENT? WHY ARE
tem built using Category 6 and associated copper electronics.
THEY MORE EXPENSIVE?
Installation of copper cabling is more craft-friendly and can be
accomplished with simple tools and techniques. Additionally, Although Category 6 and Category 5e connectors may
copper cabling supports the data terminal equipment (DTE) look alike, Category 6 connectors have much better transmis-
power standard developed by IEEE (802.3af). PCs ship with sion performance. For example, at 100 MHz, NEXT of a
copper network interfaces included, in fact, recent announce- Category 5e connector is 43 decibels (dB), while NEXT of a
ments indicate that the major PC vendors are shipping Category 6 connector is 54 dB. This means that a Category 6
10/100/1000 with all new systems. Moving to fiber would mean connector couples about 1/12 of the power that a Category 5e
buying a fiber-based network card to replace equipment already connector couples from one pair to another pair. Conversely,
included in the PC. one can say that a Category 6 connector is 12 times less “noisy”
compared to a Category 5e connector. This vast improvement in
WE HAVE A CATEGORY 6 INSTALLATION IN A CAMPUS DORMITORY ENVIRONMENT performance was achieved with new technology, new process-
AND RECENTLY DISCOVERED THAT SEVERAL HORIZONTAL RUNS EXCEED 295 FEET. es, better materials and significant R&D resources, leading to
higher costs for manufacturers.
The application is 10/100 access from the dormitory
room to the Internet. For those locations beyond the 295 feet, we
HOW CAN I DETERMINE THE INSTALLATION REQUIREMENTS FOR CAT 6 SUCH AS
found the only workable solution is for the PCs to run 10Mbps
TERMINATION, MINIMUM RADIUS AROUND CORNERS, PROXIMITY TO ELECTRICAL
1/2 duplex.
DEVICES (BALLASTS, WIRING, ETC.)?
WHAT IS MEANT BY THE TERM “ELECTRICALLY BALANCED”? The requirements for installation of Category 6 are
essentially the same as the requirements for Category 5e.
A simple open wire circuit consisting of two wires is con-
Installation practices are in the TIA-568-B.1 and TIA-569-A
sidered to be a uniform, balanced transmission line. A uniform
documents.
transmission line is one that has substantially identical electrical
properties throughout its length, while a balanced transmission
line is one whose two conductors are electrically alike and sym- WHICH STANDARD ADDRESSES THE COMBINATION OF ELECTRICAL CABLE AND CAT
metrical with respect to ground and other nearby conductors. 6 REGARDING PERFORMANCE OR SENSITIVITY?
I’m an ICT Consultant for a university and in the process
I WAS UNDER THE IMPRESSION THAT CAT 6 COULD RUN 1000 MBPS OUT TO 295 of designing the infrastructure for them. They are using Cat 6
FEET. THAT BEING THE CASE, WHY CAN’T WE RUN 100 MBPS BEYOND 295 FEET IF cable as horizontal cabling and fiber optic as backbone. We are
THE CAT 6 SPECIFICATIONS PROVIDE FOR BETTER PERFORMANCE? IS THERE A DIS- facing a problem with M & E consultant on the trunking design.
TANCE MATRIX FOR CAT? They are proposing the use of a 4-way service box which con-
100 Mbps will have the same constraints as 1000 Mbps tains cables for electrical and Cat 6. We cannot find in the stan-
dard about the combination of electrical cable and Cat 6 cabling
Wire & Cable handbook vol. 4/17/06 3:11 PM Page 86
WHAT IS A GFCI?
You may not think of the GFCI as an electronic device,
but it is the most sensitive and important life saving device you
can find wherever electricity is used. GFCIs are designed to
minimize and reduce the chance of electrocution when using
electrical appliances.
The sensitive electronic circuits inside GFCIs have two
differential sensing circuits.
The first one detects the amount of current being used by
the tool, hair dryer etc. The second sensing circuit detects the
amount of current returning to the power supply.
When these two detecting circuits do not see the same
amount of current, the leakage current must be returning to
ground some other way. If that leakage current flows through
you, a lethal shock is possible. GFCIs are designed to detect
leakage and eliminate or stop a lethal shock and shut off within
1/40th of a second. The maximum amount of leakage current is
about 4 to 6 mA (0.004 to 0.006 Amperes). 0.010 Amps can be
lethal. Hotels, Motels, Commercial Kitchens etc are now required to
There are many variations of GFCIs manufactured. You comply. Check with your local inspection authority.
will find receptacles, plugs, extension cords and breakers with
GFCI protection. All of these variations work on the same prin- GFCI TYPES: MANUAL RESET AND AUTOMATIC RESET.
ciple. The 2-way flow of electrical current is monitored, and if A manual reset type does not provide power when it is
there is a slight imbalance on how much electrical current initially powered.
