Fund - Elect DE52.

Code: DE06 Subject: BASIC ELECTRONICS
PART – I, VOL - I
TYPICAL QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
OBJECTIVE TYPES QUESTIONS

Each Question carries 2 marks
Choose correct or the best alternative in the following:
Q.1 A resistor with colour bands Red, Violet, Green and Black will have a value
(A) 27 K ± 10% K (B) 2.7 M ± 20% K

(C) 270 K ± 5% K (D) 2.7 K ± 2% K
Ans: B
Q.2 In an n-type semiconductor, as temperature T increases, the Fermi level EF
(A) moves towards conduction band

(B) moves towards middle of forbidden energy gap
(C) does not vary
(D) may or may not shift depending upon the concentration of donor atoms
Ans: A
Q.3 In a BJT with β = 100, α equals
(A) 99 (B) 0.99

(C) 1.0 (D) 1.01
Ans: C
Q.4 In integrated circuits, npn construction is preferred to pnp construction because
(A) npn construction is cheaper

(B) to reduce diffusion constant, n-type collector is preferred
(C) npn construction permits higher packing of elements
(D) p-type base is preferred
Ans: B
Q.5 Pinch-off voltage VP for an FET is the drain voltage at which
(A) significant drain current starts flowing

(B) drain current becomes zero
(C) all free charges get removed from the channel
(D) avalanche break down takes place
Ans: C
1
Q.6 In SCR, the turn ON time
(A) is independent of Vg
(B) decreases with increase of Vg
(C) varies as Vg
2
(D) varies as Vg
Ans: A
Q.7 Avalanche breakdown results basically due to
(A) impact ionisation

(B) strong electric field across the junction
(C) emission of electrons
(D) rise in temperature
Ans: A
Q8 Dynamic plate resistance of pentode is of the order of

(A) 1 K Ω (B) 10 K Ω
(C) 100 K Ω (D) 1M Ω
Ans: D
Q.9 At room temperature, the current in an intrinsic semiconductor is due to
(A) holes (B) electronics

(C) ions (D) holes and electronics
Ans: D
Q.10 The varactor diode is usually
(A) Forward biased (B) reverse biased

(C) Unbiased (D) holes and electronics
Ans: B
Q.11 The diode in which impurities are heavily doped is
(A) Varactor diode (B) PIN diode

(C) Tunnel diode (D) Zener diode
Ans: C
Q.12 A transistor in common emitter mode has
(A) a high input resistance and low output resistance

(B) a medium input resistance and high output resistance
(C) a very low input resistance and a low output resistance
(D) a high input resistance and a high output resistance
Ans: B
2
Q.13 In an SCR the holding current is
(A) more than latching current (B) less than latching current
(C) equal to latching current (D) very small
Ans: B
Q.14 The negative potential at the control grid in a vacuum triode that causes plate current
Zero is called
(A) cut off bias (B) cut in voltage

(C) reverse blocking voltage (D) forward blocking voltage
Ans: A
Q.15 A constant current source supplies a current of 300 mA to a load of 1 Kohm. When the
Load is changed to 100 ohm, the load current will be
(A) 3 Amp (B) 300 mAmp

(C) 30 mAmp (D) 600 mAmp
Ans: B
Q.16 An Op-amp as a voltage follower has a voltage gain of
(A) Infinity (B) Zero

(C) Unity (D) less than unity
Ans: C
Q.17 A resistor used in colour TV has the following colour bands: yellow, violet, orange and
silver. Its nominal value is
(A) 4.7 K Ω ± 10 % (B) 4.7 K Ω ± 5 %

(C) 47 K Ω ± 10 % (D) 470 K Ω ± 5 %
Ans: C
Q.18 Ratings on a capacitor are given 25 µ F, 12 V. Also a plus sign is written near one of its
terminals. The capacitor is
(A) mica capacitor (B) ceramic capacitor

(C) electrolytic capacitor (D) paper capacitor
Ans: C
Q.19 An ideal voltage source of 12 V provides a current of 150 mA to a load connected

across it. If the load impedance is halved, the new load current will be
(A) 0.3 A (B) 0.15 A

(C) 0.6 A (D) 1.2 A
Ans: A
3
Q.20 An intrinsic semiconductor at the absolute zero temperature
(A) behaves like a metallic conductor

(B) behaves like an insulator
(C) has a large number of holes
(D) has a large number of electrons
Ans: B
Q.21 Which of the following diodes is operated in reverse bias mode ?
(A) P-N junction (B) Zener

(C) Tunnel (D) Schottky
Ans: B
Q.22 Compared to bipolar transistor, a JFET has
(A) lower input impedance

(B) higher voltage gain
(C) higher input impedance and high voltage gain
(D) higher input impedance and low voltage gain
Ans: D
Q.23 The minimum gate current which can turn on SCR is called
(A) trigger current (B) holding current

(C) junction (D) break over current
Ans: A
Q.24 A virtual ground
(A) is a ground for voltage

(B) is a ground for both voltage and current
(C) is ground for current
(D) is a ground for voltage but not for current
Ans: D
Q.25 Which of the following doping will produce a p-type semiconductor
(A) Germanium with phosphorus (B) Silicon with Germanium

(C) Germanium with Antimony (D) Silicon with Indium
Ans: D
Q.26 The majority charge carriers in the emitter of an NPN transistor are
(A) pentavalent atoms (B) trivalent atoms

(C) electrons (D) holes
Ans: C
4
Q.27 An ideal differential amplifier has CMRR equaling
(A) Unity (B) – 1 (minus unity)

(C) Infinity (D) Zero
Ans: C
Q.28 Which of the following is an active device
(A) an electric bulb (B) a diode

(C) a BJT (D) a transformer
Ans: C
Q.29 Which configuration has unity voltage gain (ideal)
(A) a Common Collector (CC) (B) a Common Emitter (CE)

(C) a Common Base (CB) (D) CE followed by CB
Ans: A
Q.30 JFET is a
(A) Current controlled device with high input resistance

(B) Voltage controlled device with high input resistance
(C) Current Controlled Current Source (CCCS)
(D) Voltage Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS)
Ans: B
Q.31 The depletion region in a Junction Diode contains
(A) only charge carriers (of minority type and majority type)
(B) no charge at all
(C) vacuum, and no atoms at all
(D) only ions i.e., immobile charges
Ans: D
Q.32 Photo-electric emission current is proportional to
(A) frequency of the incident light

(B) incident light flux
(C) work function of photo-cathode
(D) angle of incidence of radiation
Ans: A
5
PART – II, VOL – I
NUMERICALS
Q.1 Power is to be supplied from a source whose resistance is 20 K Ω to a load of 100 Ω .

Would you consider it as a constant current source or voltage source? Explain.
Marks (6)
Ans:
The given source is considered as a constant current source because, a source which
has a very high internal resistance (20 KΩ) as compared to the load resistance (100 Ω) is
a constant current source.
Explanation: In fig.1(a), a load impedance ZL is connected to a current source. Let is be
the short-circuit current of the source, and Zs be its internal impedance. The current is is
divided into two parts I1 through Zs and IL through ZL. That is
I1 IL
ZS ZL
IS
Fig.1(a)
IS = I1 + IL
or I1 = IS − IL
Since the impedance Zs and ZL are in parallel, the voltage drop across each
should be equal, i.e.,
I1ZS = ILZL
(IS − IL) ZS = IL
ZS ZS
IL = IS =
ZS +ZL Z 
1 +  L 
ZS 
The above equation tells us that the load current IL will remain almost the same
as the current IS, provided the ratio ZL/ZS = 100/20000 = 1/200 is small compared to unity.
The source then behaves as a good current source. In other words, the larger the value
of internal impedance ZS (20KΩ) compared to the load impedance ZL (100Ω), the smaller
is the ratio ZL/ZS, and the better it works as a constant current source.
-7
Q.2 The current flowing in a certain PN junction at room temperature is 2 X 10 A,
when a large reverse bias voltage is applied. Calculate the current when a forward
voltage of 0.1 V is applied across the junction. Marks (6)
Ans:
The diode current is given as (

I = I O eV VT
)
−1
6
From given data:
Large reverse bias current I≈IO = 0.2 µA

Applied Voltage V = 0.1 V
Volt-equivalent of temperature, VT = 26 mV or 0.026 V at room temperature
so, the current flowing through the diode, (

I = 0.2 × 10 −6 e 0.1 0.026
)
− 1 = 29.38 µ A
Q.3 Determine the voltage gain for the circuit shown in fig 3(a), with RF = 100K Ω and
R1=10 K Ω Marks (4)
RF
R1
-
A Vo
Vi +
Fig.3(a)
Ans:
Determination of voltage gain:
The given operational amplifier is a non-inverting amplifier. By virtual ground, the voltage
at inverting terminal of Op-amp is also Vi. Writing KCL at this terminal gives
0 − Vi Vi − Vo Vo R
= OR = 1 + F = AV
R1 RF Vi R1
From the given data RF = 100 KΩ and R1=10 KΩ
100
AV = 1 + = 1 + 10 = 11
10
Q.4 Determine current flowing through 5 Ω resistor in the circuit shown at Fig.4(a) . Use
Source transformation technique. Marks (3)
5Ω
+ +
5A A 4Ω 6Ω A 10A
Fig.4(a)
7
Ans:
Determination of current flowing through 5 Ω resistor

The two current sources cannot be combined together because of the 5 Ω resistance
presence between points A and C shown in fig.4(b) However, the hurdle can be removed
by converting 5 A current source into the equivalent voltage source of 20 V and 10 A
current source can be converted into the equivalent voltage source of 60 V as shown in
fig.4 (c)
A 5Ω C
+ +
5A A 4Ω 6Ω A 10A
B D
Fig.4(b)
4Ω 5Ω 6Ω
R R R
+
+
VS 1 20 V 60 V VS 2
Fig. 4(c)
The circuit shown in above fig.4(c) is a simple series circuit having total voltage of 40V
and total resistance of 4 + 5 + 6 = 15 Ω . So, the current flowing through the 5 Ω
40
resistance is equal to = 2.667 A
15
Q.5 A triode valve acting as an amplifier gives a voltage gain of 30. If the anode
resistance is 20 K Ω for the valve and load resistance is 60 K Ω , what is the value of
amplification factor for the valve? Marks (2)
Ans:
Given data;
Voltage gain (A) = 30
Anode or Plate resistance (rp) = 20 K Ω
Load resistance (RL) = 60 K Ω
8
Formula to be used is
µ
A=
rp
1+
RL
µ
30 =
20
1+
60
Amplification Factor (µ) = 39.999
Q.6 Determine the range of V for obtaining a regulated voltage shown in Fig.5(a)
for the data 0 ≤ IL ≤ 4 mA
2 ≤ IZ ≤ 8 mA Marks (7)
Ans:
Determination of range of V for the given circuit diagram shown in fig.6(a):

In the fig.6(a), the voltage across the series or current limiting resistor equals the
difference between the source voltage and zener voltage. Therefore, the current through
the series resistor RS is given by
VS − V Z
IS =
RS
The zener diode and the load resistor are in parallel. So, the sum of their currents has to
equal the total current, which is the same as the current through the series resistor. i.e.,
IS = IZ + IL
5KΩ
I I
+ z L
50 V
V ± _
Fig.6(a)
From the given data the load current is in between 0 mA (ILMIN) and 4 mA (ILMAX) and the
Zener current is in between 2 mA (IZMIN) and 8 mA (IZMAX).
(i) The minimum value of Source Current is given by
Is(min) = Iz(min)+ + IL(min) i.e.,

IS (MIN) = 2 mA + 0 mA = 2 mA, and
The minimum value of source current is given by
VS (MIN) − VZ
I S ( MIN ) =
RS
From the fig.3.1, VZ = 50 V and RS = 5 KΩ
VS ( MIN ) − 50
2 X 10 −3 =
5 X 10 3
9
Therefore, the minimum value of source voltage is given by

VS (MIN) = 50 + 10 = 60 V
(ii) The maximum value of source current is given by
ISMAX = IZMAX + ILMAX

= 8 mA + 4 mA = 12 mA and
The maximum value of source current is given by
VS ( MAX ) − VZ
I S ( MAX ) =
RS
VS ( MAX ) − 50
12 X 10 −3 =
5 X 10 3
Therefore, the maximum value of source voltage is given by
VSMAX= 50 + 60 = 110 V
The value of source voltage is 50 ≤ VS ≤ 110 V
Q.7 For the circuit shown in fig.7(a), draw the waveform of output voltage Vo. Assume ideal
diode D and lossless capacitor C.
+
+
V
i
D Vo
_
+
5V
_ _
Fig.7(a)
Ans:
The name of the circuit given in fig 7.(a) is Positive Clamper. A circuit that shifts the
signal in the positive side in such a way that the negative peak of the signal falls on the
zero level, is called a Positive Clamper.
Working:
During negative half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode conducts heavily and acts like a
closed switch see fig 7.c(i). The capacitor C is charged to 5 V (Vm) at the negative peak
of the signal with the polarity as marked. Slightly beyond the negative peak, the diode
stops conduction through it and behaves as an open switch (see fig.7c(ii)). The charged
capacitor (Vm = 5V) just behaves as a battery whose voltage adds to the signal voltage,
see fig7.c(ii).During positive half-cycle of the signal, the diode is reverse biased and acts
as an open switch. The resultant output voltage coming across the load resistor RL will
be as shown in Fig.7(b): By writing KVL to the circuit shown in fig5.a (iii)., we get 5V + 5V
– Vo = 0 i.e.,
10
Output Voltage (Vo) = 10 V.(at positive peak)
C
+
+
V
i
RL V
_ o
+
5V
_
_
Fig.7.(b).Positive Clamper adds a dc component (5V) to signal
C
_ + V =5V
+ m
_ + _ +
_ +
_ +
V _
i
RL Vo V
D i
+
D RL Vo
+
_
-5V + _
-5V
+
_ _
Fig.7.c (i) Fig.7.c (ii)
V =5V
m
_ +
+
_ +
+
V
i
D RL V = 2V = 10 V
_ o m
+
V =5V
m
_
_
11
DESCRIPTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS
Q.1 Draw and explain the V-I characteristics of constant current and constant voltage
sources. Marks (4)
Ans: V-I Characteristics of Constant Voltage Source: A voltage source, which has very low
internal resistance (or impedance) as compared to load resistance (or impedance) is
known as a Constant Voltage Source.
A real voltage source (constant voltage source) has some internal resistance. For
instance, a flashlight battery has an internal resistance of less than 1 ohm, a car battery
has an internal resistance of less than 0.1 ohm, and an electronic voltage source may
have an internal resistance of less than 0.01 ohm. A real voltage source, having an
internal resistance of 0.01 ohm with load resistance RL is shown in below fig.1(a). When,
a load resistance varies from 11.99 ohm to 1.19 ohm, the terminal voltage varies from
11.99V to 11.9 V and the load current varies from 10A to 1A respectively.
E × RL
V =
Ri + RL
12 × 11 .99
i.e.V = = 11 .99V
0.01 + 11 .99
This shows that the terminal voltage remains constant and the source behaves as a
constant voltage source irrespective of load current, as shown in fig.1(b).
A I V
12 V
R = 0.01 Ohm s
I
11.99 Ohms OUTPU T
V
R VOLTAGE V = 11.9 V
L
E = 12 V 1.19 Ohms
0 LOAD 10 A I
B
C UR REN T
Fig. 1(a) Fig.1(b)
V-I Characteristics of Constant Current Source: A source that has high internal
resistance (or impedance) as compared to the load resistance (or impedance) is
considered as a constant current source.
A real current source has high internal resistance. For instance a real current source
having an internal resistance of 10 MΩ with load resistance RL is shown in below fig. 1(c).
When load resistance varies from 1 KΩ to 100 KΩ,
E 12
I = = = 1 . 1881 µ A
Ri + RL 10 . 001
∴The current varies from 1.19988 µA to 1.1881 µA.
12
This shows that the load current remains almost constant and the source behaves as a
constant current source irrespective of the value of load resistance, which is shown in
fig.1(d).
A I I 1.19988 Micro Amp
R = 10 M Ohm s
I
100 KOhms
LOAD 1.1881 M icroAmp
CUR REN T
E = 12 V 1 KOhms
RL
1 KOhms LOAD 100 K Ohms
B
R ESISTANC E
Fig. 1(c) Fig.1(d)
Q.2 While designing and constructing Inductance standards, what considerations

should be taken into account ? Marks(4)
Ans: Construction of Inductors:

The constructional features of an inductor are determined largely by the frequency range
in which it is to operate. In general, low frequency inductors have many turns and
employ an iron core. In contrast high-frequency inductors have fewer turns and often
employ an air core. The stray capacitance between the turns and between the layers of
turns is an important factor in high-frequency coils, and therefore special winding
configurations may be employed to minimize this capacitance
Current and voltage considerations also determine the constructional features of
an inductor. The gauge of the wire, for example, is selected in accordance with the
amount of current the coil must carry. Receiver coils, which normally carry only a few
milli-amperes of current, are therefore wound from fine wire. Transmitter coils, however,
often carry much greater currents and are wound using heavier wire. The spacing
between turns, the insulation of the wire, and the insulation between layers of turns must
be adequate to prevent voltage breakdown and arcing. An inductor designed for use in
high-voltage circuits will, therefore, have heavier insulation than one designed for low-
voltage applications. Inductors may be made of Iron core, Powder core, Ferrite core or
Air core depending upon the frequency range of their operation.
Q.3 Give the basic construction of pentode. Marks (4)
Ans: Construction of Pentode: The constructional details of a typical pentode are shown in
fig.3(a) and fig.3(b) Pentode consists of five electrodes namely a cathode, three grids
(suprressor grid, screen grid, control grid) and a plate. The grid closest to the cathode is
the control grid, next is the screen grid, and the third is the suppressor grid. The
suppressor grid is usually coarser than the control grid or even the screen grid mesh and
is placed very close to the plate. It does not obstruct the flow of electrons from cathodes
to anode (or plate). To keep the control grid-to-plate capacitance small extra shields are
provided either within the glass envelope or external to it. In the latter case the bulb is so
shaped as to allow the shield to come very near to the plate.
13
SUPRESSOR
GRID G3 G3
SCREEN
GRID G2 G1
G2
CONTROL
GRID G1
ANODE
OR
PLATE
CATHODE
(a) Cut-away-View (b) Symbolic Representation
Pentode
Fig. 3
Q.4 Draw and discuss Pentode Plate Characteristics. Marks (6)
Ans: Pentode Plate Characteristics: Pentode plate characteristics (plate current-plate

voltage curves at constant grid voltage) are plotted in fig.4(a)
1. The characteristics are non-linear below the knee of the curve.
2. The dip noticed in the plate characteristics of a tetrode is eliminated in the
pentode plate characteristics. This is due to the suppression effect of suppressor
grid.
3. Over the major portion (above the knee) of the characteristics plate current is largely
independent of plate voltage. So the pentode may be thought as a constant current
device. A pentode is usually operated in this region.
Fig. 4(a)
14
Q.5 Explain how suppressor grid eliminates the effect of secondary emission in pentode
Marks (4)
Ans: Suppressor grid is placed in between the plate and screen grid. It is connected with the
cathode and obtains the same potential as that of cathode. Since the suppressor grid is
at negative potential with respect to plate, the secondary electrons emitted from the plate
are repelled back to plate or suppressed by it. Thus the effect of secondary emission is
eliminated.
Q.6 Describe the phenomenon of avalanche and zener breakdown. Marks (4)
Ans: Avalanche Breakdown: The minority carriers, under reverse biased conditions, flowing
through the junction acquires a kinetic energy, which increases with the increase in
reverse voltage. At a sufficiently high reverse voltage (say 5v or more), the kinetic
energy of minority carriers becomes so large that they knock out electrons from the
covalent bonds of the semiconductor material. As a result of collision, the liberated
electrons in turn liberate more electrons and the current becomes very large leading the
breakdown of the crystal structure itself. This phenomenon is called Avalanche
Breakdown.
Zener Breakdown: Under a very high reverse voltage, the depletion region expands and
7
the potential barrier increases leading to a very high electric field (3X10 V/m) across the
junction. The electric field will break some of the covalent bonds of the semiconductor
reverse current. This is called the Zener effect. The breakdown occurs at a particular and
constant value of reverse voltage called the breakdown voltage.
Q.7 Sketch V-I characteristics of a zener diode. How are they determined in the laboratory ?
Marks (6)
Ans: Determination of Forward and Reverse Characteristics of a Zener Diode in the

laboratory:
Forward Characteristic of Zener diode: Connect the circuit shown in fig 7(a) using the
5.1 V zener diode. For forward characteristic, reverse the connection of the zener diode.
Switch on the variable dc power supply. Observe and record the voltage across
the diode for various values of currents say, 1 mA, 10 mA and 30 mA. The current can
be varied by varying the power supply voltage. Observe and record the corresponding
voltage too. It should be evident that the forward characteristic is similar to that of a
junction rectifier diode as shown in below fig.7 (b)
+
MILLIAMPERE (m A) I BARRIER
A F
(0-30 m A - RANGE) VOLTAGE
_
200 B
0-15 V
DC SUPPLY 100 Ω
_ 150
CHANNEL-1 100
50
A
V (VOLTS)
F
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Fig 7(a) circuit arrangement Fig 7(b) characteristic
15
Reverse Characteristic of a Zener diode: Reset the voltage to zero. Connect zener
diode as shown in fig.7(c) and the reverse characteristics are shown in fig. 7(d)
I (m A)
Z
7 5 3 1
-V (VOLTS)
F V
R SC 10
F
-1 V/DIV. 30
1Ω CH.1
50
_ Z1 70
R
SC 90
-20 mV/DIV.
1Ω CH.2 -I (m A)
Z
Fig.7(c) circuit arrangement Fig.7 (d) characteristics
Raise the voltage slowly and observe the current meter. Set the value of the zener
current of 1 mA, 2 mA, 5 mA, 10 mA, 20 mA, 30 mA and record the corresponding
voltage drop across the diode and plot the points on the graph.
The graph should show that very little current flows until the voltage has risen to a
value near the nominal voltage (5.1 V) of the zener diode. However, a very slight
increase in voltage causes a large current to flow. Once an appreciable current is flowing
in the diode, any alteration in that current will make little difference to the voltage. The
terminals to which voltmeter is connected will look like a source of voltage having a low
source resistance. This voltage may be referred to as the ‘zener voltage’ or the
avalanche voltage, (this being a reference to the physical process inside the
semiconductor).
Q.8 Can an ordinary diode be used as a zener diode? Justify your answer. Marks (4)
Ans: Ordinary diode cannot be used as a Zener diode, because the ordinary diodes are not
operated in the reverse bias breakdown region to avoid them from damaging. These
diodes are normally operated in forward region and never operated in reverse region,
since small signal and rectifier diode are never operated in breakdown (or reverse
region). Zener diode is a specially designed silicon diode, which is optimized to operate
in the breakdown region.
Q.9 What is meant by tunneling phenomenon? Marks (4)
Ans: Tunneling Phenomenon: A tunnel diode is a high conductivity two-terminal P-N junction
doped heavily about 1,000 times higher than a conventional junction diode. Because of
heavy doping depletion layer width is reduced to an extremely small value of the order of
-5
10 nm, reverse breakdown voltage is also reduced to a very small value (approaching
zero) resulting in appearance of the diode to be broken for any reverse voltage, and a
negative resistance section is produced. It is found that the reduced depletion layer can
result in carriers ‘punching through’ the junction with the velocity of light even when they
do not possess enough energy to overcome the potential barrier. The result is that large
forward current is produced at relatively low forward voltage (less than 100 mV). Such a
mechanism of conduction in which electrons (possessing very little energy) punch
through a barrier directly instead of climbing over it is called tunneling phenomenon.
16
Q.10 Draw the energy band diagrams of a tunnel diode for different biasing conditions and
Describe how tunneling takes place. Marks (6)
Ans: Band Diagrams of a Tunnel diode: The energy band diagram for a heavily doped
unbiased P-N junction is shown in fig. 10(a) Note that the depletion region is very narrow
and the filled levels on the N-side are exactly opposite those on the P-side. In this
condition, no tunneling occurs, as there are no empty lower energy levels to which
electrons from either side might cross the depletion region. It is also to be noted that the
conduction and the valence bands on p- side are (negatively) higher than those on the n-
side, this is due to the formation of the depletion region and barrier potential as a result of
electrons crossed from the n-region to the p-region. The n-region has lost negative
charge and p-region has gained them.
EMPTY CONDUCTION
CONDUCTION EMPTY CONDUCTION
ENERGY BAND
BAND ENERGY BAND
LEVELS
LEVELS
FORBIDDEN FORBIDDEN FORBIDDEN
E E E
G GAP GAP G GAP G
VALENCE FILLED VALENCE

BAND ENERGY BAND
LEVELS
FILLED
(a) Norm ally Doped P and ENERGY (b) Very Heavily Doped (c) Very Heavily Doped
N-Type Materials LEVELS P-Type Material N-Type Material
Fig. 10
When the junction is reversed biased, the p-region moves up with respect to the n-region
as a result, filled energy levels on the p- side become opposite empty energy levels on
the n-side. At this stage electrons tunnel through the narrow space charges region from
the higher energy levels on the p- side to the lower energy levels on the n- side. Despite
the fact that the junction is reverse biased significant current flows. With the increase in
reverse bias, more and more electrons tunnel from the p-side to n-side and a larger
current flow. Thus the reverse characteristic of a tunnel diode is liner, just like that of a
resistor.
When the tunnel diode is forward biased, its initial behaviour is similar to that
when it is reverse biased. Now, some of the filled energy levels on the n-side shift to a
high energy level than empty level on the p-side electron tunneling now occurs, from the
n-side to the p-side. With the increase in forward bias, more and more electrons tunnel
from the N-side to the P-side.
17
P-TYPE N-TYPE
MATERIAL MATERIAL
CONDUCTION
EMPTY DEPLETION
BAND
REGION
FORBIDDEN EMPTY
E CONDUCTION
GAP G
BAND
EMPTY
VALENCE
FORBIDDEN
BAND FILLED E
G GAP
VALENCE
BAND
FILLED FILLED
Q.11 Draw and discuss the volt-ampere characteristics of a tunnel diode. Marks (4)
Ans: Volt-ampere characteristics of a tunnel diode: The V-I characteristics of a tunnel diode
are shown in fig. 11(a) Forward bias produces immediate conduction as soon as forward
bias is applied, significant current is produced. The current attains quickly its peak value
Ip, when the applied forward bias attains a value of Vp volts. The current variation in the
vicinity of origin is due to quantum mechanical tunneling of electrons through narrow
space charge region of the junction. With the further increase in forward voltage, the
diode current starts decreasing till it attains its minimum value, called the valley current Iv
corresponding to valley voltage Vv. Thus from peak point A to valley point B the diode
current falls with the increase in voltage resulting in negative resistance in this region. In
fact this portion A B of the characteristic constitutes the most useful property of the diode.
In this region the diode, instead of absorbing power, produces power. So the tunnel
diode can be used as a very high frequency oscillator. For voltages higher than valley
voltage Vv current starts increasing as in any normal diode.
Fig. 11(a)
18
Q.12 Compare the merits and demerits of semiconductor diodes and vacuum diodes.
Marks (4)
Ans: Merits of Semiconductor Diode over Vacuum Diode:
(i) Smaller in size
(ii) Greater efficiency
(iii) Cheaper
(iv) Robust
Demerits of Semiconductor Diode over Vacuum Diode:
(i) It cannot withstand high reverse voltage
(ii) It cannot operate at fairly high temperatures.
Merits of Vacuum Diode over Semiconductor Diode:

(i) Vacuum Diodes can withstand high reverse voltages
(ii) Vacuum Diodes can operate at fairly high temperatures.
Demerits of Vacuum Diode over Semiconductor Diode:
(i) Bigger in size
(ii) Less efficiency
(iii) Expensive
Q.13 Explain the formation of a potential barrier in a p-n junction and show the polarity of the
Barrier potential.
Marks (6)
Ans: Formation of Potential Barrier in a P-N junction: The two types of extrinsic
semiconductors p-type and n-type are shown in fig. 13(a). The p-type semiconductor is
having negative acceptor ions and positively charged holes. Whereas, the n-type
semiconductor is having positive donor ions and negatively charged electrons.
P-TYPE
N-TYPE
SEMICONDUCTOR
HOLE SEMICONDUCTOR
-- - - - + + + +
ELECTRON
- - - - + + + +
POSITIVE
NEGATIVE DONOR IONS
ACCEPTOR IONS
Fig. 13(a)
When these two pieces are joined together and suitably treated, they from a pn
junction. The moment they form a pn junction, some of the conduction electrons from n-
type material diffuse over to the p-type material and undergo electron-hole recombination
with the holes available in the valence band. Simultaneously holes from p-type material
diffuse over to the n-type material and undergo hole-electron combination with the
electrons available in the conduction band. This process is called diffusion. In this
process, some of the free electrons move across the junction from n-type to p-type,
leaving behind positive donor ions as they are robbed of the free electrons. This
establishes a positive charge on the n-side of the junction.
19
Simultaneously, the free electrons which cross over the junction recombine with the
holes of p-type and uncover some of the negative acceptor ions as shown in fig. 13(b)
This establishes a negative charge on the p-side of the junction. This process of diffusion
continues till a sufficient number of donor and acceptor impurity ions are uncovered and
establish a requisite potential difference (i.e. nearly 0.3 V in case the pn junction is
formed of germanium semiconductor and 0.7 V for silicon pn junction). After this, further
diffusion is prevented because now positive charge on n-side repels holes to cross from
p-type to n-type and negative charge on p-side repels free electrons to enter from n-type
to p-type. Thus, a potential difference created across the junction acts as a barrier which
restricts further movement of charge carriers i.e. holes and electrons. This is called a
Potential Barrier or Junction Barrier Vo
NEGATIVELY POSITIVELY
CHARGED CHARGED
IONS Vo + IONS
P - N
- - - - + + + +
- - - - + + +
+
DEPLETION
LAYER
Vo
.
Fig. 13(b)
Q.14 Explain physically how a p-n junction functions as a rectifier. Marks (4)
Ans: When a P-N junction diode is forward-biased and the applied voltage is increased from
zero, hardly any current flows through the device in the beginning. It is so because the
external voltage is being opposed by the internal barrier voltage VB whose value is 0.7 V
for Silicon and 0.3 V for Ge. As soon as VB is neutralized, current through the diode
increases rapidly with increasing applied battery voltage. So, in forward bias condition,
the P-N junction diode behaves like a closed switch. When a P-N junction diode is
reverse biased, majority carriers are blocked and only a small current (due to minority
carriers) flows through the diode. It is of the order of nanoamperes (nA) for Si and
microamperes (µA) for Ge. For all practical purposes, this current is almost negligible.
So, in Reverse bias condition, the P-N junction diode behaves like an open switch. So,
the above discussion shows that the P-N junction functions as a rectifier.
20
Q.15 Compare CB and CE transistor configurations with regard to AC input and output
resistance.
Marks (6)
Ans: AC Input Resistance in Common Base Configuration: The ratio of change in emitter-
base voltage (∆VEB) to the resulting change in emitter current (∆IE) is known as input
resistance, i.e., at constant VCB
∆V EB
Ri = at constant VCB
∆I E
The value of input resistance Ri in CB configuration is very low. Its value further
decreases with the increase in collector-base voltage VCB. The typical value of input
resistance varies from a few ohms to 100 ohms.
AC Input Resistance in Common Emitter Configuration: The ratio of change in base-

emitter voltage ( ∆ VBE ) to the resulting change in base current ( ∆ IB) at constant
collector-emitter voltage (VCE) i.e.,
∆VBE
Ri = at constant VCE
∆I B
In CE configuration, the typical value of input resistance is of the order of a few hundred
ohms
AC Output Resistance in Common Base Configuration: The ratio of change in

collector-base voltage ( ∆ VCB) to the resulting change in collector current ( ∆ IC) at
constant emitter current (IE). i.e.,
∆VCB
RO = at constant IE
∆I C
The Output Resistance of CB configuration is very high, of the order of several tens of
kilo-ohms (≅
≅ 1 MΩ
Ω).
AC Output Resistance in Common Emitter Configuration: The ratio of change in

collector-emitter voltage (∆VCE) to the change in collector current (∆IC) at constant base
current IB, i.e.
∆V CE at constant IB
RO =
∆I C
The output resistance of CE configuration is less than the CB configuration. Its value is
of the order of 50 KΩ
Ω.
Q.16 Describe the operation of a transistor amplifier in CE configuration. Marks(4)
Ans: Operation of a Transistor Amplifier in CE configuration: A Common Emitter NPN

transistor is shown in fig. 16(a). When a signal is applied in the emitter-base junction,
during positive half cycle, the forward bias across this junction increases. This increases
the flow of electrons from emitter to collector via base and thus increases the collector
current. The increased collector current produces more voltage drop across the collector
load resistor RC. However, during negative half cycle of the signal, the forward bias
21
voltage across the emitter-base junction decreases. This decreases the collector current
which consequently decreases the voltage drop across the collector load resistor RC.
Hence, an amplified signal appears across the collector load resistor.
Fig. 16(a)
β dc
Q.17 Derive the relation : α dc = Marks (4)
1 + β dc
Ans: Relationship between α and β : The Beta factor (β) is the current gain factor of a
common emitter circuit is defined as the ratio of change in collector current (IC) to the
change in base current (IB) i.e.,
I C = β dc I B + I CO
I C ≅ β dc I B assuming ICO is very small
IC
or β dc =
IB
and the alpha factor (α) is also called the current amplification factor and is defined as the
ratio of change in collector current (IC) to the change in emitter current (IE) i.e.,
IC 1
α dc = =
IE I
1+ B
IC
1 β dc
= =
1
1+ 1 + β dc
β dc
Q.18 Discuss the similarities and differences between JFET and MOSFET with regard to
their construction and applications. Marks (7)
Ans: Similarities in Construction

(i) JFET is a three terminal semiconductor device(source, gate and drain) in which
current conduction is by majority carriers (electrons or holes), whereas MOSFET is also
a three terminal semiconductor device in which current conduction is by majority carriers.
(ii) JFET is Voltage Controllable Device (i.e., the gate terminal is used for controlling the
drain current whereas MOSFET is also a Voltage Controllable Device.
22
Differences in Construction:
(1) An N-channel JFET is shown in fig. 18(a). It consists of a thin N-type silicon bar with
two islands of P-type semiconductor material embedded in the sides, thus forming two
PN junctions. Whereas in N-channel Depletion MOSFET, there is only one p-region
instead of two. This region is known as substrate. The two P-regions are embedded in it
as shown in fig. 18(b)
Fig. 18(a)
METALLIZATION
LAYER
SOURCE GATE DRAIN
S G D
SiO DIELECTRIC LAYER

2
+
N
N N +
DIFFUSED CHANNEL
P-TYPE SUBSTRATE
Fig. 18(b) N-CHANNEL DEPLETION MODE STRUCTURE
(2) In N-channel JFET, the two p regions are connected with each other (externally or
internally) and are called gate (G). Ohmic contacts are made at the two ends of the N-
type semiconductor bar. One terminal known as the source (S) through which the
majority carriers (electrons in this case) enter the bar. The other terminal as the drain (D)
through which these majority carriers leave the bar. But in MOSFET, over the left side of
the channel, a thin layer of metal oxide (usually silicon dioxide) is deposited. A metallic
Gate is deposited over the silicon dioxide .The gate is insulated from the semiconductor
since silicon dioxide is an insulator. That is why MOSFET is also known as Insulated
Gate FET. Like JFET, ohmic contacts are made at the two ends (Drain and Source) of
the N-type semiconductor bar.
(3) Since the gate is insulated from the channel by a thin layer of silicon dioxide, the
4 9
input impedance of MOSFET is very high (of the order of 10 to 10 MΩ) whereas the
input impedance of JFET is 100MΩ as for a reverse biased pn junction.
(4) Unlike the JFET, a MOSFET has no gate diode, it forms a capacitor. The capacitor
has gate and channel as electrodes and the oxide layer is dielectric. Because of this
property, the device can be operated with negative as well as positive gate voltages.
23
Applications of JFET:
FET is used as a
(1) Buffer amplifier
(2) Low Noise Amplifier
(3) Cascaded Amplifier
(4) Analog Switch
(5) Chopper
(6) Phase Shift Oscillator circuits
(7) Voltage Variable Resistors in Operational Amplifiers and tone controls
etc.,
(8) For Mixer operation on FM and TV receivers
Applications of MOSFET: MOSFETs can also be used for most applications where
JFET is used. MOSFETs have become very popular for digital logic circuits due to high
density of fabrication and low power dissipation.
(1) MOSFET is used in Sample and Hold circuit as a switch.
(2) P-MOSFET and N-MOSFET are used in digital logic circuits
(3) C-MOSFET is very popular in fabricating of MSI and LSI technology.
Q.19 Draw a single stage amplifier circuit using JFET and explain the purpose of each
component Used. Marks (7)
Ans: The circuit of a Single Stage Common Source N-channel JFET amplifier using self
bias is shown in fig. 19(a)
+V DD
RL
ID CC
D
C in
G
V DS
OUTPUT
+
INPUT S
SIGNAL RG
RS CS
Fig. 19(a)
The purposes of these components are described below:-
Input Capacitor Cin: An ac signal is supplied to the gate of the FET through an
electrolytic capacitor called input capacitor Cin. This capacitor allows only ac signal enter
the gate but isolates the signal source from RG. If this capacitor is not used, the signal
source resistance will come across the resistor RG and thus changing the biasing
conditions.
Biasing Network (Rs and Cs): The JFET is self-biased by using the biasing network Rs-
Cs. The desired bias voltage is obtained when d.c. component of drain current flows
through the source-biasing resistor Rs. Whereas, the capacitor Cs bypasses the a.c.
component of drain current.
Resistor RG: Resistor RG provides d.c. path for reverse-biasing of gate-source junction
24
Coupling Capacitor (Cc): It is an electrolytic capacitor used to couple one stage of

amplification to the next stage or load. It allows only amplified ac signal to pass to the
other side but blocks the dc voltage. If this capacitor is not used, the biasing conditions
of the next stage will be drastically changed due to the shunting effect of Rd.
Q.20 Explain the principle of operation of any one type of MOSFET. Marks (6)
Ans: Operating Principle of N-channel Enhancement MOSFET: Operating principle of N-

channel Enhancement MOSFET is shown in fig. 9(a). When drain is applied with positive
voltage with respect to source and no potential is applied to the gate, two N-regions and
one P-substrate form P-N junctions connected back to back with a resistance of the P-
substrate. So a very small drain current i.e., a reverse leakage current flows. If the P-
type substrate is now connected to the source terminal, there is zero voltage across the
source substrate junction, and the drain-substrate junction remains reverse biased.
Fig. 9(a)
When the gate is made positive with respect to the source and the substrate, negative
(i.e. minority) charge carriers within the substrate are attracted to the positive gate and
accumulate close to the surface of the substrate. As the gate voltage is increased, more
and more electrons accumulate under the gate. Since these electrons cannot flow
across the insulated layer of silicon dioxide to the gate, so they accumulate at the surface
of the substrate just below the gate. These accumulated minority charge carriers make
N-type channel stretching from drain to source. When this occurs, a channel is induced
by forming what is termed an inversion layer (n-type). The n-type drain and gate are now
connected by the n-type channel and the current can flow from drain to source.
Q.21 Draw the three configurations in which a transistor may be connected showing battery
Connections for each. Marks (4)
Ans: Three Configurations (CB, CC, CE) :
IE IC I E IC
INPUT RC INPUT RC
OUTPUT OUTPUT
SIGNAL IB SIGNAL I B
_ + _ + _ _
V V V EE V
EE CB CB
Common Base circuit of npn transistor Common Base circuit of pnp transistor
25
I E I E
RC RC
OUTPUT OUTPUT
_
IB IB
_
INPUT INPUT
SIGNAL IC SIGNAL IC
+ _ _ +
Common collector circuit of npn transistor Common collector circuit of pnp transistor
IC
IC
IB
IB RC
RC OUTPUT
OUTPUT
INPUT
INPUT
SIGNAL SIGNAL
IE IE
+ _ + _
_
_
V BB V CC V BB V CC
Common emitter circuit of npn transistor Common emitter circuit of pnp transistor
Q.22 What are the advantages of ICs over conventional circuits? Marks (4)
Ans: Advantages of Integrated Circuits (ICs) over conventional circuits:
(1) Extremely small size- thousand times smaller than discrete circuit.
(2) Very small weight owing to miniaturized circuit.
(3) Very low cost because of simultaneous production of hundred of similar circuits
on a small semiconductor wafer.
(4) More reliable because of elimination of soldered joints and need for fewer inter-
connections.
(5) Low power consumption because of their smaller size.
(6) Easy replacement as it is more economical to replace them than to repair them
(7) Increased operating speeds because of parasitic capacitance effect.
(8) Improved functional performance as more complex circuits can be fabricated for
achieving better characteristics.
(9) Suitable for small signal operation.
Q.23 What are different characteristics of an ideal operational amplifier? Marks (4)
Ans: Characteristics of an ideal Operational Amplifier:

(1) Infinite voltage gain A
26
(2) Infinite input resistance Ri so that almost any signal source can drive it and there
is no loading of the preceding stage.
(3) Zero output resistance Ro, so that output can drive an infinite number of other
devices.
(4) Zero output voltage when input voltage is zero.
(5) Infinite bandwidth so that any frequency signals from 0 to ∝ HZ can be amplified
without attenuation.
(6) Infinite common-mode rejection ratio, so that the output common-mode noise
voltage is zero.
(7) Infinite slew rate so that output voltage changes occur simultaneously with input
voltage changes.
Q.24 Explain the significance of virtual ground in an operational amplifier? Marks (4)
Ans: Significance of Virtual Ground: Fig. 24(a) shows the circuit diagram of basic Inverting
Amplifier. In this figure, the non-inverting terminal is grounded, and the input signal is
applied to the inverting terminal via resistor R1. However, the difference input voltage is
ideally zero: that is, the voltage at the inverting terminal (v2) is approximately equal to that
at the non-inverting terminal (v1).
In other words, the inverting terminal voltage v2 is approximately at ground potential.
Therefore, the inverting terminal is said to be at Virtual Ground. This concept is extremely
useful in the analysis of closed loop Op-amp circuits.
R1 V2 RF
+V CC
+
-
V in V
1 _
_ +
- V EE Vo RL
Fig.24(a) Inverting Amplifier with Feedback
Q.25 How do you use operational amplifier as differentiator and adder/subtractor. Marks (6)
Ans: Fig. 25(a) shows the differentiator or differentiation amplifier. As its name implies, the
circuit performs the mathematical operation of differentiation; that is, the output waveform
is the derivative of the input waveform. The differentiator may be constructed from a
basic inverting amplifier, if an input resistor R1 is replaced by a capacitor C1.
The expression for the output voltage can be obtained from Kirchoff’s current equation
written at node v2 as follows:
iC = iB + iF
Since IB ≅ 0,
IC = iF
d V −V
C1 (V in − V 2 ) = 2 o
dt RF
27
But v1 = v2 ≅ 0 V, because A is very large. Therefore,

dVin V
C1 =− o
dt RF
dV in
Vo = − R F C1
dt
Thus the output vo is equal to the RF C1 times the negative instantaneous rate of change
of the input voltage vin with time.
C V R
1 2 F
i i
C F +V
IB2 ≅ 0 CC
+
V -
in
V1
dvin
_
351 vo = − RF C1
+ dt
-V
EE R
ROM = RF L
I B1 ≅ 0
Fig. 25(a) Op-amp as Differentiator
Inverting Summing Amplifier: Fig.25(b) shows the inverting summing amplifier. It is

a inverting configuration with three inputs Va, Vb and Vc. Depending on the relationship
between the feedback resistor RF and the input resistors Ra, Rb, and Rc, the circuit can be
used as a summing amplifier.
Ra V2 RF
+V a
Ia IF
Rb
+V b
Ib I =0
Rc B
2 +V CC
+V c -
Ic V1 741 V
o
+
+V EE
I =0
B
1
R = (R II R II R II R ) RL
OM a b c F
Fig. 25(b) Op-amp as Summing Amplifier
The circuit’s function can be verified by examining the expression for the output voltage
Vo, which is obtained from Kirchoff’s current equation written at node V2. Referring to the
fig. 25(b)
28
Ia + Ib + Ic = IB + IF
Since Ri and A of the op-amp are ideally infinity, IB = 0 A and V1 = V2 ≅ 0 V

Va Vb Vc V
+ + = o
Ra Rb RC RF
Va Vb Vc
Vo = − R F + +
Ra Rb RC
If in the circuit 25(b), Ra = Rb = Rc = R, for example then the above equation can be
written as
Vo = - (Va + Vb + Vc)
This means that the output voltage is equal to the negative sum of all the inputs times the
gain of the circuit RF/R; hence the circuit is called a summing amplifier, Obviously, when
the gain of the circuit is 1, that is Ra = Rb = Rc = RF, the output voltage is equal to the
negative sum of all input voltages. Thus
Vo = -(Va + Vb + Vc)
Op-amp as a Subtractor: A basic differential amplifier can be used as a subtractor as

shown in fig. 25(c) In this figure, all external resistors are equal in value, so the gain of
the amplifier is equal to 1.
R2
+V CC
R1
-
V
o
+
+
V R1
a
_ - V EE
+
V R2
b
_
Fig.25 (c) Op-amp as Subtractor
From the figure.25(c), the output voltage of the differential amplifier with a gain of 1 is
 − R2   R2  R2 
VO = Va   + Vb  1 + 
 R1   R1 + R2  R1 
R2
or Vo = − (Va − Vb )
R1
Thus the output voltage Vo is equal to the voltage applied to the non-inverting terminal Vb
minus the voltage Va applied to the inverting terminal; hence the circuit is called a
subtractor.
29
Q.26 Describe the construction and working of UJT. Marks (6)
Ans: Construction of UJT: The basic structure of a UJT is shown in fig. 26(a). It consists of
an n-type silicon bar, which is lightly doped. Two end connections are taken from the bar
called base-one (B1) and base-two (B2). A heavily doped p-type region is diffused to n-
type nearer to B2.
This forms a pn junction with the bar as shown in fig.11(a). A lead is connected to p-
region called emitter (E). The schematic symbol of UJT is shown in fig. 26(b)
BASE 2 B2
n-TYPE B AR
EMITTER p E
n
p-TYPE
REGION
B1
BASE 1
Fig. 26(a) Fig.26(b)