returns back to the source, it’s designed to shut off. This type is commonly used on power tools where, if
there were a power failure or when a tool is initially plugged in,
WHERE ARE THEY REQUIRED? the tool would not turn on again and possibly injure someone or
GFCI products are generally required where water and damage something. Automatic versions imply that when power
electricity are used in close proximity. is first supplied or power failure occurs, the device keeps pro-
Some typical examples are: Bathrooms, laundry rooms, viding protection. GFCIs in bathrooms are the automatic type. It
outdoors, pools, saunas, hot tubs and most construction sites. would be a nuisance to reset all GFCI receptacles in your house
Electrical tools and or appliances and water just do not mix. if there was a power failure. Would you always remember to
Would you cut the grass in the early morning dew with an reset that GFCI that protects your basement sump pump?
electric lawn mower in your bare feet? Some people would not Automatic reset is used when the return of power would
think of the possibility of electric shock. Some portable prod- not be a hazard.
ucts like power washers are manufactured with GFCI type
plugs. WHEN TO TEST YOUR GFCI
That is why the Canadian Electrical Code mandates GFCIs should be tested monthly.
GFCI in many locations, to protect people. • Simply push the TEST button.
In January 2003 Ontario introduced a new requirement • The GFCI will self test and trip.
for GFCI to be installed within 1 meter of any Kitchen Sink. • Reset will re-energize the unit.
This new requirement is not just for residential applications. • Keep a record. Always replace a defective unit ASAP.
Wire & Cable handbook vol. 4/17/06 3:11 PM Page 88
BUYER’S GUIDE
3M Canada
PO Box 5757 Cablofil Inc.
London, Ontario N6A 4T1 8319 State Route 4
Tel: (800) 3M Helps Mascoutah, IL 62258
Fax: (519) 452-6286 Tel: (800) 658-4641
E-mail: innovation@ca.mmm.com Fax: (618) 566-3250
Web: www.mmm.com E-mail: info@cablofil.com
Description of products/services: Web:www.cablofil.com
• Terminations and splices, using Cold Shrink® Technology, Cablofil Cable Tray
moulded rubber, resin and heat shrink Product Presentation: Since its introduction, wire cable tray
• Motor lead connection systems has proven to be an ideal choice for cable management in virtu-
• Scotch® vinyl insulation tapes, splicing and terminating ally any type of installation. First marketed in Europe in 1972,
tapes, corrosion protection sealing and general use tapes Cablofil is one of the best-known brands in the world. For
• Scotchloc® terminal, wire connectors and insulation dis- decades, Cablofil has been providing effective, efficient and
placement connectors, lugs, copper and aluminum connec- innovative cable management solutions with more than 80,000
tors miles installed around the world. Cablofil products have been
• Scotchtrak® infrared heat tracers and circuit tracers independently evaluated by UL, CSA, ABS, ETL, VDE and
• Fastening products, coatings and lubricants DNV to meet applicable standards and requirements.
• Duct- , packaging, filament-, and masking tapes Applications: Engineers and Contractors around the world
• Abrasive products have found Cablofil to be the solution to any installation, large
• Personal safety products, sorbents. or small. Stainless Steel 316L and 304L for corrosive environ-
ments, Hot dipped Galvanized for exterior applications and
electrozinc for indoor spaces. Additionally, Cablofil has
designed a wide range of unique supports and accessories,
including a Fast Assembling System that further reduces install
time.
Benefits: Cablofil Cable Tray can save up to 20% to 50%
over conventional tray or ladder rack, giving the installer more
Boca Wire Corp. margin and ability to be more cost competitive. The lightweight
736 N Western Suite 126 construction and patented Fast Assembly System secures the
Lake Forest, IL 60045 tray to the support system without any special fasteners, only a
Tel: 1-800-809-9473 screwdriver is required. Just one person can complete the
Fax: 1-800-329-2650 installation. This leads to faster installations and more efficient
utilization of the work force.
E-mail: info@bocawire.com
Visit Cablofil at www.cablofil.com for downloadable spec-
Web: www.bocawire.com ifications and detailed technical information.
Wire & Cable handbook vol. 4/17/06 3:11 PM Page 94
Lapp Canada
G.T. Wood Co. Ltd.
A Lapp Group Company
3354 Mavis Road
93 Skyway Avenue, Unit 111
Mississauga, ON L5C 1T8
Toronto, ON, M9W 6N6
Tel: (905) 272-1696
Contacts:
Fax: (905) 272-1425
Doug Wood, General Manager
E-Mail: lsnow@gtwood.com
Tel: 416-674-1544 Ext. 3001
Specializing in High Voltage Electrical Testing, inspec-
tions, maintenance and repairs. Refurbishing and repair of New Zack Cvitak, CET New Business Development
and Reconditioned Transformers, Structures, Switchgear and Tel: 416-674-1544 Ext. 3005
Associated Equipment. Infrared Thermography, Engineering E--mail: sales@lappcanada.com
Studies and PCB Management. Web: www.lappcanada.com
As part of the worldwide Lapp Group, Lapp Canada offers
a complete one-stop solution for power/signal cable and con-
nector needs throughout various automation markets. Lapp
Canada has the broadest range of products, which includes
OLFLEX® flexible, oil-resistant and continuous-flex cables,
cable track and accessories, EPIC® multi-pin rectangular and
circular connectors, EPIC® Pin & Sleeve Connectors, SKIN-
TOP® strain relief and cable glands and EPIC ® remote access
ports.