Working: Make the circuit arrangement as shown in fig.26(c), where the UJT is
represented by its equivalent circuit consisting of resistances RB1, RB2 and a diode D.
Normally, B2 is kept positive with respect to B1. A variable positive voltage is supplied to
the emitter through a switch S.
R
B2
D
V
S _ BB
VD
VE R
_ B1 V =η V
1 BB
Fig. 26(c)
(i) When the emitter circuit is closed through switch S but the emitter voltage is reduced
to zero, and a voltage VBB is applied between the two bases, then a voltage gradient is
established along the n-type bar. This sets up a voltage V1 = VBB between emitter
30
junction and B1 which is more than half the value of VBB as the value of intrinsic stand-off
ratio (η) lies between 0.51 to 0.8. This voltage establishes a reverse bias on the pn
junction and the emitter current is cut-off.
(ii) When a +ve voltage is applied at the emitter, the pn junctio n will remain reverse
biased so long as the input emitter voltage is less than V1(=η VBB).
If the input voltage applied to the emitter is increased, a stage reaches when it exceeds
V1 by VD i.e. VE = V1 + VD. This will bring the pn junction in forward biased condition. At
this stage, p-type material injects holes into the n-type bar. These holes are repelled by
positive B2 terminal and are attracted towards negative B1 terminal of the bar.
This accumulation of holes in the emitter to B1 region decreases the resistance of this
section (i.e. RB1) of the bar. This results internal voltage drop from emitter to B1 and
consequently increases the emitter current IE. This process goes on and eventually a
condition of saturation is reached. This is a stage where the emitter current is limited by
only emitter power. The device is now said to be in the ON state.
(iii) The device can be brought to the OFF state, if a negative pulse is applied to the
emitter. Under this condition, the pn junction is reverse biased and the emitter current is
cut-off.
Q.27 Define the term intrinsic stand-off ration in UJT. Marks (4)
Ans: Intrinsic Stand-off Ratio: The equivalent circuit of a UJT is shown in fig.27 (a). The
emitter diode forms the junction of two internal resistances RB1 and RB2 connected in
series. Where
RB1 = resistance of silicon bar between B1 and emitter junction.
and RB2= resistance of silicon bar between B2 and emitter junction.
Here, interbase resistance is given as:
RBB = RB1 + RB2
B B2
2
R
B2 R
B2
D
D
E V
E BB
DIODE _
OPEN DIODE
R
B1 R V
B1 1
B
1
B
1
Fig.27(a) Fig.27(b)
The pn junction is represented as a diode D in the emitter as shown in figure. If a voltage

VBB is applied between the bases with emitter open (see fig..27(b), the circuit will behave
as a potential divider. Thus, VBB will be divided across RB1 and RB2 and the voltage
across RB1 is
RB 1
V1 = × VBB (or)
R B1 + R B 2
31
V1 RB 1
=
VBB RB 1 + R B 2
This ratio V1/VBB is called intrinsic stand-off ratio and is represented by Greek letter η
(eta).
hence,
RB 1 R
η= = B1
RB1 + RB 2 RBB
The typical range of η is from 0.51 to 0.8.
Q.28 Draw and discuss the static emitter characteristics of UJT. Marks (4)
Ans: The static emitter characteristics of a UJT is shown in fig. 28(a)

(i) When VE is zero and a given voltage VBB is applied across the bases i.e., B2 and B1,
the emitter junction is reverse biased and the UJT is in the cut-off region. A slight
leakage current flows from terminal B2 to emitter due to minority carriers. This current is
just a reverse current as it is shown in the figure. 28(a)
(ii) As emitter voltage VE increases from zero, only leakage (reverse) current flows upto a
certain value of VE.
(iii) Above a certain value of VE, forward emitter current IE begins to flow. This increase in
voltage and current goes on until peak point P is achieved where voltage and current are
VP (peak voltage) and IP (peak current).
VP = V1 + VD = η VBB + VD = η VBB + 0.7 (since for Si, VD = 0.7V)
(iv) After the peak point P, an attempt to increase VE is followed by a sudden rise in
emitter current IE with a corresponding fall in VE. This shows the negative resistance
behaviour of the device.
(v) This behaviour of the device continues until the valley point V is achieved. At this
point, the emitter voltage is called valley-point voltage VV and the emitter current is called
valley-point current IV.
(vi) The region between peak point and valley point is called negative resistance region.
Fig. 28(a)
32
Q.29 Explain the constructional details and various types of thermistors Marks (8)
Ans: Construction Details of Thermistors: Silicon and germanium are not normally used for
manufacturing thermistors, because larger and more predictable temperature coefficients
are available with metal oxides. Modern thermistors are manufactured from the oxides of
metals like manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron, zinc, aluminium, titanium,
magnesium and uranium. These oxides or their sulphides and silicates are milled, mixed
in appropriate proportion, pressed into desired shape with appropriate binders and finally
sintered. The electrical terminals are embedded before sintering or baked afterwards.
The resistance of the thermistors at room temperature of 25˚C varies over a wide range,
from several hundred ohms to mega ohms. Because of their high resistance they can be
manufactured in very small sizes in the form of beads, discs and rods.
Various types of Thermistors are shown in fig. 29:
GLASS COATED GLASS
LEAD WIRES LEAD WIRES
(a) Bead (b) probe
LEAD WIRES
(c) Disc (d) Washer
LEAD WIRES
(e) Rod
Fig. 29 Commercial Forms of Thermistors
Q.30 Draw the characteristics of both NTC and PTC thermistors and explain their salient
features and one use of each. Marks (6)
Ans: Characteristics of NTC and PTC Thermistors: Characteristics of NTC thermistors and
PTC thermistors is shown in fig.30(a) and fig.30(b)
33
SPECIFIC RESISTANCE - (ohm - cm, 3

8 THE RESISTANCE BETW EEN FACES OF 1 cm OF THE MATERIAL)
10
6
10
4
10
No.1 Fenwal Electronics
2
10 Thermistor Material
0
10
2
10
4
10
6
10
O
-100 0 100 200 300 400 TEMPERATURE C
o
20
Fig.30(a)Characteristic of NTC thermistor
0.25
0.20
0.15
2
P (ohm - mm /m)
0.10
0.05
0 400 800 1200 1600

O
T ( C)
Fig.30(b) Characteristic of PTC thermistor
Features of NTC thermistors:

• An NTC thermistor has a smooth negative-resistance characteristics extending
over a wide temperature range.
• They are semiconductors of ceramic materials.
• They are available in various configurations like beads, glass probes, discs,
washers, etc.,
• The beads are available in sizes varying from 2.5 mm to 0.2 mm diameter.
• Beads have small size, high precision and stability
• Glass probes are easily mounted on PCB. Dimensions (standard) of discs are
from 2.5 mm to 25 mm in dia, and 0.35 mm to 5 mm in thickness.
• Washers have a hole in the center so that they can be mounted on bolt and
standard size is 16 mm in diameter.
34
• Washers may be connected either in series or in parallel.

• The washers have high power dissipating capabilities.
Uses: They are used as temperature sensors or temperature compensating devices
in the fields of medical electronics and other industries.
Features of PTC thermistors:
• A PTC thermistor has a positive-resistance characteristics extending over a
narrow temperature range.
• They are manufactured from doped polycrystalline and semi conducting barium
titanate. Powdered mixture is raised to approx. 1200 degrees C from which
pellets are made by pressing.
• PTC thermistors have a very narrow temperature range over which they can be
used.
• As the temperature is raised, the resistivity of PTC thermistor increases
abruptly above a certain critical temperature called the Curie temperature.
Uses: They are used for measurement and control of temperature, liquid level and
. gas flow etc.
Q.31 Explain how a Zener diode can be used as voltage regulator. Marks (8)
Ans: Zener diode as a Voltage Regulator: It provides a constant voltage to the load from a
source whose voltage may vary over sufficient range. Fig.31(a) shows the circuit
arrangement. The zener diode of zener voltage Vz is reverse connected across the load
RL across which constant voltage (Vo = Vz) is desired. A resistor R is connected in series
with the circuit which absorbs the input voltage fluctuations so as to maintain constant
voltage (Vo) across the load. Let a variable voltage Vin be applied to the regulator. When
the value of Vin is less than Zener voltage Vz of the zener diode, no current flows through
it and the same voltage appears across the load. When the input voltage Vin is more than
VZ, this will cause the Zener diode to conduct a large current IZ.
+
R I
+
IZ
DC
V (VARIABLE) R Vo
SUPPLY in V L
Z
_
_
Fig. 31(a)
Consequently, more current flows through series resistor R which increases the voltage
drop across it. Thus, the input voltage excess of Vz (i.e. Vin – Vz_) is absorbed by the
series resistor. Hence a constant voltage V0 (=Vz) is maintained across the load RL.
When the load resistance RL decreases for constant input voltage Vin, load current IL
increases. This additional current is not supplied from the source of supply but the
demand of additional load current is met by decrease in Zener current Iz.
This keeps the voltage drop across series resistance R constant and also the output
voltage Vout. The diode current Iz attains its maximum Izmax when load current IL becomes
zero. Thus the value of series resistor R can be determined from the equation
35
Vin − Vout
R=
I z max
Q.32 Draw the circuits to obtain the input and output characteristics of an NPN transistor
in CE configuration. Marks (10)
Ans: Characteristics of NPN Transistor in Common-Emitter configuration: To determine

the characteristics of a NPN transistor in CE configuration, the circuit arrangement as
shown in fig. 32(a)
Milli Am m eter
IC
Micro Am m eter _ +
IB
+ _
+
+ V CE V
+ _ V CC
V V V BE _
BB
_ _ IE
Fig. 32(a)
Input Characteristics: In CE configuration, the curve plotted between base current IB
and base-emitter voltage VBE at constant collector-emitter voltage VCE is called Input
Characteristics.
To draw the input characteristic, note down the readings of Ammeter (IB)
connected in the base circuit for various values of VBE at constant VCE. Plot the curve on
the graph taking IB along y-axis and VBE along x-axis as shown in fig.32(b) The following
points are noted from these characteristics:
I ( µ A)
B
V =2V
CE
V =6V
CE
70
V = 10 V
CE
60 ∆ I
B P
50
40
30
20 ∆ V
BE
10
0 V (VOLTS)
0.5 1.0 BE
Fig.32(b)
36
(i) These curves are similar like a forward diode characteristics. IB increases less
rapidly with increase in VBE.
(ii)The change in VCE does not result in a large deviation of the curves and hence, the
effect of change in VCE on the input characteristic is ignored for all practical purposes.
Output Characteristics: In CE configuration, the curve plotted between collector current

IC and collector-emitter voltage VCE at constant base current IB is called output
characteristic.
(i) In the active region, Ic increases slightly as VCE increases. The slope of the curve
is little bit more than the characteristics of CB configuration. Hence, the output
resistance (ro) of this configuration is less compared to CB configuration.
(ii)Since the value of Ic increases with the increase in VCE at constant IB, the value of
β also increases since β = IC/IB
(iii) When VCE falls below the value of VBE (i.e. below a few tenths of a volt.), Ice
decreases rapidly. In fact, at this stage, the collector-base junction is also forward
biased and the transistor works in the saturation region. In the saturation region, Ic
becomes independent and it does not depend upon the input current IB.
(iv) In the active region, IC = β IB. Hence, a small change in base-current IB produces
a large change in output current (IC)
(v) When input current IB = 0, the collector current IC is not zero but its value is equal
to the reverse leakage current ICEO (i.e. collector emitter current when base is open).
Q.33 Mention the applications of CE, CB and CC configurations of BJT’s Marks(4)
Ans: Applications of CE configuration of BJT:

(i) CE amplifier is used in audio frequency applications like Radio receivers, Tape
recorders, TV receivers, FM receivers, etc.
(ii) CE amplifier is used in Oscillators.
Applications of CB configuration of BJT:

(i) To provide Voltage gain without Current gain: CB amplifier
provides voltage gain without increasing the value of ciruit current gain
(ii) For impedance matching in High Frequency Applications: It matches the low
impedance source and high impedance load in order to have a maximum power
transfer between source &load
37
Applications of CC configuration of BJT:

(i) To provide current amplification with no voltage gain: In digital
Electronics, where an increase in current is required but no increase in voltage is
needed. In such situation CC configuration can be used.
(ii) Impedance Matching: It matches the high impedance source and
low impedance load in order to have a maximum transfer between source and load.
Q.34 Differentiate between FET and BJT transistors. Marks (4)
Ans Differences between FET and BJT Transistors:

(i) FET operation depends upon the flow of majority carriers only, it is
therefore, a uni-polar (current conduction is due to one type of carriers either
electrons or holes) device. On the other hand, the current conduction in BJT is due
to both majority and minority carriers, it is therefore a bipolar device.
(ii) FET has high input impedance (of the order of 100 Megaohms), because its input
circuit (gate to source) is reverse biased, and so permits high degree of isolation
between the input and output circuits. On the other hand, BJT has low input
impedance, because its input circuit is forward biased.
(iii) FET carries very small current because of reverse biased gate and input voltage
controls the output current. This is the reason that FET is essentially a voltage
driven device. BJT carries high current because of forward biased and it is a current
operated device, since input current controls the output current.
(iv) BJT uses a current into its base for controlling a large current between collector
and emitter whereas in a FET, voltage on the gate terminal is used for controlling the
drain current (current between drain and source. Thus an ordinary transistor, gain is
characterized by current gain whereas the FET gain is characterized as the
transconductance.
(v) FET has no junction like BJT and the conduction is through bulk material current
carriers (N-type or P-type semiconductor material) that do not cross junctions. Hence
the inherent noise of BJT (owing to junction transitions) is not present in FET
(vi) FET has small gain-bandwidth product, low voltage gain in comparision to BJT.
Q.35 Explain the constructional features, principle of operation and characteristics of

N-channel JFET. Marks (10)
Ans: Constructional Features of N- Channel JFET: In a N-channel JFET, an N-type silicon

bar referred to as the channel, has two smaller pieces of P-type silicon material diffused
on the opposite sides of its middle part, forming P-N junctions, as illustrated in fig.35.1
Fig. 35.1
38
The two P-N junctions forming diodes or gates are connected internally and a common
terminal, called the gate terminal is brought out. Ohmic contacts (direct electrical
connections) are made at the two ends of the channel – one lead is called the source
terminal (S) through which the majority carriers (electrons) enter the bar and the other
drain terminal (D) through which the majority carriers leave the bar which is shown in
fig. 35(b)
Fig. 35.2
Principle of Operation of N-Channel JFET:

The circuit diagram of an N-channel JFET with normal polarities is shown in fig.35.3
Fig. 35.3
When a voltage VDS is applied across the drain and source terminals and voltage
applied across the gate and source VGS is zero (i.e. gate circuit is open) as shown in
above fig.3 5.3(a), the two PN junctions establish a very thin depletion layer. Thus a large
amount of electrons will flow from source to drain through a wide channel formed
between the two depletion layers. When a reverse voltage VGS is applied across the gate
and source as shown in above fig. 35.3(b), the width of the depletion layer is increased.
This reduces the width of the conducting channel thereby decreasing the conduction
(flow of electrons) through it. Thus the current flowing from source to drain depends
upon the width of the conducting channel which depends upon the thickness of depletion
layer. The thickness of depletion layer established by the two PN junctions depends upon
the voltage applied across the gate-source terminal. Hence, it is clear that the current
from source to drain can be controlled by the application of potential (i.e. electric field) on
the gate. That is why, the device is called Field Effect Transistor.
Characteristics of N-Channel JFET: A curve drawn between drain current (ID) and
drain-source voltage (VDS) of a JFET at constant gate-source voltage (VGS) is known as
output characteristics of the JFET are shown in below fig.35.4
(i) At the initial stage, the drain current ID increases rapidly with the increase in drain
source voltage VDS but then becomes almost constant. This voltage is called pinch-
off voltage.
(ii) After pinch off voltage, the depletion layers almost touch each other and the
conduction channel becomes very narrow. Therefore, the increase in drain current ID
is very small with the increase in drain-source voltage VDS. Thus, the drain current
almost becomes constant.
39
(iv) Further increase in drain-source voltage VDS eventually causes the avalanche
breakdown across the reverse-biased gate junction and the current ID shoots to
a very high value.
Fig. 35.4
Q.36 Write short notes on any Two of the following: Marks (2 X 7 =14)
(i) Operation of a Uni junction Transistor (UJT) and its uses.
(ii) FET used as a switch and its limitations.
(iii) Differential amplifier. Explain also CMRR.
Ans: UJT: A uni-junction transistor(UJT) is a three terminal semiconductor device having two
doped regions. In the three terminals, it has emitter (E) and two bases (B1and B2). This
device has only one pn junction, therefore, naming it a ‘transistor’ is really misnomer.
However, from the outer look (packages), it resembles to a bipolar transistor and hence
the name uni-junction transistor. This device has a unique characteristic that when it is
triggered, the emitter current increases regeneratively until it is limited by the emitter
power supply.
Construction: The Structure and symbol of UJT are shown in fig. 36.1(a) UJT consists
of an n-type silicon bar which is lightly doped. Two ends connections are taken from the
bar called base-one (B1)and base-two (B2). A heavily doped p-type region is diffused to
n-type bar nearer to B2.
BASE 2 B2
n-TYPE B AR
EMITTER p E
n
p-TYPE
REGION
B1
BASE 1
Fig. 36.1(a) Fig.36.1(b)
40
Working: Make the circuit arrangement as shown in fig. 36.1(b) Normally, B2 is kept
positive w.r.t B1. A variable positive voltage is supplied to the emitter through a switch
(i)When the emitter circuit is closed through a switch S but the emitter voltage is reduced
to zero. This voltage establishes a reverse bias on the pn junction and the emitter current
is cut-off.
(ii) When a +ve voltage is applied at the emitter, the p-n junction will remain reverse
biased so long as the input emitter voltage is less than V1 (=η VBB). If the input voltage
applied to the emitter is increased, a stage reaches when it exceeds V1 by VD i.e. VE = V1
+ VD. This will bring the p-n junction in forward biased condition.
At this stage, p-type material injects holes into the n-type bar. These holes are repelled
by positive B2 terminal and are attracted towards negative B1 terminal of the bar. This
accumulation of holes in the emitter to B1 region decreases and the resistance of this
section (i.e. RB1) of the bar. This results internal voltage drop from emitter to B1 and
consequently increases the emitter current IE. This process goes on and eventually a
condition of saturation is reached. This is a stage where the emitter current is limited by
only emitter power. The device is now said to be in the ON state.
R
B2
D
V
S _ BB
VD
VE R
_ B1 V =η V
1 BB
Fig. 36.2
Applications of UJT:
(i)Relaxation Oscillator
(ii)Pulse generators
(iii)Saw-tooth generators
(iv)Triggering circuits
(v)Phase control
(vi)Timing circuits.
Q.36(ii) FET as a switch: The circuit diagram of an N-channel FET with normal polarities is
shown in fig. 36.3
41
Fig. 36.3
above fig. 36.3(a), the two PN junctions establish a very thin depletion layer. Thus a large
between the two depletion layers. In this condition, FET acts like a closed switch.
When a reverse voltage VGS is applied across the gate and source as shown in
above fig.36.3(b), the width of the depletion layer is increased. This reduces the width of
the conducting channel thereby decreasing the conduction (flow of electrons) through it.
In this condition, FET acts like an open switch. Thus the current flowing from source to
drain depends upon the width of the conducting channel which depends upon the
thickness of depletion layer. The thickness of depletion layer established by the two PN
junctions depends upon the voltage applied across the gate-source terminal.
Limitation of FET:
(i) It has relative small gain-bandwidth product
(ii) Greater susceptibility to damage in its handling.
(iii) It has low voltage gain, because of small tansconductance
Q36.(iii)Fig.36.4 shows the open-loop differential amplifier in which input signal Vin1 and Vin2 are
applied to the positive and negative input terminals. Since the op-amp amplifies the
difference between the two input signals, this configuration is called the differential
amplifier.
Op-amp is a versatile device because it amplifies both ac and dc input signals.
This means that Vin1 and Vin2 could be either ac or dc voltages. The source resistances
Rin1 and Rin2 are normally negligible compared to the input resistance Ri. Therefore, the
voltage drops across these resistors can be assumed to be zero, which then implies that
V1 = Vin1 and V2 = Vin2, then the output voltage is given by
Vo = A (Vin1 – Vin2)
Thus, the output voltage is equal to the voltage gain A times the difference between the
two input voltages. Also, the polarity of the output voltage is dependent on the polarity of
the input difference voltages (Vin1 – Vin2). In open-loop configurations, gain A is
commonly referred to as Open-loop Gain.
42
+V
V CC
1
-
V A
id
+ V = A(V - V )
V2 o in1 in2
-V
EE
R R R ≥ 2KOHMS
in1 in2 L
+
signal V V
in1 in2 signal
source _ _ source
Fig. 36.4
CMRR: Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) is defined as the ability of a differential

amplifier to reject common-mode voltages such as electrical noise (or) it is also defined
as the ratio of the differential voltage gain Ad to the common-mode voltage gain Acm; that
is,
Ad
CMRR =
Acm
The differential voltage gain Ad is the same as the large-signal voltage gain A and the
common voltage gain Acm is given by
Vocm
Acm =
Vcm
Where Vocm = output common-mode voltage
Vcm = input common-mode voltage
Acm = common-mode voltage gain
Generally the Acm is very small and Ad = A is very large; therefore, the CMRR is very
large. Being a large value, CMRR is most often expressed in decibels (dB). The higher
the value of CMRR, the better is the matching between two input terminals and the
smaller is the output common-mode voltage.
Q.37 Explain the principle of operation of LED and mention the materials used for it.
Marks (7)
Ans: Principle of operation of LED: The operation of Light Emitting Diode (LED) is based on
the phenomenon of electro-luminance, which is the emission of light from semiconductor
under the influence of an electric field.
43
__
P N +
Structure Schematic Diagram Schematic Symbol

Fig. 37.1
When a P-N junction diode is forward biased, as shown in fig. 37.1, the potential
barrier is lowered. The conduction band free electrons from N-region cross the barrier
and enter the P-region. As these electrons enter the P-region, they fall into the holes
lying in the valence band. Hence they fall from higher energy level to a lower energy
level. In the process, they radiate energy. In the ordinary diodes (rectifier and signal
diodes), this energy radiates in the form of heat as these diodes are made of silicon or
germanium which are opaque materials and block the passage of light.
Materials used for LED’s:

(i) GaAs (Gallium Arsenide) emit invisible infra red light
(ii) GaAsP(Gallium Arsenide Phosphide) emit either red or yellow light
(iii) GaP (Gallium Phosphide) emits either red or green light.
So, the above materials radiate energy in the form light (or photons) and hence they glow.
Q.38 Explain the constructional features, operation and characteristics of SCR.