Reel-O-Matic
6408 S Eastern Ave.
Oklahoma City, OK 73149
address
Contacts:
Tel: (405) 672-0000
Toll Free: (888) 873-4000
E--mail: tsimmons@reelomatic.com
Web: www.reelomatic.com
Manufacturer of Reel Handling Equipment for: Wire,
Cable, Wire Rope, Tubing, Hose and other flexible Materials.
Wire & Cable handbook vol. 4/17/06 3:11 PM Page 96
OLFLEX® VFD Slim with CSA TC Industrial Grade Cables according to OLFLEX® VFD Symmetrical with CSA
Approval including MSHA PROFIBUS® for Flexible Applications TC Approval including MSHA
OLFLEX® VFD SLIM UL/CSA/CE/NOM MSHA
OLFLEX® SYMMETRICAL 600V UL/CSA TC MSHA
OLFLEX® VFD SLIM is a reduced diameter UNITRONIC® PROFIBUS cables are a series of data Lapp has designed a new Lead-Free, RoHS
shielded motor supply cable for variable frequency cables for use in FIP (Factory Instrumentation compliant VFD Symmetrical Cable, for use in large
drives. The LAPP Surge Guard insulation coupled Protocol) field bus systems, as well as other high horse-power VFD drives. The new OLFLEX® VFD
with a specially blended PVC jacket is designed performance data networks. They are specially Symmetrical is a large gauge VFD cable designed
to hold up to the non-linear power distortions designed with a foil and a tinned copper braided with 3 symmetrical grounds and longitudinal applied
associated with VFD drives. Typical approvals shield to provide excellent protection against EMI copper tape shield, and a black PVC outer jacket.
include UL Type TC-ER and c(UL) CIC/TC 600V interference. These cables have an oil resistant and The copper tape shield provides 100% protection
90oC FT4 providing TC approvals for both flame retardant violet PVC or PUR outer jacket. from EMI and RFI interference.
Canadian and US markets. In addition, the cable Within the series there are individual characteristics,
is also UL AWM rated at 1000V Available sizes which offer extra features customized to your needs. OLFLEX® VFD Symmetrical is a UL TC-ER, CSA
range from 16 AWG to 2 AWG. OLFLEX® VFD Please see below for more information. TC/CIC FT4 approved cable. It is available in sizes
SLIM also conforms to CE, NOM, MSHA, and that range from 1 AWG to 500 KCMIL for 75 HP and
RoHS requirements making it a globally accepted For more information, call toll free (877) 799-5277 or larger VFD drives.
solution. visit www.lappcanada.com.
For more information, call toll free (877) 799-5277
For more information, call toll free (877) 799-5277 or visit www.lappcanada.com.
or visit www.lappcanada.com.
• Class 1 Zone 2
(Div 2) Approved
CONTACT® Environmentally Protected Industrial LAPP Canada Tray Cables are globally approved, lead free and
Connectors are the ultimate solution for all your RoHS Compliant, including CSA, UL, and CE approvals
power, control, and instrumentation applications
where reliability and durability is essential. The
connectors allow for quick connect/disconnect Check out the LAPP Canada line of flexible Tray Cables and
between control panels and equipment. Available
connector variations include screw, crimp, or spring accessories by calling 1-877-799-5277, or visit us on our website at
cage terminations from 2 to 280 contact points. www.lappcanada.com.
The connectors are UL & CSA approved. Optional
Class 1 Zone 2 (Division 2) approval is available
upon request.
877-799-5277
For more information, call toll free (877) 799-5277 or www.lappcanada.com
visit www.lappcanada.com.
W&CV2cover_spread 4/11/06 3:00 PM Page 1
SPECIALTY CABLES
Noramco carries a variety of specialty cables designed to meet
critical environmental applications. Polarfex 40 welding cable, as
with our portable cord, is specially formulated to remain tough, light,
and flexible in temperatures ranging from desert heat to arctic cold.
Submersible pump cable, irrigation and golf course sprinkler wire,
high temperature wire, guy wire, blasting wire, tracer and water
meter cable are all part of our specialty cable lineup.
PORTABLE CORD
Standard service; special purpose; thermoplastic; multi-
conductor; portable mining cable; motor and lead wire, coil or re-
tractile cords.
TECK CABLE
Teck cables known for their quality of design and manufacture,
are the only cables for use in pulp and paper, chemical and petro-
leum facilities, or in similar areas where there is a risk of cable
damage due to chemical or mechanical abuse. Teck cables are
available in single, multi-conductor, or composite configurations
with voltages of 600V through 25000V, with either aluminum or
steel interlocked armour.