Marks (10)
Ans: Constructional Features of Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR): An SCR is a pnpn

semiconductor device consisting of three pn junctions J, J2, and J3 as shown in fig. 38.1
and its symbol is shown in fig.38.2. It is as if an ordinary diode (PN) and a transistor
(NPN) are combined in one unit. Three terminals are taken; one from the outer P-type
material called Anode (A), second from the outer N-type material called Cathode (K) and
the third from the other P-type material placed in between and called Gate (G). .
(G)
GATE
(G)
J1 J2 J3
ANODE CATHODE (A) (K)
p n p n
(A) (K)
Fig.38.1 Fig.38.2
Operation of an SCR:
Action of Anode voltage: An SCR circuit shown in fig.38.3 and 38.4, where anode is
made positive with respect to cathode and the gate voltage is kept at zero. With the
application of this voltage, the junctions J1 and J3 are forward biased, whereas junction J2
is reverse biased. Hence, the flow of current in the circuit is blocked i.e. the SCR is cut
off. However, if anode to cathode voltage V is increased, a stage is reached when J2
cannot withstand this high reverse voltage and zener breakdown of junction J2 occurs
and the SCR suddenly switches to highly conducting state. In this state, the load current
44
is only limited by supply voltage V and load RL.The maximum anode voltage at which
SCR switches from a non-conducting state to a conducting state without gate voltage is
known as Forward Breakover voltage.
NO VOLTAGE NO VOLTAGE
(G) (G)
J1 J2 J3
(A) (A)
p n p n (K) (K)
_ _
R V RL V
L
Fig.38.3 Fig.38.4
If the anode is made negative w.r.t. cathode and the gate voltage is kept at zero, junction
J1 and J3 are reverse biased, whereas junction J2 is forward biased. Under such
conditions, the SCR does not conduct current i.e. it remains in cut off position. However,
if this reverse voltage is increased, a stage reaches when junctions J1 and J3 cannot
withstand this high reverse voltage and avalanche breakdown occurs in junctions J1 and
J3 and SCR is turned to highly conducting state.
Action of Gate Voltage: Consider the SCR circuit shown in fig.38.5. When the anode is
positive with respect to cathode i.e. when the SCR is in forward mode, the SCR does not
conduct unless the forward voltage exceeds certain value, called the forward breakover
voltage. In non-conducting state, the current through the SCR is the leakage current
which is very small and is negligible. If a positive gate current is supplied, the SCR can
become conducting at a voltage much lesser than forward break-over voltage. The larger
the gate current, lower the break-over voltage. With sufficiently large gate current, the
SCR behaves identical to PN rectifier. Once the SCR is switched on, the forward voltage
drop across it suddenly reduced to a very small value, say about 1 volt. In the conducting
or on-state, the current through the SCR is limited by the external impedance.
+ _
+ _
(G) (G)
IG
J1 IG
J2 J3
(A) (A)
p n p n (K) (K)
_ _
R V RL V
L
Fig.38.5
45
V-I Characteristics of an SCR:
Forward Characteristics: The curve between V and I when forward voltage (i.e., anode
is positive with respect to cathode) is applied is known as Forward Characteristics of an
SCR.
(i) When gate current is zero: As power supply voltage is increased from zero (with
zero gate current), there is a small leakage current which flows through anode. This
is due to leakage of minority carriers through junction J2. This small leakage current
does not affect the load at all and for all practical purposes, the load is considered to
be OFF i.e. SCR is said to be in OFF state.
Now, when the power supply voltage, which is equal to voltage drop
across anode and cathode of SCR (as there is little voltage drop across load on
account of extremely small value of leakage current), reaches the forward breakover
voltage, SCR at once begins to conduct and the voltage V across thyristor suddenly
drops as shown by dotted curve AB as shown in fig.38.5. Full conduction is reached
rapidly. Under such conditions most of power supply voltage appears across the
load, as drop across thyristor is hardly 1 V as compared to several volts across load.
The SCR now acts as truly closed switch, allowing power to flow through the load
circuit. It will continue to flow as long as holding current for thyristor is maintained.
(ii) When gate current flows: The above considerations apply for zero gate current
i.e., when gate circuit is open. However, when a small gate voltage is applied, the
gate current starts flowing. The flow of gate current helps in making current flow
across junction J2 i.e. due to high positive potential on the anode side of junction J2,
electrons in n-type material virtually pulled into p-type. Similarly, holes in p-type are
pulled across J2 into n-type material by the negative potential on right side of J2.
Reverse Characteristics: When anode is connected to negative and cathode to positive

of power supply, the curve between V and I is called reverse characteristic shown in
fig.38.6. In this case, junctions J1 and J3 are reverse biased while J2 is forward biased. It
is clear that by increasing the reverse voltage beyond a certain value (point D) will result
in the breakdown of the junctions J1 J2 and SCR can no longer block the flow of current
through it. However, this voltage is very high as compared to the forward voltage.
Fig. 38.6
46
Q.39 Mention the applications of SCR, DIAC and TRIAC. Marks (4)
Ans: Applications of SCR:

(i) It is used as Half-Wave and Full-Wave Controlled Rectifier
(ii) It is used as a Static Contactor
(iii) Use of SCR for Speed Control of DC Shunt Motors
(iv) SCRs are used in Static AC Circuit Breaker and Static DC circuit Breaker as a
switch
(v) SCR are used in zero voltage switching
(vi) Used in Over-Voltage Protection
(vii) Used in Pulse Circuits
(viii) Used in Battery Charging Regulator.
Applications of Diac:
(i) It is used in Triac Lamp Dimmer Circuit
(ii) It is used in Heat Control Circuit
(iii) It is used primarily for triggering of triacs
Applications of Triac: Triacs are used in

(i) Motor Speed Regulation
(ii) Temperature control
(iii) Illumination control
(iv) Liquid level control
(v) Phase control circuits
(vi) Power switches etc.,
(vii) High Power Lamp Switching
(viii) AC Power Control
Q.40 What is electron emission and mention different types of electron emissions.
Marks (5)
Ans: Electron Emission: The liberation of electrons from the surface of a substance
(generally metals) is called electron emission. In certain materials, especially metals, the
valence electrons in the outer most orbits are very loosely held by the nucleus. These
loosely attached electrons, called free electrons, can be easily detached by applying
some external energy.
Types of Electron Emission: The liberation of electrons from the surface of a metal is
possible only when external energy supplied to the metal is equal to or more than the
work function of that metal. This external energy may be supplied from a variety of
sources such as heat energy, kinetic energy supplied by the bombarding electrons, light
energy or the energy stored in the electric field. These electron emissions are called
(i) Thermionic emission (due to heat energy)
(ii) Secondary emission (due to kinetic energy)
(iii) Photo-electric emission (due to light energy)
(iv) High-field emission. (due to high electric field)
Q.41 Explain the construction and operation of a Mercury arc rectifier. Marks (9)
Ans: Mercury-Arc Rectifier:

Construction: It is a gas-filled tube employing a pool of mercury as a cathode with a side
-arm glass bulb as shown in fig. 41.1. There are two main anodes A1 and A2, constructed
from specially pure graphite in the case of small ratings and iron in larger ones, sealed
into glass side arms projecting from the main bulb, above the liquid mercury cathode.
47
Above these arms, the glass bulb is in the form of a large dome whose function is to
provide the cooling surface necessary to prevent excessive temperature rise. At the
bottom, there is an auxiliary starting electrodes for the formation of the arc.
Fig. 41.1
Operation: During manufacture, the bulb is evacuated of other gases so that
when it is finally sealed, it contains low pressure mercury pool vapour obtained
from the mercury pool cathode. Electron emission from the mercury pool
becomes possible when a cathode spot is formed on .the cathode pool surface.
The cathode spot shows itself as a bright point of light which moves over the
mercury surface, the spot being initiated by a small spark on the mercury. The
spark produces the first electrons and positive ions, if one of the anodes is
positive, the electrons are attracted and produce additional ions, which neutralize
any negative space charge and an arc is established. The positive ion cathode
sheath is very thin, so that the electric field intensity therein can reach the
magnitude necessary for high-field emission. In this type of rectifier, the electron
enters tbe arc through the cathode spot, which wanders on the surface of the
pool of mercury. This motion is due to the forces exerted by the bombarding ions
and the reaction of the vapourising gas. The ionised mercury ions that are formed
are neutralized at the glass surface of the envelope and condense on the walls.
The evaporated mercury returns to the pool under the action of gravity.
Q.42 Explain the construction, working and characteristics of depletion mode

MOSFET. Marks (10)
Ans: Construction of N-Channel Depletion MOSFET: Fig. 42.1 shows the construction of N-
channel depletion MOSFET. It consists of a highly doped P-type substrate into which two
blocks of heavily doped N-type material are diffused forming the source and drain. An N-
channel is formed by diffusion between the source and drain. The type of impurity for the
channel is the same as for the source and drain. Now a thin layer of Si02 dielectric is
grown over the entire surface and holes are cut through the SiO2 (silicon-dioxide) layer to
make contact with the N-type blocks (Source and Drain). Metal is deposited through the
holes to provide drain and source terminals, and on the surface area between drain and
source, a metal plate is deposited. This layer constitutes the gate. SiO2 layer results in
10 15
an extremely high input impedance of the order of 10 to 10 ohms for this area.
48
METALLIZATION
LAYER
SOURCE GATE DRAIN
S G D

2
+
N
N N +
DIFFUSED CHANNEL
P-TYPE SUBSTRATE
Fig. 42.1 N-CHANNEL DE-MOSFET STRUCTURE
Working: When negative gate-to-source voltage is applied, the N-channel MOSFET

operates in the depletion mode.
When VGS = 0, electrons can flow freely from source to drain through the
conducting channel which exists between them. When gate is given negative voltage, it
depletes the N-channel of its electrons by including positive charge in it as shown in fig.
42.2. Greater the negative voltage on the gate, greater is the reduction in the number of
electrons in the channel and consequently, lesser its conductivity. In fact, too much
negative gate voltage called VGS(off) can cut-off the channel. Hence, with negative gate
voltage, a Depletion MOSFET behaves like a JFET.
.
V DD
_ +
V
GG _
+
S G D METALLIZATION
LAYER
_ _ _ _
-----
+++++++++++
---------------- 2
+++
+ ++ + ++
+ N +
N
N-CHANNEL
P-TYPE SUBSTRATE
Fig 42.2 DEPLETION MODE OPERATION
Characteristics: Typical drain characteristics, for various levels of gate-source voltage,

of N-channel depletion MOSFET are shown in fig.42.3. The upper curves are for positive
VGS and the lower curves are for negative VGS. The bottom drain curve is for VGS =
VGS(OFF). For a specified drain-source voltage VDS, VGS(OFF) is the gate-source voltage at
which drain current reduces to a certain specified negligibly small value as shown in the
figure. For VGS between VGS(OFF) and zero, the device operates in depletion mode.
49
Fig. 42.3
Q.43 Mention two applications each for FET and UJT. Marks (4)
Ans: Applications of FET:

(i) Buffer Amplifier
(ii) Low Noise Amplifier
(iii) Phase Shift Oscillator
Applications of UJT:
(i) Relaxation Oscillator
(ii) Saw-tooth generator
(iii) Pulse generators
Q.44 Explain how an op-amp is used as voltage to current converter and current to
voltage converter Marks (10)
Ans: Voltage to Current Converter: Fig. 44.1 shows a voltage-to-current converter in which
load resistor RL is not connected to ground. The input voltage is applied to the non-
inverting input terminal, by virtual ground, negative terminal of Op-amp is at same
potential as applied input.
_ R1 Vf
+
io io
I =0 +V R
L
B CC
-
V
id
+
-V
i = output current
EE o
+
V
in
_
Fig.44.1
50
Writing Kirchhoff’s voltage equation at the inverting terminal,

vin = vid + vf
But vid ≈ 0 V, since A is very large in an ideal op-amp; therefore,
vin = vf
vin = R1io
vin
or io =
R1
This means that in the above circuit, an input voltage vin is converted into an output
current of vin/R1.
Current-to-Voltage Converter:
The basic inverting operational amplifier is used as current-to-voltage converter which is
shown in fig.44.2
V2 RF
i in i in
I =0 +V
B CC
2 -
V= - i R
+ o in F
V _
1 -V
I EE
=0 RL
B
1
+
Fig.44.2
From basic fundamentals, the ideal voltage –gain of the inverting operational amplifier is
vo R
given by Av = =− F
vin R1
v 
Therefore, vo = − in  RF
 R1 
However, in an ideal operational op-amp since, v1 = 0 V and v1 = v2.
vin
= ii n
R1
By substituting the this value in the equation of output voltage (vo), we get
vo = -iinRF
So, the above equation shows that the output voltage vo becomes proportional to the
input current iin.
51
Q.45 Write short notes of the following: Marks (2 X 7 =14)

(i) High frequency diodes
(iii) Thyratron
Ans: High Frequency Diodes: The diodes which are used at high frequencies are called High
Frequency Diodes. Different types of high frequency diodes are:
(i) Tunnel Diode

(ii) PIN diode
(iii) Varactor Diode
(iv) Step-Recovery Diode
(v) Schottky Diode
(i)Tunnel Diode: A tunnel diode is a high conductivity two-terminal P-N junction doped
heavily about 1,000 times higher than a conventional junction diode. Because of heavy
-5
doping depletion layer width is reduced to an extremely small value of the order of 10
mm, reverse breakdown voltage is also reduced to a very small value (approaching zero)
resulting in appearance of the diode to be broken for any reverse voltage, and a negative
resistance section is produced. The reduced depletion layer can result in carriers
‘punching through’ the junction with the velocity of light even when they do not possess
enough energy to overcome the potential barrier. The result is that large forward current
is produced at relatively low forward voltage (less than 100 mv). Such a mechanism of
conduction in which charge carriers (possessing very little energy) punch through a
barrier directly instead of climbing over it is called tunneling phenomenon. That is why
such diodes are called the Tunnel Diodes.
Applications: The tunnel diodes are used a High Frequency Amplifier, High Frequency
Oscillator or a Switch.
(ii)PIN Diode: In this diode a high resistivity (of the order of 0.1 Ω-m) intrinsic layer is
sandwitched between and N-regions. The high resistance of the intrinsic layer provides
the possibility of larger electric field between the P- and N-regions and therefore,
electron-hole pair generation is enhanced enabling PIN diode to process even very weak
input signals. Because of more separation between P-and N-regions, the capacitance
Cpn reduced, because the capacitance decreases with the increase in separation of P-and
N-regions. It allows the diode a faster response time making it suitable for use as
Microwave Switch.
Applications: It is used as a switch at frequencies exceeding 300 MHZ
(iii)Varactor Diode: The varactor [also called the varicap, voltcap, epicap, VVC (voltage-
variable capacitance) or tunning] diode is a semiconductor, voltage-dependent, variable
capacitor. Basically, it is just a reverse-biased P-N junction diode whose mode of
operation is based on its transition capacitance. The P- and N-regions (away from the
space-charge region) are essentially low resistance areas because of high concentration
of majority carriers. The space-charge or depletion region, which is depleted of majority
carriers, serves as a dielectric. The P- and N-regions act as the plates of the capacitor
and the depletion region acts as an insulating dielectric. The reverse biased P-N junction
thus possesses junction capacitance, called the transition capacitance CT. The value of
∈A
junction capacitance is given as, CT =
W
Where ∈ is the permittivity of the semiconductor material A is the area of the PN
junction and W is the width of the space-charge region
52
Applications: (i) Varactor diode is used as a FM Modulator

(ii) It is used in AM Receivers
(iv)Step-Recovery Diode: It is also a voltage dependent variable capacitor diode but

with unusual doping profile. It has concentration of charge carriers decreasing near the
junction and therefore, phenomenon, called the reverse snap-off is caused. It operates
as an ordinary diode at low frequency i.e. it conducts in forward direction but not in
reverse direction. But when driven forward-to-reverse by a high frequency (above a few
MHz) signal it does not recover immediately. Even during negative half cycle of the input
signal, it keeps conducting for a while after which the reverse current suddenly drops to
zero. The reverse current exists during the negative half cycle for a while because of the
stored charge in the depletion region during the forward bias period, which takes some
time to drain away from the junction. It looks as though the diode has suddenly snapped
open during the early part of the reverse cycle. This snap-off current of a step-recovery
diode is rich in harmonics and can be filtered go give a sinusoidal wave of a higher
frequency
Applications: (i)These diodes are useful in Frequency Multipliers

(ii) These are also employed in Pulse and Digital circuits.
(v)Schottky Diode: At lower frequencies, an ordinary diode can easily turn off when the
bias changes from forward to reverse. But with the increase in frequency (above 10
MHZ) the diode reaches a point where it cannot turn off fast enough to prevent noticeable
current during part of the reverse half cycle. The effect is called the charge storage.
This effect is eliminated in Schottky diode. Such a diode has no depletion layer
eliminating the stored charges at the junction. Because of lack of charge storage the
Schottky diode can switch off faster than an ordinary diode.
Applications: The most important application of this diode is in Digital Computers.
Q.45.ii) UJT: A uni-juction transistor (UJT) is a three terminal semiconductor device having two
doped regions. In the three terminals, it has emitter (E) and two bases (B1and B2). This
device has only one pn junction, therefore, naming it a ‘transistor’ is really misnomer.
However, from the outer look (packages), it resembles to a bipolar transistor and hence
the name uni-juction transistor. This device has a unique characteristic that when it is
triggered, the emitter current increases regeneratively until it is limited by the emitter
power supply.
Construction: The Structure and symbol of UJT are shown in fig.45.1. UJT consists of
an n-type silicon bar which is lightly doped. Two ends connections are taken from the bar
called base-one (B1) and base-two (B2). A heavily doped p-type region is diffused to n-
type bar nearer to B2.
53
BASE 2 B2
n-TYPE B AR
EMITTER p E
n
p-TYPE
REGION
B1
BASE 1
Fig. 45.1
Working: Make the circuit arrangement as shown in fig.45.2. Normally, B2 is kept

positive w.r.t B1. A variable positive voltage is supplied to the emitter through a switch S.
(i) When the emitter circuit is closed through a switch S but the emitter voltage is reduced
to zero. This voltage establishes a reverse bias on the pn junction and the emitter current
is cut-off.
(ii) When a +ve voltage is applied at the emitter, the p-n junction will remain reverse
biased so long as the input emitter voltage is less than V1 (=η VBB). If the input voltage
applied to the emitter is increased, a stage reaches when it exceeds V1 by VD i.e.VE =
V+VD. This will bring the p-n junction in forward biased condition. At this stage, p-type
material injects holes into the n-type bar. These holes are repelled by positive B2 terminal
and are attracted towards negative B1 terminal of the bar. This accumulation of holes in
the emitter to B1 region decreases and the resistance of this section (i.e. RB1) of the bar.
This results internal voltage drop from emitter to B1 and consequently increases the
emitter current IE. This process goes on and eventually a condition of saturation is
reached. This is a stage where the emitter current is limited by only emitter power. The
device is now said to be in the ON state.
R
B2
D
V
S _ BB
VD
VE R
_ B1 V =η V
1 BB
Fig. 45.2
Applications of UJT : (i)Relaxation Oscillator

(ii)Pulse generators
(iii)Saw-tooth generators
54
(iv)Triggering circuits
(v)Phase control
(vi)Timing circuits.
Q.45.iii)Thyratron: The trade name of a hot-cathode gas triode is thyratron. A thyratron

consists of three electrodes, namely cathode, anode and control grid. These electrodes
are enclosed in a glass envelope containing some inert gas at low pressure. The cut-
away view and schematic symbol of the tube are shown in fig.45.3(a) and 45.3(b). It
consists of a metal cylinder surrounding the cathode with a perforated disc known as grid
baffle near the center. Thus, the control grid acts as an electrostatic shield between
cathode and anode except for the holes in the grid baffles.
Fig. 45.3
Operation: When a cathode is heated, a large number of free electrons are emitted form
its surface. If the control grid is kept at sufficient negative potential the electrons do not
acquire necessary energy to cross the grid baffles to reach at the anode. Hence the
plate current is substantially zero. As the negative grid potential is reduced, some of the
emitted electrons reach to the anode through the holes of the grid baffles and constitute a
small current. These electrons do not posses enough speed and energy to cause
ionization of gas. However, if the negative potential on grid is further reduced gradually,
the electrons acquire more speed energy. At some grid potential, called grid voltage,
ionization of the gas occurs and the plate current rises to a large value. So, the firing
(gas ionization) of the tube can be obtained at any desired potential by controlling the
negative potential on the control grid.
Applications: Thyratron is used as (i) Switch (ii) controlled rectifier.
Q.46 Differentiate between a current source and a voltage source. Give their Graphical
representation. How can they be converted from one to another ? Marks (6)
Ans: Differences between Current source and Voltage source:

(i) When the value of load resistance (or impedance is very large as compared to the
internal resistance (or impedance) of the source, the source is treated as a voltage
source. Whereas, when the value of load resistance (or impedance) is very small as
compared to the internal resistance (or impedance) of the source, the source is treated
as a current source.
(ii) A voltage source has almost constant terminal voltage whereas a current source has
almost constant load current.
(iii) A voltage source behaves as a constant voltage source irrespective of load Current
whereas a current source behaves as a constant current source irrespective of the value
of load resistance.
55
Graphical Representation of Voltage Source:
VS
ZS
VS
_
B I
Graphical Representation of Current Source:
IS
A
I L
I1 IL
I S
IS ZS ZL
B V
Conversion of Voltage Source into Current Source and vice versa: Consider an ac
source connected to load impedance Z L shown in below fig.46 (a). The source can either
be treated as a voltage source or a current source as shown in fig.46(b) and fig.46c). The
voltage-source representation consists of an ideal voltage source Vs in series with source
impedance ZS1. The current-source representation consists of an ideal current source Is
in parallel with source impedance ZS2. These are the two representations of the same
source. Both types of representations must appear the same to the externally connected
load impedance ZL. They must give the same results. In fig.2 (b), if the load impedance
ZL is reduced to zero (i.e. the terminals A and B are short-circuited) the current through
this short is given as
VS
I L ( short − circuit) = ---------- (i)
Z S1
Both the representations (voltage-source and current-source) must give the same results.
This means that current source in Fig.46(c) must also give the same current (as given by
equation (i)) when terminals A and B are shorted. But the current obtained by shorting the
terminals (A) and (B) of Fig.46(c) is simply the source current IS (the source impedance
ZS2 connected in parallel with a short-circuit). Therefore, the current Is of the equivalent
current source must be the same as that given by the equation (1) i.e.
VS ---- (1)
I L ( short − circuit) = I S =
Z S1
56
ZS
1
ZL
+
VS
_
A
S B
O
(b) VOLTAGE-SOURCE REPRESENTATION
U
R LOAD
C A
E
B
(a)
IS Z ZL
S
2
B
(c) CURRENT-SOURCE REPRESENTATION
Fig .46(a, b, c)
Again the two representations of the source must give the same terminal voltage when
the Load impedance ZL is disconnected from the source (i.e. when the terminals A and B
are open-circuited. In fig (b) the open circuit terminal voltage is simply Vs. There is no
voltage drop across the internal impedance ZSI. When the terminals A and B are open-
circuited, the whole of the current Is flows through the impedance ZS2. The terminal
voltage is then the voltage drop across this impedance. That is VT (open-circuit) = IsZs2
-------- (2) Therefore, if the two representations of the source are to be equivalent, then
the equation must be VT = Vs
Using equations (1) and (2), we get ISZS1 = ISZS2
ZS1 = ZS2 = ZS (say) or
Then both equations (1) and (2) reduces to VS = ISZS Hence, in both the representation of
the source, the source impedance is faced by the same load resistance ZS at terminals
AB. Thus it establishes the equivalence between the voltage source representation and
current source representation, under short-circuit and open-circuit conditions.
57
Q.47 Classify the capacitors on the basis of dielectrics used and discuss the functioning
Of one one of them. Marks (5)
Ans: Classification of Capacitors: The capacitors are classified on the basis of dielectric
used are
1. Fixed Capacitors:
(i) Paper Dielectric Capacitors
(ii) Mica Dielectric Capacitors
(iii) Ceramic Dielectric Capacitors
(iv) Glass Dielectric Capacitors
(v) Plastic Dielectric Capacitors
(vi) Electrolytic Capacitors
(vii) Air Dielectric Capacitors
(viii) Vacuum Capacitors
2. Variable Capacitors:
(i) Air Dielectric Capacitors
(ii) Mica Dielectric Capacitors
(iii) Plastic Dielectric Capacitors
(iv) Ceramic Dielectric capacitors
Metal foil impregnated paper capacitor These types of capacitors are constructed by
rolling impregnated paper insulation between metal electrodes. Electrodes are usually
aluminum (high conductivity, low cost) but could also be of tin (cheaper, less conductive)
or copper (costly, better conductive). The thickness of paper used varies from 7.5 microns (1
micron. =one millionth of a matter) to 25 microns and the thickness of metal foil used is
around 7 microns. Voltage stress of impregnated paper varies from 15 to 25 v/micron.
These types of capacitors are normally manufactured to a tolerance of ± 20% of the

desired capacitance within the same batch. Their best manufacturing tolerance can be ±
5%. They have a moderate power factor (0.005 to 0.01 at 10KHz). Their temperature
coefficient is positive and ranges from + 100 to + 200 ppm/°C. (ppm per degree
centigrade means change in capacitance per million parts of original capacitance with
one degree rise in temperature). The typical voltage rating is about 300 V (r.m.s) at 50
Hz. Capacitance range is usually from 1000 pF to 0.5 µ F. They are normally used in
radio frequency (i.e. between 10 kHz and 300 GHz) applications. The maximum
temperature withstanding capacity is 100°C.
Q.48 Briefly explain the different processes by which electron emission takes place from
the Surface of metals. Marks (4)
58
Ans: Methods of Electron Emission :

(i) Thermionic Emission: The method of electron emission from a metal surface to
which heat energy is supplied is called thermionic emission. At normal temperature, the
energy possessed by the free electrons in the metal is not sufficient to cause them to
escape from the surface. However, when heat energy is supplied to the metal, some of
the heat energy is converted into kinetic energy which accelerates the motion of free
electrons. When the temperature is raised sufficiently, these electrons acquire sufficient
energy equal to the work function of the metal. Consequently, they overcome the
restraining forces (surface barrier) and escape from the metal surface.
(ii)Secondary Emission: The emission of electrons from a metallic surface by the
bombardment of high-speed particles (generally electrons) is called secondary emission.
When high-speed electrons emitted by a source suddenly strike a metallic surface, they
may transfer all or a part of their kinetic energy to the free electrons in the metal. If the
energy of these incident electrons is sufficiently high, some of the free electrons may be
dislodged from their parent atoms and escape from the metal surface. This phenomenon
is called secondary emission.
(iii)Photo-electric Emission: The emission of electrons from a metallic surface by the
application of light energy is called Photo-electric emission. When a beam of light strikes
at the surface of certain metal of low work function such as potassium, sodium and
cesium, the electrons may be emitted from their surface, if the quantum of energy carried
by the photons is equal to or greater than the work function of the metal. Such a
phenomenon is termed as photo-electric emission.
(iv)High-Field Emission: The emission of electrons from a metallic surface by the
application of strong electric field is known as High field emission. When a positively
charged high voltage electrode is placed near to a metal surface, an intense electric field
is set between the electrode and the metal surface which exerts an attractive force on the
free electrons in the metal. If the electric field is of sufficient intensity, it succeeds in
overcoming the restraining forces of the metal surface and hence the free electrons are
emitted from the metal surface.
Q.49 Draw and explain triode characteristics. What are µ , gm and rp ? How can these be
determined from the characteristics. Marks (8)
Ans: Characteristics of Triode:

These are three types namely (i) Plate characteristics (ii) Mutual or transfer
characteristics and (iii) Constant current or amplification characteristics.
(i)Plate Characteristics (Plate current-Plate Voltage Characteristic: The curve drawn
between plate current and plate voltage, keeping grid potential constant, is known as
plate characteristics. The characteristics can be obtained by keeping grid potential Eg
constant at a particular value, varying the plate voltage in steps, noting the corresponding
plate currents and Plotting the results so obtained. The process is repeated at different
grid potentials. The plate characteristics for a typical triode as shown in fig.49.1 the
curves being nonlinear in the lower portion close to plate current cut-off and fairly linear
at higher voltages. The curvature at the low plate current is due to space charge. At
higher plate currents there will be a bend again because of saturation. The portion of the
characteristics between upper and lower bends is most useful for the purpose of
amplification of signals.
59
Fig. 49.1
(ii) Transfer or Grid or Mutual Characteristics: Transfer Characteristics are the curves
drawn between plate current and grid voltage, the plate voltage being kept constant. The
transfer characteristics can be obtained by keeping plate voltage Ep constant at a
particular value varying the grid potential, noting the corresponding plate currents, as
shown in fig. 49.2
Transfer or Mutual
Characteristics of a Triode
Fig. 49.2
When the grid is positive, it helps the plate to attract the electrons hence plate current is
increased. When the grid is negative with respect to cathode it retards the action of plate
and hence plate current is reduced. It is to be noted that each curve intersects the grid
voltage axis at a specific point that indicates the value of the negative grid voltage
required to make the plate current zero at the particular value of applied voltage to plate.
This is also called cut-off bias.
(iii)Constant Current or Amplification Characteristics: The curve drawn between

plate voltage and grid voltage, plate current being kept constant, is known as constant
plate current characteristics. For obtaining data for this characteristics the circuit diagram
shown in fig. 49.3 is used. First of all the plate is given a suitable high potential and then
grid voltage is changed until the highest plate current for which it is desired to obtain the
characteristic is obtained. Now plate potential is reduced in steps and at each step the
grid voltage is readjusted so that the same plate current is obtained. This is repeated
with different plate currents and curves are plotted as shown in fig.49.3
60
Fig. 49.3
Amplification Factor (µ) and Determination of µ from Static characteristics: It is a

measure of the relative effectiveness of the control grid in overcoming the electrostatic
field produced by the plate. Its value depends to a large extent on the spacing between
the grid and plate. Its value can be determined by changing the plate voltage in the
opposite direction by an amount just sufficient to restore the previous plate current value.
Mathematically amplification factor, µ is defined as ratio of small change in plate voltage
to small change in grid voltage i.e.,
δE p
µ=−
δE g
The negative sign indicates that the changes in two voltages are oppositely directed.
Obviously, amplification factor µ is nothing but the slope of constant plate current
characteristic.
Plate Resistance (rp) and determination of rp from static characteristics: When

current flows through a tube from plate to cathode, there is a voltage drop across the
tube and electrical energy is converted into heat at the rate of Ep Ip watts where Ep and Ip
are plate voltage and plate current respectively. Plate resistance is the resistance offered
by the tube to the ac component of the plate current. Mathematically plate resistance rp is
defined as ration of small change in plate voltage to small change in plate current i.e.
δE p
rp =
δI p
The coefficient rp is often called a dynamic or incremental plate resistance. The
coefficient rp is also obtained by taking reciprocal of the slope of the plate characteristic
curve.
Tran conductance (gm) and determination of gm from static characteristic: It is

defined as the ratio of a small change in plate current to the small change in grid voltage,
the plate voltage remaining the same i.e.,
δI p
Mathematically, gm = its value can be easily determined from the slope of
δE g
mutual characteristic of the tube.
Q.50 Distinguish between majority and minority carriers in a semiconductor. Define

mobility of charge carriers. Marks (5)
61
Ans: Distinguish between majority and minority carriers:

(i) Majority Carriers are the charge carriers which are maximum in number. For example
in n-type semiconductor the majority charge carriers are electrons and in p-type
semiconductor, the majority charge carriers are holes as shown in fig.50.1, whereas
Minority Carriers are the charge carriers which are minimum in number. For example in
n-type semiconductor, the minority charge carriers are holes and in p-type
semiconductor, the minority charge carriers are electrons as shown in fig.50.2.
MAJORITY CARRIERS MAJORITY CARRIERS

(FREE ELECTRONS) (HOLES)
MINORITY CARRIERS MINORITY CARRIERS

N-TYPE P-TYPE
(HOLES) (FREE ELECTRONS)
Fig. 50.1 Fig.50.2
(ii) Most of the current conduction in a semiconductor is due to majority carriers, whereas,
the current due to minority carriers is very small, so, it almost negligible.
Mobility of charge carriers: When a steady electric field E volt/meter is applied to a

metal, the electrons move towards the positive terminal of the applied voltage. In their
way, they continuously collide with other free electrons and rebound in a random fashion.
Each collision being inelastic i.e., the electrons lose some kinetic energy.
After the collision, the electrons are accelerated by the electric field and gain certain
component of velocity in the direction opposite to that of electric field (- E). They lose
some of their energy at the next collision. Thus the applied electric field does not stop
collision and random motion but makes the electrons to drift towards the positive
terminal. So, the drift velocity v is proportional to the applied electric fied E, i.e., V = µe E
Where µe is called mobility which is defined as the Average Particle Drift velocity per unit
2
electric field and is expressed in m /Vs.
Q.51 Discuss how a depletion layer is formed in a P-N diode and how does it vary with
biasing ? Draw V-I characteristics of P-N junction diode. Marks (7)
Ans: Formation of Depletion Layer in a P-N junction Diode: The two types of extrinsic
semiconductors are p-type and n-type as shown in fig.51(a) The p-type semiconductor is
having negative acceptor ions and positively charged holes. Whereas, the n-type
semiconductor is having positive donor ions and negatively charged electrons.
62
P-TYPE
N-TYPE
SEMICONDUCTOR
HOLE SEMICONDUCTOR
- - - - + + + +
ELECTRON
- - - - + + + +
POSITIVE
NEGATIVE DONOR IONS
ACCEPTOR IONS
Fig. 51(a)
When these two semiconductors are joined together and suitably treated, they from a pn
junction. The moment they form a pn junction, some of the conduction electrons from n-
type material diffuse over to the p-type material and undergo electron-hole recombination
with the holes available in the valence band. Simultaneously holes from p-type material
diffuse over to the n-type material and undergo hole-electron combination with the
electrons available in the conduction band. In this process, some of the free electrons
move across the junction from n-type to p-type, leaving behind positive donor ions as
they are robbed of the free electrons. This establishes a positive charge on the n-side of
the junction. Simultaneously, the free electrons which cross over the junction recombine
with the holes of p-type and uncover some of the negative acceptor ions as shown in
fig.51(d) This establishes a negative charge on the p-side of the junction. This process
of diffusion continues till a sufficient number of donor and acceptor impurity ions are
uncovered and establish a requisite potential difference (i.e. nearly 0.3 V in case the pn
junction is formed of germanium semiconductor and 0.7 V for silicon pn junction). After
this, further diffusion is prevented because now positive charge on n-side repels holes to
cross from p-type to n-type and negative charge on p-side repels free electrons to enter
from n-type to p-type.
A potential difference created across the junction acts as a barrier which restricts further
movement of charge carriers (i.e. holes and electrons) is called a Potential Barrier or
Junction Barrier Vo. Thus, a region around the junction from which the charge carriers
(free electrons and holes) are depleted is called Depletion Layer.
63
NEGATIVELY POSITIVELY
CHARGED CHARGED
IONS Vo + IONS
P - N
- - - - + + + +
- - - - + + +
+
DEPLETION
LAYER
Vo
Fig. 51(b)
Behaviour of a PN junction Diode under Biasing:

When a pn junction is connected across an electric supply (potential difference), the
junction is said to be under biasing.
Forward Biasing: When the positive terminal of a d.c source or battery is connected to
p-type and negative terminal is connected to n-type semiconductor of a pn junction as
shown in fig.51(c), the junction is said to be in forward biased. In this circuit, the holes
on the P-side being positively charged particles are repelled from the positive bias
terminal and driven towards the junction. Similarly, the electrons on the N-side are
repelled from the negative bias terminal and driven towards the junction. The result is
that the depletion region is reduced in width and the barrier potential is also reduced.
Once the potential barrier is eliminated by the forward voltage, a conducting path is
established for flow of current.
64
+ -
P N
DEPLETION
LAYER WITHOUT DEPLETION
EXTERNAL FIELD LAYER WITH
EXTERNAL FIELD
NO EXTERNAL
EXTERNAL
FIELD
FIELD
Fig. 51(c)
Reverse Biasing: When the positive terminal of a d.c. source or battery is connected to
n-type and negative terminal is connected to p-type semiconductor of a pn junction, as
shown in fig.51 (d), the junction is said to be in reverse biased. In this circuit
arrangement, the electrons form the N-side are attracted to the positive bias terminal and
holes form P-side are attracted from the negative bias terminal. Thus, the depletion
region is widened and the barrier potential is increased by the magnitude of the applied
bias. With the increased barrier potential, there is no possibility of majority carrier current
flow across the junction. Thus the P-N junction is in non-conducting state.
65
P N
DEPLETION
LAYER WITH DEPLETION
EXTERNAL FIELD LAYER WITHOUT
EXTERNAL FIELD
EXTERNAL
NO EXTERNAL FIELD
FIELD
Fig. 51 (d)
V-I characteristics of P-N junction diode are shown in fig. 51(e)
Fig. 51(e)
66
Q.52 What is cut-in voltage in semiconductor ? Marks (2)
Ans: Cut-in voltage: The forward voltage (0.3V for Ge and 0.7V for Si diodes) at which the
current through the diode or pn junction starts rising abruptly is known as cut-in voltage or
knee voltage of a diode.
Q.53 What is zener diode and how does it regulate the voltage ? What happens to the
series current, load current and zener current when the d.c. input voltage of a
zener regulator increases ? Marks (6)
Ans: Zener Diode: Zener diode is specially designed silicon diode which is optimized to
operate in the breakdown region.Zener diode is used as a voltage regulator: Fig.53.1
shows the circuit arrangement. The zener diode of zener voltage Vz is reverse connected
across the RL across which constant voltage (Vo = Vz) is desired. A resistor R is
connected in series with the circuit which absorbs the output voltage fluctuations so as to
maintain constant voltage (Vo) across the load.
+
R I
+
IZ
DC
V (VARIABLE) R Vo
SUPPLY in V L
Z
_
_
Fig. 53.1
When the supply voltage VS increases, the current through both the zener diode and
load resistance RL increases.
At the same time, however, the current through the diode increases more than
proportionately. As a result, a greater voltage drop will occur across the series resistor
RS and the output voltage VOUT (voltage across the diode or load resistance RL) will
become very close to the original value. When the supply voltage VIN is less than zener
voltage VZ of the zener diode, no current flows though the diode, because the diode is
reverse biased and the same voltage appears across the load. When d.c. input voltage of
a zener regulator increases, series current I, load current IL and zener current IZ
increases.
Q.54 What is LED ? Give its principle of working and applications. Marks (4)
Ans: LED: LED (Light Emitting Diode) is a Forward Biased P-N junction diode which emits light
under the influence of an electric field. The structure, schematic diagram and symbol of
LED are shown in fig.54(i), 54(ii) and 54(iii).
Principle of working: When P-N junction diode is forward-biased, the potential barrier is
lowered. The conduction band free electrons from n-region cross the barrier and enter
the p-region. As these electrons enter the p-region, they fall into the holes lying in the
valence band. Hence they fall from a higher level to a lower energy level. In the process,
they radiate energy. In the ordinary diodes (rectifier and signal diodes) this energy
67
radiates in the form of heat, as these diodes are made of silicon or germanium which are
opaque material and block the passage of light.
__
P N +
(i) Structure (ii) Schematic Diagram (iii) Schematic Symbol
Fig. 54
LED’s are made from gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) and gallium
phosphide (GaP) and these radiate energy in the form light (or photons) and hence they
glow.
Applications: LEDs that emit visible light (such as red, green, blue etc.) find their
applications in the following areas
(i)Instrument Display panel indicator
(ii)Digital watches
(iii)Calculators
(iv)Multimeters
(v)Intercom
(vi)Telephone switch boards
Infrared LED’s find applications in remote control schemes, object detectors etc.
Q.55 What is varactor diode ? On what factor its operation is based ? Give its
applications. Marks (4)
Ans: Varactor diode: The varactor diode [also called the varicap, voltcap, epicap, VVC
(voltage-variable capacitance) or tunning] is a voltage-dependent, variable capacitor.
Basically, it is a reverse-biased P-N junction diode whose mode of operation is based on
its transition capacitance.
Operation based factor: The P- and N-regions (away from the space-charge region) are
essentially low resistance areas because of high concentration of majority carriers. The
space-charge or depletion region, which is depleted of majority carriers, serves as a
dielectric. The P- and N-regions act as the plates of the capacitor and the depletion
region acts as an insulating dielectric. The reverse biased P-N junction thus possesses
junction capacitance, also called the transition capacitance CT. The junction capacitance
is given as
∈A
CT =
W
Where ∈ is the permittivity of the semiconductor material. A is the area of the PN
junction and W is the width of the space-charge region. With increase in reverse-bias
potential,
The width of the space charge region increases, which in turn reduces the Transition
Capacitance CT as shown in fig.55.1
68
C (0) 80
T
60
C IN pF
40 T
20
-14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2

REVERSE BIAS IN VOLTS
Fig.55.1
Applications: Varactor diodes are used in

(i) FM Modulators
(ii) High Frequency Control Devices
(iii) Adjustable Band pass Filters
(iv) Parametric Amplifiers.
Q.56 Discuss the working of a Thyratron. Bring out its practical applications.
Marks (6)
Ans: Gas Diode: The gas-filled diode or phanotron is shown in fig.56.1, consists of an oxide
coated thermionic cathode with a graphite or metal plate enclosed in a glass bulb. After
complete evacuation of the tube, a drop of liquid of mercury is introduced and the tube is
sealed off so that the bulb is filled with mercury vapours during operation.
Fig.56.1
Operation: The plate is held at positive potential and cathode at negative potential in a
phanotron is shown in fig.56.2
69
Fig. 56.2
When cathode is heated a large number of electrons are emitted. As the plate voltage of
a gas-filled diode is gradually increased from zero, the tube remains non-conducting until
a certain critical plate voltage, called the ionizing or striking voltage reaches. Before plate
voltage attains a critical value, the gas is not ionized and the tube conducts a very small
current and behaves like a vacuum diode. As the plate attains critical voltage, which is
usually 15 V, the gas gets ionized and plate current immediately attains its full value
determined by the circuit impedance. The tube is then said to be fired or ignited. Now,
further increase in plate voltage will cause an increase in current resulting in larger drop
across the load, the voltage drop across the tube remaining the same about 15 V.
Characteristics: The plate characteristics of a gas-filled diode are shown in below

fig.56.3 Initially with the increase in plate voltage, the plate current raised slowly. But at
ionization potential, the plate current rises sharply. However, drop across the tube
remains constant. The extra voltage is dropped across the external series resistance R.
Fig. 56.3
Working of Thyratron: When cathode is heated, a large number of free electrons are
emitted from its surface. If the control grid is kept at sufficient negative potential the
electrons do not acquire necessary energy to cross the grid baffles to reach the anode.
Hence the plate current is approximately zero. As the negative grid potential is reduced,
some of the emitted electrons reach the anode through the holes of the grid baffles and
constitute a small current. These electrons do not possess enough speed and energy to
cause ionization of the gas. However, if the negative potential on grid is further reduced
70
gradually, the electrons acquire more speed and energy. At some grid potential, called
critical grid voltage, ionization of the gas occurs and the plate current rises to a large
value.
At the critical grid voltage, the gas ionizes, creating free electrons and positive gas ions.
The positive ions tend to neutralize the space charge which reduces the internal
resistance of the tube, resulting in large plate current. In addition, the positive ions are
attracted by the negative grid. These positive ions neutralize the effect of negative
charge on the grid and the grid loses all its control and the tube behaves as a gas diode.
Practical Applications: Thyratron has two main fields of applications:

(i)As an electronic switch to handle heavy currents: In a thyratron, when the grid voltage
is made equal to critical grid voltage, the tube fires and the anode circuit is closed. Thus,
to switch on or off, an electrical device (d.c.motor, lamp etc.) may be connected in the
anode circuit.
(ii)As a grid controlled rectifier when voltage control is required: In thyratron, the output
d.c. voltage can be changed easily by changing the grid voltage (the change in grid
voltage changes the firing angle).
Q.57 Explain the working of glass bulb mercury arc rectifier. Marks (4)
Ans: Working of Mercury Arc Rectifier: Mercury Arc Rectifier is shown in fig.57.1. Electron
emission from the mercury pool becomes possible when a cathode spot is formed on the
cathode-pool surface. The cathode spot shows itself as a bright point of light which
moves over the mercury surface, the spot being initiated by small spark on mercury.
The spark produces the first electrons and positive ions, if one of the anodes is positive,
the electrons are attracted and produce additional ions which neutralize any negative
space charge and an arc is established. The positive ion cathode sheath is very thin, so
that the electric field intensity therein can reach the magnitude necessary for high-field
emission. In this type of rectifier, the electron enters the arc through the cathode spot,
which wanders on the surface of the pool of mercury.
This motion is due to the forces exerted by the bombarding ions and the reaction of the
vaporizing gas. The ionized mercury ions that are formed are neutralized at the glass
surface of the envelope and condense on the walls. The evaporated mercury returns to
the pool under the action of gravity. Fig. 57.1
71
Q.58 Distinguish between forward active, saturation, cut-off and reverse active
operation of a transistor. Marks (4)
Ans: I.Forward Active: In this condition, base-emitter junction is forward biased, whereas the
base-collector junction is reverse biased. When the transistor is an active region,
collector current is proportional to the emitter current. Generally, transistor is operated in
this region for amplification,
II.Saturation: In this condition, both base-emitter and base-collector junctions are
forward biased. When the transistor is in saturation, the collector current becomes
independent of the base current and is limited by external circuitry. The transistor acts
like a closed switch.
III.Cut-Off: In this condition, both junctions are reverse biased. The emitter does not
emit carriers into the base and no carriers are collected by the collector (except a little
thermally generated minority carrier). Thus, the transistor acts like an open switch.
IV Reverse Active: In this condition, the base-emitter junction is reverse biased,
whereas the base-collector junction is forward biased. As the collector is not doped to
the extent as the emitter is therefore, it cannot supply (emit) as many majority carriers to
the base. Hence, in this case very poor transistor action is achieved.
Q.59 Sketch the CE-configuration transistor output characteristics of a transistor and

explain thesignificance of these curves. Indicate the active, cut-off and saturation
regions. Marks (7)
Ans: Output Characteristics of a Transistor in CE-Configuration: In CE configuration, the

curve plotted between collector current IC and collector-emitter voltage VCE at constant
base current IB is called output characteristic, shown in fig. 59.1.
Fig. 59.1
(i) In the active region, Ic increases slightly as VCE increases. The slope of the curve is
little bit more than the characteristics of CB configuration. Hence, the output resistance
(ro) of this configuration is less as compared to CB configuration.
(ii) Since the value of IC increases with the increase in VCE at constant IB, the value of β
 I 
also increases Q β = C 
 IB 
72
(iii) When VCE falls below the value of VBE (i.e. below a few tenths of a volt.), Ic decreases
rapidly. In fact, at this stage, the collector-base junction is also forward biased and the
transistor works in saturation region, where Ic becomes independent of input current IB.
(iv) In the active region, Ic = β Ib, hence a small change in base-current IB produces a
large change in output current (IC)
(v) When the input current IB = 0, the collector current IC is not zero but its value is equal
to the reverse leakage current ICEO (i.e. collector emitter current when base is
open).
Q.60 Prove that in a transistor operating in CE-configuration, the active region, collector
current IC is given by IC= β IB + (β + 1) ICO Marks (3)
Ans: Proof: In CE configuration, the input current is IB and the output current IC. These
currents are related by the equations:
IE = IB + IC and IC = α IE + ICBO = α (IB + IC) + ICBO
α 1
Or IC (1 - α) = α IB + ICBO IC = IB + I CBO
1−α 1−α
In CE configuration, if the base circuit is open (i.e., IB = 0), the collector current will be
the current to the emitter. This current is abbreviated as ICEO that means collector-emitter
current with base open.
1  1 
Hence, I CEO = I CBO = (β + 1)I CBO Q 1 − α = β + 1
(1 − α )
and the basic current amplification factor β in terms of α is given by the equation
α
β=
1−α
By substituting these values in the above equation, we get total collector current as
IC = β IB + (β + 1) ICBO Hence Proved.
Q.61 Define the three FET parameters gm, rd and µ . Prove that µ =gm x rd Marks (5)
Ans: FET Parameter:

Transconductacce: It is defined as the ratio of change in drain current to the change in
gate-source voltage at constant drain-source voltage and is denoted by gm. Thus,
∆I D
Transconductance, gm = at constant VDS
∆VGS
AC Drain Resistance: It is defined as the ratio of change in drain-source voltage to
change in drain current at constant gate-source voltage and is denoted by rd.
∆VDS
Thus, AC drain resistance, rd = at constant VGS
∆I D
Amplification Factor (µ): It is defined as the ratio of change in drain-source voltage to
the change in gate-source voltage at constant drain current and is denoted by µ.
∆VDS
Thus, Amplification Factor, µ= at constant ID
∆VGS
∆VDS
Proof: Amplification Factor is given by µ =
∆VGS
73
∆VDS ∆I D
= ×
∆I D ∆VGS
=rd x gm
=AC drain resistance X transconductance
Hence Proved
Q.62 Describe briefly the construction of a MOSFET in enhancement mode. Draw its
characteristics. Marks (7)
Ans: Construction of an N-Channel Enhancement MOSFET: The fig.62.1 shows the

construction of an N-channel E-MOSFET. It consists of a highly doped P-type substrate
into which two blocks of heavily doped N-type material are diffused forming the source
and drain. The type of impurity for the channel is the same as for the source and drain.
Now a thin layer of Sio2 dielectric is grown over the entire surface and holes are cut
through the Sio2 (silicon-dioxide) layer to make contact with the N-type blocks (Source
and Drain.). Metal is deposited through the holes to provide drain and source terminals.
This layer constitutes the gate. Sio2 layer results in an extremely high input impedance of
10 15
the order of 10 to 10 ohms for this area.
METALLIZATION
LAYER
SOURCE GATE DRAIN
S G D

2
+
N N +
P-TYPE SUBSTRATE
Fig. 62.1 N-CHANNEL E-MOSFET STRUCTURE
Characteristics of enhancement mode MOSFET
74
Q.63 Explain how FET can be used as a switch. Marks (2)
Ans: FET as a Switch: When a voltage VDS is applied across the drain and source terminals
and voltage applied across the gate and source voltage VGS is zero (i.e., gate circuit is
open), the two pn junctions establish a very thin depletion layer. Thus a large amount of
electrons will flow from source to drain through a wide channel between the two depletion
layers. In this condition FET acts like a closed switch. When a reverse voltage VGS is
applied across the gate and source, the width of the depletion layer is increased. This
reduces the width of the conducting channel thereby decreasing the conduction through
it. At a sufficiently large reverse voltage, depletion width increases enough to cutoff two
ends of the channel. In this condition, the FET acts like an open switch.
Q.64 Give the basic structure and working of an SCR. Marks (6)
Ans: Constructional Features of Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR): An SCR is a pnpn

semiconductor device consisting of three pn junctions J,J2,J3 as shown in fig.64.1 is as if
an ordinary diode (PN) and a transistor (NPN) are combined in one unit. Three terminals
are taken; one from the outer P-type material called Anode (A), second from the outer N-
type material called Cathode (K) and the third from the other P-type material placed in
between placed in between and called Gate (G).
(G)
GATE
(G)
J1 J2 J3
ANODE CATHODE (A) (K)
p n p n
(A) (K)
Fig. 64.1
Working of an SCR:
Action of Anode voltage: An SCR circuit shown in fig. 64.2 where anode is made
positive w.r.t. cathode and the gate voltage is kept at zero. With the application of this
voltage, the junctions J1 and J3 are forward biased, whereas junction J2 is reverse biased.
Hence, the flow of current in the circuit is blocked i.e. SCR is cut off. However, if anode
to cathode voltage V is increased, a stage is reached when breakdown of junction J2
occurs and the SCR suddenly switches to highly conducting state. In this state, the load
current is only limited by supply voltage V and load RL.
75
NO VOLTAGE NO VOLTAGE
(G) (G)
J1 J2 J3
(A) (A)
p n p n (K) (K)
_ _
R V RL V
L
Fig.64.2
If the anode is made negative w.r.t. cathode and the gate voltage is kept at zero, junction
J1 and J3 are reverse biased, whereas junction J2 is forward biased. Under such
conditions, the SCR does not conduct current i.e. it remains in cut off position. However,
if this reverse voltage is increased, a stage reaches when breakdown of junction J1 and
J3 occurs and SCR is turned to highly conducting state.
Action of Gate Voltage: Consider the SCR circuit shown in fig. 64.3, where anode is
positive w.r.t. cathode. Let us suppose that anode voltage V is less than forward
breakdown voltage, so that SCR does not conduct. If now a small positive voltage is
applied to the gate, the gate current Ig starts flowing in the gate circuit. The flow of gate
current helps in making current flow across junction J2 i.e., in breaking it down. This
switches the SCR to highly conducting state at the anode voltage which is quite less than
forward breakdown voltage. Hence, gate voltage has the ability to trigger the SCR at a
low value of anode voltage, but its all control on the SCR current after triggering.
Therefore, in order to turn the SCR to OFF position, the anode voltage has to be reduced
to zero.
+ _
+ _
(G) (G)
IG
J1 IG
J2 J3
(A) (A)
p n p n (K) (K)
_ _
R V RL V
L
Fig. 64.3
76
Q.65 Draw and discuss its volt-ampere characteristics. Marks (5)
Ans: V-I Characteristics of an SCR: The V-I characteristics of an SCR is shown in fig. 65.1
Forward Characteristics: The curve between V and I when forward voltage (i.e., anode
is positive w.r.t.cathode) is applied is known as Forward Characteristics of an SCR.
When gate current is zero: As power supply voltage is increased from zero (with zero
gate current), there is a small leakage current which flows through anode. This is due to
leakage of minority carriers through junction J2. This small leakage current does not
affect the load at all and for all practical purposes, the load is considered to be OFF i.e.
SCR is said to be in OFF state.Now, when the power supply voltage, which is equal to
voltage drop across anode and cathode of SCR (as there is little voltage drop across load
on account of extremely small value of leakage current), reaches the forward break over
voltage, SCR at once begins to conduct and the voltage V across thyristor suddenly
drops as shown by dotted curve AB as shown in fig.65.1. Full conduction is reached
rapidly. Under such conditions most of power supply voltage appears across the load, as
drop across thyristor is hardly 1 V as compared to several hundred volts across load.
The SCR now acts as truly closed switch, allowing power to flow through the load circuit.
It will continue to flow as long as holding current for thyristor is maintained.
When gate current flows: The above considerations apply for zero gate current i.e.,
when gate circuit is open. However, when a small gate voltage is applied, the gate
current starts flowing. The flow of gate current helps in making current flow across
junction J2 i.e., in breaking it down. Due to high positive potential on the anode side of
the junction, electrons in n-type material virtually pulled into p-type. Similarly, holes in p-
type are pulled across J2 into n-type material by the negative potential on right side of J2.
Reverse Characteristics: When anode is connected to negative and cathode to positive

of power supply, the curve between V and I is called reverse characteristic shown in fig.
65.1. In this case, junctions J1 and J3 are reverse biased while J2 is forward biased. It is
clear that by increasing the reverse voltage beyond a certain value (point D) will result in
the breakdown of the junctions J1 J2 and SCRs can no longer block the flow of current
through it. However, this voltage is very high as compared to the forward voltage.
Fig. 65.1
77
Q.66 What are the applications of SCR ? Marks (3)
Ans: Applications of SCR:

(i) It is used as Half-Wave and Full-Wave Controlled Rectifier
(ii) It is used as a Static Contactor
(iii) Use of SCR for Speed Control of DC Shunt Motors
(iv) SCRs are used in Static AC Circuit Breaker and Static DC circuit Breaker as a switch
(v)SCRs are used in zero voltage switching
(vi)Used in Over-Voltage Protection
(vii)Used in Pulse Circuits
(viii)Used in Battery Charging Regulator.
Q.67 Describe the basic structure of TRIAC. Draw and discuss its volt-ampere
characteristics. Marks (5)
Ans Basic Structure of TRIAC: A triac shown in fig.67. basically consists of two SCRs
connected in inverse parallel with gate common. In external appearance, the triac is
similar to an SCR, but triac is bi-directional device. The internal layers and doping are
arranged so that current can flow in either direction. The gate terminal G makes ohmic
contacts with both the N and P materials. This permits trigger pulse of either polarity to
start conduction. Since the triac is a bilateral device, the term “anode” and ‘cathode’ has
no meaning, and therefore, terminals are designated as Main Terminal 1 (MT1) and main
terminal 2 (MT2) and gate G.
MAIN TERMINAL 2
MT2
MAIN TERMINAL 2
MT
2
N4
MT
2
P
1
N1
SCR 1
SCR 2 G
P (P N P N)
2 1 1 2 2 (P N P N )
2 1 4
(G) 1
N3 N2 GATE
GATE MAIN TERMINAL 1

(G) MAIN TERMINAL 1
MT MT 1 MT 1
1
(a) Basic Structure (b) Electrical Equivalent Circuit (c) Schematic Symbol
Fig.67 TRIAC
V-I Characteristics of TRIAC: Typical V-I characteristics of a triac are shown in

fig.67.4. The triac has on and off characteristics similar to SCR but the characteristic is
applicable to both positive and negative voltages. Because triac consists of two SCRs
connected in parallel but opposite in directions.
Forward Characteristics:
Terminal MT2 and gate are positive with respect to terminal MT1: When terminal
st
MT2 is positive with respect to terminal MT1. The two junctions P1-N1(1 diode) and P2-
rd nd
N2(3 diode) are forward, whereas junction N1-P2(2 diode) is reverse biased. So there is
a blockage of current flow across the triac. This state is called Blocking State. When a
small positive gate voltage (G1) is applied to the P2 -terminal of second diode, the gate
78
current starts flowing. The flow of gate current helps in making current flow across the
junction J2 i.e., in breaking it down. Triac at once begins to conduct and the voltage V
across SCR1 suddenly drops. Full conduction is reached rapidly. Under such conditions,
most of power supply voltage appears across load. The SCR1 is a truly closed switch,
allowing power to flow through the load circuit
Reverse Characteristics:
Terminal MT2 and gate is Negative with respect to terminal MT1: When terminal
MT2 is Negative w.r.t. terminal MT1, the two junctions J1 (P2-N1) and J3 (P1-N4) are
forward biased, whereas junction J2 (N1-P1) is blocked. So there is blockage of current
flow across the SCR2.
This state is called Blocking Stage. When a small negative gate voltage (G2) is applied to
the N1 terminal of second diode, the gate current starts flowing. The flow of gate current
helps in making current flow across the junction J2.i.e. in breaking it down. This state is
called Conducting state. As soon as the SCR2 begins to conduct, the voltage V across
SCR2 is hardly –1V as compared to several hundred volts across the load. The SCR2
now acts as a truly closed switch, allowing power to flow through the load circuit.
Fig. 67 .4
Q.68. What is an IC ? What are its special features ? Why is it so commonly used in
electronic circuits ? Marks (5)
Ans: Integrated Circuit (IC): It is a complete electronic circuit consisting of both the active
and passive components (including their interconnections) fabricated on an extremely
tiny single chip of silicon.
Special Features of ICs:
(i) No component of an integrated circuit can be removed or replaced since all the
components are the integral part of a small semiconductor chip.
(ii) No component of an integrated circuit is projected above the surface of the chip since
they are formed within the chip.
(iii) The size of an IC is extremely small and once needs a microscope to see the
connections between the components.
79
(iv) In IC technology, all the circuit elements (transistors, diodes, resistors, capacitors
etc.) including their interconnections are fabricated at the same time.
ICs are commonly used because of following advantages
(i) Extremely small-thousands times smaller than discrete circuit.
(ii) Very small weight owing to miniaturized circuit.
(iii) Very low cost because of simultaneous production of hundred of similar circuits on a
small semiconductor wafer.
(iv) More reliable because of elimination of soldered joints and need for fewer inter-
connections.
(v) Low power consumption because of their smaller size.
(vi) Easy replacement as it is more economical to replace them and repair is not possible.
(vii) Increased operating speeds because of absence of parasitic capacitance
(viii) Improved functional performance as more complex circuits can be fabricated for
achieving better characteristics.
Q.69 Describe the various steps in the fabrication of a typical monolithic integrated
circuit. Marks (4)
Ans: Various steps in the fabrication of a typical monolithic IC:
Step 1. A part of SiO2 layer is etched off by a photolithographic etching process,

exposing the epitaxial layer as shown in below fig.69(i)a. The remaining SiO2 layer
serves as a mask for the diffusion. The wafer is then put into a furnace for the diffusion
of acceptor (trivalent) impurities (in this case, boron) onto the epitaxial layer. The
acceptor impurities change the exposed epitaxial layer from n-type semiconductor into p-
type semiconductor. The process continuous till p-type impurities reach the p-type
substrate. This forms an island of n-type material under SiO2 layer as shown in fig.69(i)b
ETCHED SiO LAYER SiO LAYER

PORTION 2 2
n n n
p-SUBSTRATE p-SUBSTRATE p-SUBSTRATE
Fig.69(i) a Fig.69(i) b Fig.69(i) c
SiO LAYER SiO LAYER

2 2
COLLECTOR BASE
ETCHED PORTION
WINDOW
P
n n
p-SUBSTRATE p-SUBSTRATE
Fig.69(i) d Fig.69(i) e
80
SiO LAYER
2 SiO LAYER
2
WINDOW
P
P
n
n
Fig.69(i) f Fig.69(i) g
SiO LAYER
2
SiO LAYER
2
EMITTER
n n
P p
n n
Fig.69(i) h Fig.69(i) i
Step 2. Thereafter pure oxygen is passed over the wafer to form to complete silicon
dioxide (SiO2) layer as shown in fig.69(i)c
Step 3. Then, a hole is etched off at the center of the SiO2 layer exposing the epitaxial
layer as shown in fig.69(i)d
Step 4. The wafer is again (for the second time) put into the furnace for the diffusion of
acceptor impurities onto the epitaxial layer exposed for the diffusion. The process
continuous till we get an island of p-type material as shown in fig.69(i)e
Step 5. Again, for the second time, pure oxygen is passed over the wafer to form a
complete layer of silicon dioxide (SiO2) as shown in fig.69(i)f
Step 6. Thereafter, a small hole (called window) is etched off at the center of the SiO2
layer exposing the p-type epitomical layer as shown in fig.69(i)g
1 2 3 4 5 6
WINDOWS
METALLIC LAYER
SiO LAYER
2
n n
p p
n n
Fig.69(ii)a Fig.69(ii)b
Step 7. The wafer is again (for the third time) put into the furnace for the diffusion of
donor (pentavalent) impurities (phosphorus) onto the p-type epitaxial layer exposed for
81
diffusion. The process continuous till we get as island of n-type material as shown in
fig.69(i)h
Step 8. For the last time, pure oxygen is passed over the wafer to form a complete
insulating layer of silicon dioxide (SiO2) as shown in fig.69(i)i
Step 9. For the formation of various components and their interconnection, the newly
formed SiO2 layer is again etched off at various points. This exposes the different
epitaxial layer shown in fig.69(ii)a. A thin film of metal, such as aluminium, is evaporated
over the wafer as shown in fig.69(ii)b. The newly formed windows are filled in with metal
making connections to various epitaxial layers.
Step 10. For the formation of various components and their interconnection, the regions
of the metallic layer not needed are etched off.
Q.70 List the main characteristics of an ideal Op-amp. Marks (4)
Ans: Characteristics of an ideal Operational Amplifier:

(i) Infinite voltage gain A
(ii) Infinite input resistance Ri so that almost any signal source can drive it and there is no
loading of the preceding stage.
(iii) Zero output resistance Ro, so that output can drive an infinite number of other
devices.
(iv) Zero output voltage when input voltage is zero.
(v) Infinite bandwidth so that any frequency signals from 0 to ∝ HZ can be amplified
without attenuation.
(vi) Infinite common-mode rejection ration, so that the output common-mode noise
voltage is zero.
(vii) Infinite slew rate so that output voltage changes occur simultaneously with input
voltage changes.
Q.71 Describe how an Op-amp may be used as Marks(4)

(i) Voltage to current converter.
(ii) Current to voltage converter.
(iii) an integrator.
(iv) a differentiator.
Ans: (i) Voltage to Current Converter: Fig.71(a) shows a voltage-to-current converter in

which load resistor RL is floating (not connected to ground). The input voltage is applied
to the non-inverting input terminal, and the feedback voltage across R1 drives the
inverting input terminal. This circuit is also called a current-series negative feedback
amplifier because the feedback voltage across R1 (applied to the inverting terminal)
depends on the output current io and is in series with the input difference voltage vid.
82
_ R1 Vf
+
io io
I =0 +V R
L
B CC
-
V
id
+
-V
i = output current
EE o
+
V
in
_
Fig.71(a)
Writing Kirchhoff’s voltage equation for the input loop,

vin = vid + vf
But vid ≈ 0 V, since A is very large in an ideal op-amp; therefore,
vin = vf
vin
vin = R1io or io =
R1
This means that in the above circuit, an input voltage vin is converted into an output
current of vin/R1.
(ii) Current-to-Voltage Converter:

The basic inverting operational amplifier is used as current-to-voltage converter which is
shown in fig.71(b)
V2 RF
i in i in
I =0 +V
B CC
2 -
V= - i R
+ o in F
V _
1 -V
I EE
=0 R
B L
1
+
Fig.71(b)
From basic fundamentals, the ideal voltage –gain of the inverting operational amplifier is
vo R
Given by Av = =− F
vin R1
83
v 
Therefore, vo = − in  RF
 R1 
However, in an ideal operational op-amp since, v1 = 0 V and v1 = v2.
vin
= ii n
R1
By substituting the this value in the equation of output voltage (vo), we get
vo = -iinRF
input current iin.
(iii) Op-amp as an Integrator: A circuit in which the output voltage waveform is the integral
of the input voltage waveform is the integrator or the integration amplifier. Such a circuit
is obtained by using a basic inverting amplifier configuration if the feedback resistor R F is
replaced by a capacitor CF as shown in fig.71(c)
R V C
1 2 F
i I i
1 B F +V
CC
+
V t
-
1
R1C F ∫0
in
_ V
351 vo = − vin dt + C
1 +
-V
I EE R
B L
Fig.71(c)
The expression for the output voltage vo can be obtained by writing Kirchoff’s current
equation at node v2 i.e. i1 = IB + iF
Since IB is negligibly small, i1 ≈ iF

The relationship between current through and voltage across the capacitor is given by
dvc
ic = C
dt
Therefore,
vin − v 2 d
= C F  (v 2 − vo )
R1  dt 
However, in an ideal op-amp v1 = v2 ≈ 0 because A is very large. Therefore,

vin d
= C F  (− vo )
R1  dt 
The output voltage can be obtained by integrating both sides with respect to time
84
t t
vin d
i.e. ∫0 R1 ∫0 C F dt (− vo )dt
dt =
= CF(-vo) + vo│t=0
t
1
R1C F ∫0
Therefore, vo = − vin dt + C
Where C is the integration constant and is proportional to the value of the output
voltagevo at time t = 0 seconds the above equation indicates that the output voltage is
directly proportional to the negative integral of the input voltage and inversely proportional
to the time constant R.
(iv) Fig.11(e) shows the differentiator or differentiation amplifier. As its name implies, the
circuit performs the mathematical operation of differentiation; that is, the output waveform
is the derivative of the input waveform. The differentiator may be constructed from a
basic inverting amplifier, if an input resistor R1 is replaced by a capacitor C1.
C V R
1 2 F
i i
C F +V
IB2 ≅ 0 CC
+
V -
in
V1
dvin
_
351 vo = − RF C1
+ dt
-V
EE R
ROM = RF L
I B1 ≅ 0
Fig.71 (d)
The expression for the output voltage can be obtained from Kirchoff’s current
equation written at node v2 as follows:
iC = iB + iF
Since IB ≅ 0, iC = iF
d v − vo
C1 (vin − v 2 ) = 2
dt RF
dvin v
But v1 = v2 ≅ 0 V, because A is very large. Therefore, C1 =− o
dt RF
dvi n
vo = − R F C1
dt
Thus the output vo is equal to the RF C1 times the negative instantaneous rate of
change of the input voltage vin with time.
85
Q.72 Explain the conduction of current in a good conductor. Why does a conductor has
low resistance ? Marks (7)
Ans: Conduction of current in a good conductor: The substances (like copper, aluminum,
silver etc.) which allow the passage of current through them are known as conductors. In
case of conducting materials, there is no forbidden energy gap (i.e., the energy gap
between valence band and conduction band) and the valence and conduction bands
overlap, as shown in fig.72.1
Conduction Band
Conduction Band
Energy
Level in eV
Valence Band
Valence Band
Fig.72.1
The orbits in the conduction band are very large. An electron in the conduction band
experiences almost negligible nuclear attraction. In fact, an electron in the conduction
band does not belong to any particular atom. But it moves randomly throughout the solid.
This is the reason that electrons in the conduction band are called the free electrons.
Due to overlapping of valence and conduction bands, a slight potential difference across
the conductor causes the free electrons to constitute heavy flow of electric current
through them. Conductor has low resistance, because its valence and conduction band
overlaps. So, its conductivity becomes high.
Q.73 What is intrinsic semiconductor. How do we make it extrinsic semiconductor, and

why so ? Marks (7)
Ans: Intrinsic Semiconductor: An intrinsic semiconductor is one which is made of the

semiconductor material in its extremely pure form.
Making of Extrinsic Semiconductor from Intrinsic Semiconductor: Although an

intrinsic semiconductor is capable to conduct a little current even at room temperature but
as it is, it is not useful for the preparation of various electronic devices. However, the
electrical conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor can be increased many times by adding
very small amount of impurity (of the order of one atom per million atoms of pure
semiconductor) to it in the process of crystallization. This process is called doping and
the doped material is called impurity or extrinsic semiconductor.
The purpose of adding impurity in the semiconductor crystal is to increase the

number of free electrons or holes to make it conductive. If a small amount of pentavalent
impurity (having 5 valence electrons), such as arsenic, antimony, bismuth or phosphorus
etc. are added to a pure semiconductor a large number of free electrons will exist in it
and it is called N-type (donor type) extrinsic semiconductor. If a small amount of trivalent
impurity (having 3 valence electrons), such as boron, gallium, indium or aluminium etc.
86
are added to a pure semiconductor, a large number of holes will exist in it and it is called
the P-type (acceptor) semiconductor.
Q.74 Explain the Zener and Avalanche effects. Give differences between them.
Marks (7)
Ans: Avalanche Breakdown: The minority carriers, under reverse biased conditions, flowing
through the junction acquire a kinetic energy which increases with the increase in reverse
voltage. At a sufficiently high reverse voltage (say 5v or more), the kinetic energy of
minority carriers becomes so large that they knock out electrons from the covalent bonds
of the semiconductor material.
As a result of collision, the liberated electrons in turn liberate more electrons and the
current becomes very large leading the breakdown of the crystal structure itself. This
phenomenon is called Avalanche Breakdown.
Zener Breakdown: Under a very high reverse voltage, the depletion region expands and
7
the potential barrier increases leading to a very high electric field (3X10 V/m) across the
junction. The electric field will break some of the covalent bonds of the semiconductor
atoms leading to a large number of free minority carriers, which suddenly increases the
reverse current. This is called the Zener effect. The breakdown occurs at a particular and
constant value of reverse voltage called the breakdown voltage.
Differences between Zener and Avalanche Breakdown:

(i) Diode junctions that breakdown below 5 V are caused by Zener effect whereas
Junctions that experience breakdown above 5 V are caused by Avalanche effect.
(ii) The Zener breakdown occurs in heavily doped junctions (P-type semiconductor
moderately doped and N-type heavily doped), which produce Narrow depletion
layers, whereas Avalanche breakdown occurs in lightly doped junctions, which
produce wide depletion layers.
(iii) With the increase in junction temperature, Zener breakdown voltage is reduced
while the Avalanche breakdown voltage is increases.
(iv) The zener diodes have a negative temperature coefficient while Avalanche
diodes have a positive temperature coefficient.
Q.75 With the help of a neat diagram, explain the operation of a Bridge Rectifier. What
is PIV for the diode used here Marks (7)
Ans: Operation of a Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier: Fig (75.1) shows the circuit of a Full-Wave
Bridge Rectifier. The circuit consists of four diodes D1, D2, D3 and D4 connected to form a
bridge. When a.c. supply is switched on, the alternating voltage Vin appears across the
terminals AB of secondary winding of transformer.
During positive half cycle of secondary voltage, the end A becomes positive and
end B is negative (see fig.75.3). This makes diodes D1 and D3 forward biased and diodes
D2 and D4 reverse biased. Therefore, diodes D1 and D3 conduct while diodes D2 and D4
do not conduct. Thus, current (I) flows through diode D1, load resistor RL (from M to L),
diode D3 and the transformer secondary as shown in fig (75.3). The wave shape of
current through RL is shown in fig.75.2. (b)
87
Fig. (75.1) Fig. (75.2)
During negative half cycle, the end A becomes negative and end B positive (see Fig.
(75.4). This brings diodes D2 and D4 under forward bias and diodes D1 and D3 under
reverse bias. Therefore, diodes D2 and D4 conduct while diodes D1 and D3 do not. Thus,
current (i) flows through diode D2, load resistor RL (from M to L), diode D4 and the
transformer secondary as shown in fig. (75.4). The wave shape of current is shown in
fig.75.2 (b)
Fig.(75.3) Fig (75.4)
The current flowing through load resistor RL is in the same direction (M to L) during both
the half cycles. Hence, rectified output voltage Vout is obtained across the load resistor
RL. The wave shape of output voltage is shown in fig.75.2(c)
Peak Inverse Voltage: The maximum possible value of reverse bias voltage coming
across the diode is called the Peak Inverse Voltage.
Fig (75.5)
Fig (75.5) shows the instant when secondary voltage attains its maximum value and
terminal A is positive and B is negative. At this instant, diodes D1 and D3 are forward
biased and conducting current. Therefore, terminal M attains the same voltage as that of
A’ or A whereas, L attains the same voltage as that of B’ or B. Hence, the diode D2 and
D4 are reverse biased and the voltage across both of the diodes is Vm
Thus, the P.I.V. required for diodes in a Bridge Rectifier is at least Vm.
P.I.V = Vm
88
Q.76 Explain the functioning of a capacitor filter used with the rectifiers. Marks (7)
Ans: Function of a Capacitor Filter used with the Rectifiers: A Shunt Capacitor filter is
shown in fig. 76.1 In this case, a capacitor C of large value is connected in parallel with
the load resistance and hence the name Shunt Capacitor Filter. The capacitor offers a
low reactance path to a.c. component and allows it to pass through but it acts as an open
circuit to d.c. component. Hence, all the d.c.current passes through the load.
Fig.76.1 Fig.76.2
Working: The working of a shunt capacitor filter can be explained with the help of a wave
diagram shown in Fig.76.2. The dotted pulsating wave shows the output of a full-wave
rectifier. When the rectifier voltage is increasing, the capacitor is charged to +Vm (see
curve AB). At point B, the rectifier voltage tries to fall but the charged capacitor
immediately tries to send the current back to the rectifier. In this process, the rectifier
diodes are reverse biased and stop giving supply to the load. Thus, the capacitor
discharges (B to C) through the load. The capacitor continues to discharge until the
source voltage (the dotted curve) becomes more than the capacitor voltage (point C).
The diode starts conducting and the capacitor is again charged to peak value +Vm (point
D). During this time (C to D), the rectifier supplies the charging current ic and load current
iL. So, capacitor not only removes the a.c. component from the output but it also
improves the output voltage. The smoothness and magnitude of output voltage depends
upon the time constant CRL. The longer the time period, the steadier is the output
voltage. This can be achieved by using a large value of capacitor.
Q.77 Define static and dynamic resistances for a diode. What are its uses ? Marks (7)
Ans: (i) Static or D.C. Forward Resistance: The opposition offered by a diode to the direct
current flow in forward bias condition is known as d.c. forward resistance. It is measured
by taking the ratio of d.c. voltage across the diode to the d.c. current flowing through it.
Refer to the characteristic of a diode shown in fig 77.1, for operating point P, the forward
voltage is OA and the corresponding forward current is OB.
OA
RF =
OB
89
Fig.77.1
(ii) Dynamic or A.C. Forward Resistance: The opposition offered by a diode to the
changing current flow in forward bias condition is known as its a.c forward resistance. It
is measured by the ratio of change in voltage across diode to the resulting change in
current through it. Refer to the forward characteristics of a diode shown in fig 77.b(1).
For an operating P, the a.c forward resistance is determined by varying the forward
voltage (CE) on both sides of operating point equally and measuring the corresponding
forward current (DF).
CE ∆V
rf = =
DF ∆I
Uses: Dynamic resistance of diode is useful in small signal amplifiers, while static
resistance is useful when diode is used for large signals as in making a switch.
Q.78 Write short notes on any TWO of the following: Marks (2 X 7 =14)
(i) Differentiation between Passive and Active components.
(ii) IC resistors.
(iii) Op-amp as an Adder.
Ans: (i) Differentiation between Passive and Active Components:

Passive Components: The electronic components which are not capable of amplifying
or processing an electrical signal are called passive components such as resistors,
capacitors and inductors.
Resistor: Resistor is a component, used to limit the amount of current or divide the
voltage in an electronic circuit. The ability of a resistor to oppose the current is called
resistance. It receives the electrical energy from active components and converts it into
heat. The unit of resistance R is ohm for which the symbol is Ω. The resistors are used in
all electronic circuits. Symbols of resistor and variable resistor are shown in fig.78.1
RESISTOR VARIABLE RESISTOR
Fig. 78.1
Capacitors: The two conducting plates separated by an insulating material (called
dielectric) forms a capacitor shown in fig. 78.2 the basic purpose of a capacitor is to store
charge. The capacity of a capacitor to store charge per unit potential difference is called
its capacitance. The unit of capacitance is farads (F). A capacitor is a component which
offers low impedance to a.c. but very high impedance to d.c. Capacitors are used for
coupling, bypassing and filtering.
90
CAPACITOR VARIABLE CAPACITOR
Fig. 78.2
Inductors: The electronic component (mostly a coil) which opposes the change of
current in circuit is called an inductor. The ability of the coil or inductor due to which it
opposes the change of current flowing through it is known as its inductance. The basic
function of an inductor is, it receives the electrical energy from active components and
stores in a magnetic field. The unit of inductance is henrys . An inductor is a component
which offers high impedance to a.c. but very low impedance (opposition) to d.c. The
symbols of inductor
and variable
inductor are shown
in fig. 78.3
INDUCTOR VARIABLE INDUCTOR
Fig. 78.3
Active Components: The electronic components which are capable of amplifying or
processing an electrical signal are called active components such as vacuum tubes, gas
tubes and semiconductor (solid state) devices. Some examples are given below:
(i)Transistor (BJT): It is used as an amplifier and oscillator.
PNP
NPN
Fig. 78.4
(ii)Field-effect Transistor (FET): It is used as an amplifier and oscillator.
NJFET PJFET
Fig. 78.5
(iii)Tube Devices:
Vacuum diode is used as rectifier and detector
Vacuum Triode is used as an amplifier and oscillator
Vacuum Pentode is used as an amplifier and oscillator
PENTODE
VACDIODE
Vacuum Triode Vacuum Tetrode
Fig. 78.6
(iv)Diodes:
Junction diode: It is used as rectifier, detector and in switching circuits
Light Emitting Diode: It emits visible light and is used in instrument displays, digital
watches, calculators etc.
DIODE
LED1
Fig. 78.7
91
Ans.78(ii) IC Resistors: The IC resistors are of the following four types:

(i)Diffused Resistors
(ii) Pinch Resistors
(iii) Thin Film Resistors and
(iv) Thick Film Resistors.
Diffused Resistors: In IC resistors, the resistance value can be controlled by varying

the concentration of doping impurity and depth of diffusion. The range of resistor
values that may be produced by the diffusion process varies from ohms to hundreds
of kilo-ohms. The typical tolerance, however, may be no better than ± 5 %, and may
even be as high as ± 20 %. On the other hand, if all the resistors are diffused at the
same time, then the tolerance ratio may be good. Most resistors are formed during
the base diffusion of the integrated transistor as shown in fig. 78.8. This is because it
is the highest resistivity region and diffused resistors are formed simultaneously with
transistors, diodes and diffused capacitors. No additional steps in the manufacturing
process are necessary. For low resistance values, emitter region is used as it has
much lower resistivity.
Resistors for ICs can also be produced by using thin-film and thick film resistors. But
these techniques require additional steps in the integrated circuit fabrication.. In this
process, a metal film is deposited on a glass or SiO2 surface. The resistance value
can be controlled by varying thickness, width and length of the film. Since diffused
resistors can be processed while diffusing transistors, the diffusion technique is the
cheapest and, therefore, the most widely used.
1 2 Si0 LAYER
2
1 R 2
P-TYPE SUBSTRATE
Fig. 78.8 IC Diffused Resistor
Ans.78(iii) Summing Amplifier: Fig. 78.9 shows the inverting summing amplifier. It is an
inverting configuration with three inputs Va, Vb and Vc. Depending on the relationship
between the feedback resistor RF and the input resistors Ra, Rb, and Rc, the circuit can be
used as a summing amplifier.
92
Ra V2 RF
+V a
Ia IF
Rb
+V b
Ib I =0
Rc B
2 +V CC
+V c -
Ic V1 741 V
o
+
+V EE
I =0
B
1
R = (R II R II R II R ) RL
OM a b c F
Fig. 78.9
The circuit’s function can be verified by examining the expression for the output voltage
Vo, which is obtained from Kirchhoff’s current equation written at node V2. Referring to
the above fig, Ia + Ib + Ic = IB + IF
Since Ri and A of the op-amp are ideally infinity, IB = 0 A and V1 = V2 ≅ 0 V

Therefore,
Va Vb Vc V
+ + =− o
Ra Rb Rc RF
or
R R R 
Vo = − F Va + F Vb + F Vc 
 Ra Rb Rc 
If in the circuit above circuit, Ra = Rb = Rc = R, then the above equation can be written as
Vo = - (Va + Vb + Vc)
This means that the output voltage is equal to the negative sum of all the inputs times the
gain of the circuit RF/R; hence the circuit is called a summing amplifier, Obviously, when
the gain of the circuit is 1, that is Ra = Rb = Rc = RF, the output voltage is equal to the
negative sum of all input voltages.
Q.79 Name the various types of emissions. Explain in detail the photoelectric
emission. Marks (7)
Ans: Types of Electron Emission:

(i) Thermionic Emission
(ii) Secondary Emission
(iii) Photo-electric Emission
(iv) High-field Emission
Photo-Electric Emission: The emission of electrons from a metallic surface by the

application of light energy is called Photo-electric emission.
93
When a beam of light strike at the surface of certain metals of low work function
such as potassium, sodium and cesium, the electrons may be emitted from their surface
if the quantum of energy carried by the photons is equal to or greater than the work
function of the metal. Such a phenomenon is termed as Photo-electric emission and the
emitted electrons are known as Photoelectrons.
Operation: Photoelectric emission is utilized in photo tubes as shown in below fig. 79.1
The emitter E and anode A are enclosed in an evacuated glass envelope. The anode is
connected to the positive terminal of the battery and emitter (cathode) is connected to the
negative terminal. When light of suitable intensity and frequency supplied by the source
S falls on the emitter, the photoemission starts from the emitter. These photoelectrons
are attracted by the positive anode and constitute a current in the outer circuit. The
current will exist in the circuit as long as suitable intensity and frequency of light falls on
the emitter.
Fig. 79.1
The amount of photoelectric emission depends upon the intensity of light falling
upon the emitter and the frequency of radiations. The amount of energy of a photon is
given by the relation:
E = h f ------ (1)
Where, E = the energy of photon in joules
h = Plank’s constant in joules-second
f = frequency of photon in Hz.
A part of this energy is used in knocking out an electron from the metal surface and
the rest of it appears as the kinetic energy of the emitted electron. Therefore,
1 2
E = hf = eφ + mv -------(2)
2
-19
Where, e = electron charge (i.e. 1.602 x 10 C)
φ = work function of emitter in eV
-31
m = mass of an electron (i.e. 9.106 x 10 kg)
v = velocity at which electron comes out of the surface in m/s
The expression (2) shows that the photoemission from a metal surface is possible only
when the frequency of the incident light exceeds a certain threshold value. This is
eφ
obtained by putting v = 0 in expression (2) i.e., fc = and the corresponding
h
wavelength of the incident light is called threshold wave length,
ch
i.e., λC = where, c = velocity of light.
eφ
94
Q.80 Explain the operation of a Liquid Crystal Display (LCD). Where are LCD’s used ?
Marks (7)
Ans: Operation of a Liquid Crystal Display (LCD): An LCD does not radiate any
illumination. It only reflects or transmits incidents illumination. Liquid crystal is organic
fluid shaped like small cigars and sealed between two glass sheets having a transparent
conducting surface. When a low frequency low voltage is applied, the crystal molecules
rearrange their orientation to produce the display.
GLASS ELECTRODE
SPACER & SEALER LIQUID

CRYSTAL
Fig.80.1(a)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Fig.80.1(b)
LCD is a field effect device. The key to its operation is the liquid crystal or organic
fluid sandwitched between two glass plates. An ac voltage is applied across the fluid
from the top metallized segments to the metallized back plane. When affected by the
magnetic field of ac voltage, the fluid transmits light differently and the energized element
appears as black on a silvery background. It uses a polarizing filter on the top and
bottom of the display as shown in fig. 80.1(a) & 80.1(b) The back plane and the
segments are internally wired to contacts on the edge of LCD. Fig. 80.1(a) & 80.1(b)
shows only two of those contacts.
95
Uses of LCD’s:
(i) Field-effect LCDs are normally used in watches and portable instruments where
source of energy is a prime consideration.
(ii) Thousands of tiny LCDs are used to form the picture elements (pixels) of the
screen in one type of B & W pocket TV receiver.
Q.81 Explain in detail, the operation of a JFET. Marks (7)
Ans: Principle of Operation of N-Channel JFET: The circuit diagram of an N-channel JFET
with normal polarities is shown in fig. 81.1
Fig. 81.1
above fig. 81.1(a), the two PN junctions establish a very thin depletion layer. Thus a large
between the two depletion layers.
When a reverse voltage VGS is applied across the gate and source as shown in above
fig. 81.1(b), the width of the depletion layer is increased. This reduces the width of the
conducting channel thereby decreasing the conduction (flow of electrons) through it. Thus
the current flowing from source to drain depends upon the width of the conducting
channel which depends upon the thickness of depletion layer. The thickness of depletion
layer established by the two PN junctions depends upon the voltage applied across the
gate-source terminal. Hence, it is clear that the current from source to drain can be
controlled by the application of potential (i.e. electric field) on the gate. That is why, the
device is called Field Effect Transistor.
Q.82 Draw the circuit of a Full-wave Phase Controlled Rectifier using SCR. Explain its
Working. What are its advantages over a diode rectifier circuits ? Marks (7)
Ans: SCR as a Full-Wave Controlled Rectifier: The circuit of an SCR as full-wave center-
tap rectifier is shown in fig. 82.1. The circuit is exactly like the ordinary centre tap circuit
using two diodes. Here, two SCRs have been used in place of diodes. RL is load across
which d.c. output appears. The gates of both the SCRs get their supply from the different
sources as shown in fig. 82.1(a). By changing resistances r1 and r2, the gate current can
be changed.
Working: Let us assume that the secondary voltage of transformer is less than forward
breakover voltages of the SCRs. Then, it is clear that when both gate circuits are open
(Ig = 0), no part of ac cycle can pass either through SCR 1 or SCR 2. Hence no voltage
appears across the load i.e., output is zero.
96
Fig. 82.1(a) Fig. 82.1(b)
Let us suppose that now we close the gate circuits and pass gate current such
that forward breakover voltage is V1 (V1 < Vm i.e., ½ the secondary voltage). Then, in the
first half cycle when upper end of transformer secondary is positive and lower end
negative, SCR 1 will conduct from α to 180° as shown in fig. 82.2(b) i.e., it will allow the
shaded portion of half cycle to pass through the load. Under such conditions, SCR 2
does not conduct.
Similarly, in the next half cycle, SCR 2 will conduct from (180 + α) to 360°,
whereas SCR 1 does not. The current through the load is in the same direction (i.e.,dc)
in both half cycles. By changing the gate current, we can vary the conduction angle and
hence, the output voltage.
Advantages of Full-Wave Phase Controlled Rectifier using SCR over a Diode
Rectifier Circuit: (i) In an ordinary full-wave rectifier, the rectifier (diode) conducts for
the whole positive and negative half-cycle of ac, whereas, SCR can be made to conduct
for whole or any part of the positive and negative half-cycle of ac by adjustment of gate
current. Thus, the output voltage can be controlled by adjusting the gate current. Hence
SCR operates as Controlled Rectifier.
Q.83 Using as Op-amp, explain the circuits for

(i) an integrator
(ii) a unity gain amplifier (with least components)
(iii) a current to voltage converter
Ans: (i) Op-amp as an Integrator: A circuit in which the output voltage waveform is the
integral of the input voltage waveform is the integrator or the integration amplifier. Such a
circuit is obtained by using a basic inverting amplifier configuration if the feedback
resistor R F is replaced by a capacitor CF as shown in fig 83.1
R V C
1 2 F
i I i
1 B F +V
CC
+
V t
-
1
R1C F ∫0
in
_ V
351 vo = − vin dt + C
1 +
-V
I EE R
B L
Fig. 83.1
97
The expression for the output voltage vo can be obtained by writing Kirchhoff’s
current equation at node v2 i.e., i1 = IB + iF
Since IB is negligibly small, i1 ≈ iF
The relationship between current through and voltage across the capacitor is given by
dvc
ic = C
dt
Therefore,
vin − v 2 d
= C F  (v 2 − vo )
R1  dt 
However, in an ideal op-amp v1 = v2 ≈ 0 because A is very large. Therefore,

vin d
= C F  (− vo )
R1  dt 
The output voltage can be obtained by integrating both sides with respect to time i.e.,
t t
vin d
∫0 R1 ∫0 C F dt (− vo )dt
dt =
= CF(-vo) + vo│t=0
Therefore,
t
1
R1C F ∫0
vo = − vin dt + C
Where C is the integration constant and is proportional to the value of the output voltage
vo at time t = 0 seconds. The above equation indicates that the output voltage is directly
proportional to the negative integral of the input voltage and inversely proportional to the
time constant R1CF.
(ii) Unity gain amplifier: When the non-inverting amplifier is configured for unity gain, it is
called a voltage follower because the output voltage is equal to and in phase with the
input. In other words, in the voltage follower the output follows the input.
The unity gain amplifier using non-inverting op-amp configuration is shown in fig. 83.2
In this circuit, the input voltage is fed to the non-inverting terminal and all the output
voltage is fed back into the inverting terminal of the op-amp.
+V
CC
-
R = 0 ohms A
in +
-V +
+
V in EE
R V =V
_ L o in
_
Fig. 83.2
The close loop gain of a non-inverting op-amp is given by the equation
98
RF
AV = 1 +
R1
In the above diagram RF = R1 = 0Ω
Therefore, the gain AV = 1.
(iii) Current-to-Voltage Converter: The basic inverting operational amplifier is used

as current-to-voltage converter, which is shown in fig. 83.3
V2 RF
i in i in
I =0 +V
B CC
2 -
V= - i R
+ o in F
V _
1 -V
I EE
=0 R
B L
1
+
Fig. 83.3
From basic fundamentals, the output voltage in fig. 83.3 is given by
Vo = − R F iin , because V1 = V2 = 0V in an ideal operational amplifier.
input current iin.
Q.84 By using a common collector NPN transistor configuration, explain how we

Obtain (i) voltage gain (ii) current gain (iii) impedance matching Marks(10)
Ans: (i) Voltage Gain: Fig. 84.1(a) shows the Common Collector NPN transistor amplifier.
Since the emitter resistor is not by-passed by a capacitor, the ac equivalent circuit of
Common Collector Configuration will be as shown in below fig. 84.1(b). The ac
resistance rE of the emitter circuit is given by:
’ 25mV
rE = r e + RE where r 'e =
IE
Note that input voltage is applied across the ac resistance of the emitter circuit i.e., (r’e +
RE). Assuming the emitter diode to be ideal
99
+V
CC
i = i
c e
R
1
r' i
e e
V R II R
V in 1 2
in
R R
V out RE V
2 E out
Fig. 84.1(a) Fig. 84.1(b)
Output Voltage Vout = ie. RE

Input Voltage Vin = ie (r’+ RE)
Therefore, Voltage Gain of Common Collector Configuration
Vout ie R E RE
AV = = =
Vin ie (r ' e + RE ) r ' e + RE
RE
Or AV =
r ' e + RE
In most practical applications, RE >> r’e so that AV ≅ 1
In practice, the voltage gain of a Common Collector Configuration is between 0.8 and
0.999.
(ii) Current Gain: Assuming R1 || R2 >> rE, the current gain is given as
∆I E
∆I E ∆I E ∆I E 1 ∆I
γ = = = = (Q α = C )
∆I B ∆I E − ∆I C ∆I E ∆I C 1 − α ∆I E
−
∆I E ∆I E
= β +1
(iii) Input Impedance of Common Collector Configuration: As for CE amplifier, the

input impedance of common collector configuration is the combined effect of biasing
resistors (R1 and R2) and the input impedance of transistor base [Zin (base)]. Since these
resistances are in parallel to the ac signal, the input impedance Zin of the emitter follower
is given by (refer to fig. 10.1(b)
Zin = R1║ R2 ║ Zin (base)
where Zin (base) = (β + 1) (re’ + R’E)

25mV
r 'e = and R’E = RE ║ RL
IE
100
In a Common Collector Configuration, the impedance of base [i.e., Zin (base)] is generally
very large as compared to R1 parallel to R2. Consequently, Zin (base) can be ignored. As a
result, approximate input impedance of the common collector configuration is given by:
Zin = R1 ║ R2
(iv) Output Impedance of Common Collector Configuration:
The output impedance of a circuit is the impedance that the circuit offers to the
load. When load is connected to the circuit, the output impedance acts as the source
impedance for the load. Fig. 84.2 shows the circuit of Common Collector Configuration.
Here Rs in the output resistance of amplifier voltage source.
+V
CC
R
1
R
S
R
2
R
E
+
Fig. 84.2
The output impedance Zout of the common collector configuration is given by
 R' 
Z out = RE ║  r ' e + 'in 
 β 
Where R’in = R1 ║R2 ║ Rs
In practical circuits, the value of RE is large enough to be ignored. For this reason, the
output impedance of common collector configuration is approximately :
 R' 
Z ou t = r ' e + in 
 β 
So, the Common Collector Configuration has High Input Impedance (hundreds of kilo-
ohms) and Low Output Impedance (tens of ohms). It is a good impedance matching
device.
Q.85 How is a BJT biased for stability ? Marks (4)
Ans: Requirements of Biasing Circuit for Stability: A biasing network associated with a
BJT should fulfill the following requirements:
(i) Establish the operating point in the middle of the active region of the characteristics, so that on
applying the input signal, the instantaneous operating point does not move either to the
cut-of region or to the saturation region, even at the extreme values of the input signal.
(ii) Stabilize the collector current Ic against temperature variations.
(iii) Make the operating point independent of transistor parameters so that replacement of
transistor by another of the same type in the circuit does not shift the operating point.
Q.86 Draw the schematic diagram of an ideal non-inverting Op-amp with voltage
Series feedback and derive an expression for the voltage gain. Marks(6)
101
Ans: Expression for the Closed Loop Voltage Gain of a Non-inverting Op-amp:
The circuit diagram of an Ideal Non-inverting Op-amp with voltage series feedback is
+V
CC
V
1
+
V A
id +
-
V
Rin ≅ 0Ω 2
+
-V
EE
V
in V RL
_ o
+ RF
v
f R
1
_ _
Feedback
circuit
shown in fig.86(a)
Fig. 86(a)
vo
The closed loop voltage gain is given by AF = (or) the output voltage is given by
vi n
vo = A (v1 – v2) (Q vin = v1 − v2 )
Referring to the fig.11(a), we see that v1 = vin
R1vo
v2 = v f = since Ri >> R1
R1 + RF
 R1vo 
Therefore, vo = A vin − 
 R1 + R F 
A(R1 + RF )vin
Rearranging the above equation, we get vo =
R1 + RF + AR!
vo A(R1 + RF )
Thus AF = = (exact)
vin R1 + RF + AR1
5
Generally, A is very large (typically 10 ).
Therefore,
AR1 >> (R1 + RF) and (Ri + RF + AR1) ≈ AR1
Thus
vo R
AF = = 1+ F (ideal)
vin R1
102
DE05 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
DE06 BASIC ELECTRONICS

PART - I
OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS
Each Question carries 2 marks.
Q.1 The “Superposition theorem” is essentially based on the concept of

(A) duality. (B) linearity.
(C) reciprocity. (D) non-linearity.
Ans: B
Q.2 Cells are connected in parallel in order to

(A) increase the voltage available. (B) reduce cost of wiring.
(C) increase the current available. (D) reduce the time required to fully
charge them after use.
Ans: C
Q.3 The power factor of a purely resistive circuit is

(A) zero. (B) unity.
(C) lagging. (D) leading.
Ans: B
Q.4 The power taken by a 3-phase load is given by the expression

(A) 3 VL I L cos φ . (B) 3 VL I L cos φ .
(C) 3 VL I L sin φ . (D) 3 VL I L sin φ .
Ans: B
Q.5 Which of the following generating stations has the minimum running cost?
(A) hydro-electric station. (B) nuclear power station.
(C) thermal power station. (D) diesel power plant.
Ans: A
Q.6 Which of the following motors has a high starting torque?

(A) ac series motor. (B) dc series motor.
(C) induction motor. (D) synchronous motor.
1
Ans: B
Q.7 A step-up transformer increases

(A) voltage. (B) current.
(C) power. (D) frequency.
Ans: A
Q.8 The effect of increasing the length of the air gap in an induction motor will be to increase
(A) power factor. (B) speed.
(C) magnetising current. (D) air-gap flux.
Ans: C
Q.9 The combined resistance of two equal resistors connected in parallel is equal to
(A) One half the resistance of one resistor.
(B) Twice the resistance of one resistor.
(C) Four times the resistance of one resistor.
(D) One fourth the resistance of one resistor.
Ans: A
Q.10 Superposition theorem can be applicable only to circuits having _________ elements.
(A) Non- linear (B) Passive
(C) Resistive (D) Linear bilateral
Ans: D
Q.11 The Q- factor of a coil is given by

(A) Its power factor cos ϕ.
(B) Ratio of max. energy stored & energy dissipated per cycle..
(C) Reciprocal of its power factor.
(D) Ratio R/Z.
Ans: C
Q.12 Voltage equation of a dc motor is

(A) V = Eb + Ia Ra. (B) Eb = V + Ia Ra.
(C) V = Eb / Ia Ra. (D) V = Eb + Ia 2Ra.
Ans: A
Q.13 The efficiency of a transformer is maximum when

(A) It runs at half full load. (B) It runs at full load.
(C) Its Cu loss equals iron loss. (D) It runs overload.
Ans: C
2
Q.14 The crawling in an induction motor is caused by

(A) Improper design of the machine (B) Low voltage supply.
(C) High loads. (D) Harmonics developed in the motor.
Ans: D
Q.15 The starting winding of a single-phase motor is placed in

(A) Rotor. (B) Stator.
(C) Armature. (D) Field.
Ans: B
Q.16 Reduction in the capacitance of a capacitor- start motor results in reduced

(A) Noise. (B) Speed.
(C) Starting torque. (D) Armature reaction.
Ans: C
Q.17 In an ac circuit, the ratio of kW / kVA represents

(A) Power factor. (B) Load factor.
(C) Form factor. (D) Diversity factor.
Ans: A
Q.18 The unit of inductance is

(A) Ohm. (B) Mho.
(C) Farad. (D) Henry.
Ans: D
Q.19 Thevenin’s equivalent circuit consists of _________.

(A) Series combination of RTh, ETh and RL.
(B) Series combination of RTh, ETh.
(C) Parallel combination of RTh, ETh.
(D) Parallel combination of RTh, ETh and RL.
Ans: B
Q.20 In an R – L –C circuit, the phase of the current with respect to the circuit voltage will
be_________.
(A) Leading. (B) Same.

(C) Lagging. (D) Depends upon the value of Land C.
Ans: D
3
Q.21 The frequency of DC supply is__________.

(A) Zero. (B) 16 ⅔ Hz.
(C) 50 Hz. (D) 100 Hz.
Ans: A
Q.22 Load factor is defined as the ratio of _________.

(A) Average Demand / Max. Demand.
(B) Max. Demand / Average Demand.
(C) Average Demand / Connected load.
(D) Connected load / Max. Demand.
Ans: A
Q.23 Static Capacitors are used for__________.

(A) Power improvement. (B) Current improvement.
(C) Voltage improvement. (D) Power factor improvement.
Ans: D
Q.24 The speed of an induction motor__________.

(A) Decreases too much with the increase of load.
(B) Increases with the increase of load.
(C) Decreases slightly with the increase of load.
(D) Remains constant with the increase of load.
Ans: C
Q.25 Centrifugal switch is provided for disconnecting the auxiliary winding in a_______.
(A) Capacitor- start motor. (B) Capacitor run motor.
(C) Reluctance motor. (D) Hysteresis motor.
Ans: A
Q.26 Rotating magnetic field is produced in a ________.

(A) Single- phase induction motor. (B) Three- phase induction motor.
(C) DC series motor. (D) AC series motor.
Ans: B
Q.27 The frequency of the secondary voltage of a transformer will be_________.

(A) Less than the frequency of the primary voltage.
(B) Equal to the primary voltage.
(C) Greater than the frequency of the primary voltage.
(D) Very much greater than the frequency of the primary voltage.
Ans: B
4
Q.28 The demand factor for the electrical system is the ratio of
(A) Maximum demand to connected load
(B) Maximum demand to average load
(C) Average power to maximum power
(D) Relative power to total power
Ans: A
Q.29 When a low resistance is connected in parallel with a high resistance, the combined
resistance is
(A) Always more than the high resistance.
(B) Always less than the low resistance.
(C) Always between the high resistance & low resistance.
(D) Either lower or higher than low resistance depending on the value of high
resistance.
Ans: B
Q.30 Q factor of an inductive coil is given by

(A) R/Z (B) 2 π f r/R
(C) 2 π f L/R (D) l r/l
Ans: B
Q.31 The r.m.s. value of sinusoidal 100 V peak to peak is _________ volt.
(A) 100 2 (B) 50 2
(C) 50 (D) 100
Ans: B
Q.32 If the readings of the two wattmeters in the 2-wattmeter method of power measurement are 4.5
kW and 3.5 kW respectively and the latter reading has been obtained after reversing the
current coil of the wattmeter. What will be the total power in kW?
(A) 1 (B) 3.5
(C) 4.5 (D) 8
Ans: A
Q.33 A DC series motor is best suited for driving

(A) Lathes. (B) Cranes and hoists.
(C) Shears and punches. (D) Machine tools.
Ans: B
Q.34 Transformer cores are built up from laminations rather than from solid metal so that
5
(A) Oil penetrates the core more easily.

(B) Eddy current loss is reduced.
(C) Less lamination is required for the windings.
(D) Turn ratio is higher than voltage ratio.
Ans: B
Q.35 In a DC series motor increase in load current results in

(A) Decrease in speed (B) Increase in speed
(C) Better commutation (D) Increase in the back emf.
Ans: A
Q.36 The starting torque of a 1-phase induction motor is

(A) High. (B) Moderate.
(C) Low. (D) Zero.
Ans: D
Q.37 An electric motor in which rotor and stator fields rotate simultaneously is called a __________
motor.
(A) DC (B) Induction
(C) Synchronous (D) Universal
Ans: C
Q.38 In India, electrical power is transmitted by

(A) 1 – phase a.c. system. (B) 3-wire d.c. system.
(C) 3-phase 3-wire a.c. system. (D) 2-wire d.c. system.
Ans: C
Q.39 In ac circuit the product of voltage and current is known as

(A) Power. (B) Real power.
(C) Resistive power. (D) Apparent power.
Ans: D
Q.40 A network that does not have either voltage or current sources is called
(A) Active network. (B) Passive network.
(C) Resistive network. (D) Dummy network.
Ans: B
6
Q.41 The Power- factor at resonance in R-L-C circuit is

(A) Zero. (B) Unity.
(C) 0.5 lagging. (D) 0.5 leading.
Ans: B
Q.42 In an 8 – pole wave connected motor armature, the number of parallel paths are
(A) 8 (B) 4
(C) 2 (D) 1
Ans: C
Q.43 Transformer core is laminated to

(A) Reduce the copper losses. (B) Reduce the core losses.
(C) Reduce the eddy current losses. (D) None of these.
Ans: C
Q.44 The relation between frequency, speed and number of poles is given by
(A) N s = 120 x f p . (B) f = 120 x N s p .
(C) N s = 120 x p f . (D) N s = f x p 120 .
Ans: A
Q.45 Star – delta starter of an induction motor

(A) Inserts resistance in rotor circuit.
(B) Inserts resistance in stator circuit.
(C) Applies reduced voltage to rotor.
(D) Applies reduced voltage to stator.
Ans: D
Q.46 Stator core of an induction motor is made of

(A) Laminated cast iron. (B) Mild steel.
(C) Silicon steel stampings. (D) Soft wood.
Ans: C
Q.47 Watt hour is the unit of

(A) Electric power. (B) Electric capacity.
(C) Electric energy. (D) Electric charge.
Ans: C
Q.48 A battery is a source of

(A) DC voltage. (B) 1 φ AC voltage.
(C) 3 φ AC voltage. (D) AC or DC voltage.
7
Ans: A
Q.49 Which DC motors has approximately constant speed?

(A) Series motor. (B) Shunt motor
(C) Cumulatively compound motor (D) All of the above.
Ans: B
Q.50 Which of the following bulbs will have the least resistance?
(A) 220V, 60W (B) 220 V, 100 W
(C) 115 V, 60 W (D) 115V, 100 W
Ans: D
Q.51 Resistance of a wire is r ohms. The wire is stretched to double its length, then its resistance
in ohms is
(A) r/2 (B) 4r
(C) 2r (D) r/4
Ans: B
Q.52 An electric machine will have high efficiency when

(A) input/output ratio is low (B) reactive power is more
(C) kWh consumption is low (D) losses are low
Ans: D
Q.53 Which type of loss is not common to transformers and rotating machines?
(A) Eddy current loss (B) Copper loss
(C) Hysteresis loss (D) Windage loss
Ans: D
Q.54 The difference between the synchronous speed and the actual speed of an induction motor is
known as
(A) Regulation (B) back lash
(C) slip (D) lag
Ans: C
Q.55 In two wattmeter method of power measurement, if one of the wattmeter shows zero
reading, then it can be concluded that
(A) Power factor is unity (B) Power factor is zero
(C) Power factor is 0.5 lagging (D) Power factor is 0.5 leading
Ans: C
8
Q.56 Which of the following will remain the same in all parts of a series circuit?
(A) Voltage (B) Current
(C) Power (D) Resistance
Ans: B
Q.57 Which single phase motor would you select for a tape recorder?
(A) Reluctance motor (B) Hysteresis motor
(C) Synchronous motor (D) Universal motor
Ans: B
Q.58 Under the condition of resonance, RLC series circuit behaves as a,

(A) Purely resistive circuit. (B) Purely inductive circuit.
(C) Capacitive circuit. (D) Reactive circuit.
Ans:A
Q.59 During charging, the electrolyte of a lead acid cell becomes

(A) Stronger. (B) Weaker.
(C) Water. (D) Diluted.
Ans:D
Q.60 As compared to shunt and compound motors, series motor have the highest torque because of
its comparatively __________ at the start.
(A) Lower armature resistance. (B) Stronger series field.
(C) Fewer series turns. (D) Larger armature current.
Ans:D
Q.61 The input of an ac circuit having p.f. of 0.8 lagging is 20 kVA. The power drawn by the
circuit is __________ kW.
(A) 12. (B) 20.
(C) 16. (D) 8.
Ans: C
Q.62 The voltage ratio of the transformer is given as

(A) E S E P (B) TS TP
(C) TP TS (D) E P TS
Ans:A
Q.63 The relationship between the frequency of ac wave and the time period is given by
9
(A) f = T (B) f = 1 T 2
(C) f = 1 T (D) f = T 2
Ans: C
Q.64 Which of the following power plant has the maximum efficiency?
(A) Thermal (B) Hydroelectric
(C) Nuclear (D) Diesel
Ans:C
Q.65 Three capacitors of value 8µF , 16µF and 32 µF are connected in series, the total
capacitance will be
(A) 32 7 µF . (B) 7.32 µF .
(C) 56 µF . (D) 32 µF .
Ans: A
Q.66 The following components are all active components

(A) a resistor and an inductor.
(B) a diode, a BJT and an FET.
(C) a capacitor, and an inductor.
(D) an Opamp, a BJT and thermionic triode.
Ans: B
Q.67 In forward mode NPN BJT, if we increase the voltage VCC , the collector current increases
(A) due to ohm’s law, higher VCC causes higher current.
(B) due to base width decrease less carrier recombine in the base region.
(C) as the gradient of the minority carriers in the base region becomes steeper.
(D) due to both the reasons (B) and (C).
Ans: D
Q.68 The barrier voltage (Vr or Vo ) in a junction diode is the effect of

(A) the p-side and n-side of the junction forming a battery.
(B) the emf required to move the holes fast enough to have the mobility equal to that of
the electrons.
(C) the recombination of charge carriers across the junction leaving behind the opposite
charged ions.
(D) the voltage needed to make the semiconductor material behave as a conductor.
Ans:C
10
Q.69 An emitter follower has high input impedance because

(A) large emitter resistance is used.
(B) large biasing resistance is used.
(C) there is negative feedback in the base emitter circuit.
(D) the emitter-base junction is highly reverse biased.
Ans: C
Q.70 In a differential amplifier an ideal CMRR is

(A) infinity. (B) zero.
(C) –1. (D) +1.
Ans: A
Q.71 FET is advantageous in comparison with BJT because of

(A) high input impedance. (B) high gain-bandwidth product.
(C) its current controlled behaviour. (D) high noise immunity.
Ans: A
Q.72 The emission of electrons in a vacuum diode is achieved by

(A) electrostatic field. (B) magnetic field.
(C) heating. (D) electron bombardment.
Ans: C
Q.73 The colour code of a resistor of nominal value 2.7KΩ ± 10% is

(A) Red, violet, red and silver. (B) Red, violet, yellow and gold.
(C) Red, violet, orange and silver. (D) Red, violet, red and gold.
Ans: A
Q.74 Capacitor that can have the highest capacitance value is

(A) Mica (B) Paper
(C) Electrolytic (D) Ceramic
Ans: C
Q.75 The equivalent current-source representation for a voltage-source with open circuit voltage 12
V and internal resistance 3 ohms is
(A) a current-source of strength 4A in shunt with a resistance of 6Ω .
(B) a current –source of strength 4A in series with a resistance of 3Ω .
(C) a current-source of strength 4A in shunt with a resistance of 3 ohms.
(D) a current-source of strength 4A in shunt with a resistance of 36 ohms.
Ans: C
Q.76 An intrinsic semiconductor at absolute zero temperature
11
(A) has a large number of holes.

(B) behaves like an insulator.
(C) behaves like a metallic conductor.
(D) has few holes and same number of electrons.
Ans: A
Q.77 The current flow through a Ge PN junction diode with a forward bias of 0.22 Volt and a
reverse saturation current of 1 mA at 25o C is around
(A) 6.3 A (B) 5.22 A
(C) 4 mA (D) 5.1 mA
Ans: B
Q.78 For the operation of a depletion-type N-MOSFET, the gate voltage has to be
(A) low positive (B) high positive
(C) high negative (D) zero
Ans: D
Q.79 The typical operating voltage for LED’s ranges from

(A) 0.2 V to 0.6 V. (B) 6 V to 10 V.
(C) 1.5 V to 2.5 V. (D) 9 V to 10 V.
Ans: C
Q.80 Capacitors for integrated circuits

(A) cannot be made using diffusion techniques.
(B) can be made with very high values of capacitance.
(C) are always discrete components connected externally.
(D) can be made using silicon dioxide as the dielectric.
Ans: D
Q.81 The magnitude of variation in the output voltage for a 10 V regulated dc power supply of
0.002% regulation will be
(A) 0.2 mV. (B) 0.002 mV.
(C) 0.02 mV. (D) 0.2 µV .
Ans: A
Q.82 For the circuit shown in Fig.1, the output voltage is given by
12
RF
(A) v o = (v 2 − v1 ) .
R1
RF
(B) v o = (v 2 − v1 ) − v 2 .
R1
RF
(C) v o = (v 2 − v1 ) + v 2 .
R1
(D) v o =
(v 2 − v 1 )
(R 1 + R F ) .
Ans: C
Q.83 Which one of the following statements is not true?

(A) Capacitance is a measure of a capacitor’s capability to store charge.
(B) A capacitor offers high impedance to ac but very low impedance to dc.
(C) A capacitor is also used as bypass capacitor.
(D) Capacitors are used to couple alternating voltages from one circuit to another and
at the same time to block dc voltage from reaching the next circuit.
Ans: B
Q.84 A voltage source having an open-circuit voltage of 100 V and internal resistance of 50 Ω is
equivalent to a current source
(A) 2A in parallel with 50 Ω . (B) 2A with 50 Ω in series.
(C) 0.5A in parallel with 50 Ω . (D) 2A in parallel with 100 Ω .
Ans: A
Q.85 In a Zener diode large reverse current is due to

(A) collision. (B) presence of impurities.
(C) rupture of bonds (D) lower resistance in reverse biased
region.
Ans: D
Q.86 Ripple factor of a full-wave rectifier without filter will be

(A) 0.2. (B) 0.48.
(C) 0.24. (D) 1.21.
Ans: B
Q.87 JFET has main drawback of

(A) having low input impedance.
(B) having high output impedance.
(C) being noisy.
13
(D) Having small gain-bandwidth product.
Ans: D
Q.88 A UJT has

(A) stable negative resistance characteristics.
(B) low firing current.
(C) use as a waveform generator.
(D) all of these characteristics.
Ans: D
Q.89 For thermionic emission

(A) a material with high work function is preferable.
(B) a material with low work function is preferable.
(C) the work function of the material has no importance.
(D) None of these is true.
Ans: B
Q.90 Ideal operational amplifier has input impedance of

(A) 1MΩ . (B) infinity.
(C) zero. (D) 1Ω .
Ans: B
Q.91 The CE configuration amplifier circuits are preferred over CB configuration amplifier circuits
because they have
(A) lower amplification factor.
(B) Larger amplification factor.
(C) high input resistance and low output resistance.
(D) none of these.
Ans: B
Q.92 The most commonly used type of electron emission in electron tubes is
(A) Photo-electron emission. (B) Thermionic emission.
(C) Field emission. (D) Secondary emission.
Ans: A
Q.93 The colour band sequence of a resistor is grey, Blue, gold, and gold. The range in which its
value must lie so as to satisfy the tolerance specified is between
(A) 7.5Ω and 8.5Ω (B) 3.12KΩ and 5.22KΩ
(C) 10.3KΩ and 12.31KΩ (D) 8.17Ω and 9.03Ω
Ans: D
14
Q.94 A device whose characteristics are very close to that of an ideal current source is
(A) a gas diode. (B) a BJT in CB mode.
(C) a BJT in CE mode. (D) a triode.
Ans: C
Q.95 In an N-type semiconductor, the concentration of minority carriers mainly depends upon
(A) the doping technique. (B) the number of donor atoms.
(C) the temperature of the material (D) the quality of the intrinsic material,
Ge or Si.
Ans: B
Q.96 When forward bias is applied to a junction diode, it

(A) increases the potential barrier.
(B) decreases the potential barrier.
(C) reduces the majority-carrier current to zero.
(D) reduces the minority-carrier current to zero.
Ans: B
Q.97 The theoretical maximum efficiency of a Bridge rectifier circuit is

(A) 48.2%. (B) 81.2%.
(C) 82%. (D) 40.6%.
Ans: B
Q.98 The input resistance of a common-collector configuration will be of the order of

(A) ~ 90KΩ (B) ~ 60KΩ
(C) ~ 150KΩ (D) 300KΩ and above
Ans: D
Q.99 A switching voltage regulator can be of the following type:

(A) step-down (B) step-up
(C) inverting (D) none of these
Ans: A
Q.100 A UJT contains

(A) four pn junctions (B) three pn junctions
(C) two pn junctions (D) one pn junction
Ans: D
Q.101 The foundation on which an IC is built is called
15
(A) an insulator. (B) a base.

(C) a wafer. (D) a plate.
Ans: C
Q.102 X-ray tubes make use of

(A) Thermionic emission. (B) Secondary emission.
(C) High field emission. (D) Photoelectric emission.
Ans: C
Q.103 Which of the following components are all active components?

(A) A resistor and a capacitor.
(B) A microphone, a LCD and a Thyratron.
(C) An electric bulb, a transformer and a varactor diode.
(D) An SCR, a vacuum diode and an LED.
Ans: D
Q.104 Doping materials are called impurities because they

(A) Decrease the number of charge carriers.
(B) Change the chemical properties of semiconductors.
(C) Make semiconductors less than 100 percent pure.
(D) Alter the crystal structures of the pure semiconductors.
Ans: B
Q.105 Avalanche breakdown is primarily dependent on the phenomenon of

(A) Collision (B) Doping
(C) Ionisation (D) Recombination
Ans: D
Q.106 In a rectifier, larger the value of shunt capacitor filter

(A) Larger the peak-to-peak value of ripple voltage.
(B) Larger the peak current in the rectifying diode.
(C) Longer the time that current pulse flows through the diode.
(D) Smaller the dc voltage across the load.
Ans: D
Q.107 The main reason why electrons can tunnel through a P-N junction is that
(A) They have high energy.
(B) Barrier potential is very low.
(C) Depletion layer is extremely thin.
(D) Impurity level is low.
Ans: C
16
Q.108 If a change in base current does not change the collector current, the transistor amplifier is said
to be
(A) Saturated. (B) Cut-off.
(C) Critical. (D) Complemented.
Ans: A
Q.109 The extremely high input impedance of a MOSFET is primarily due to the
(A) Absence of its channel.
(B) Negative gate-source voltage.
(C) Depletion of current carriers.
(D) Extremely small leakage current of its gate capacitor.
Ans: A
Q.110 After firing an SCR, the gating pulse is removed. The current in the SCR will
(A) Remains the same. (B) Immediately fall to zero.
(C) Rise up. (D) Rise a little and then fall to zero.
Ans: A
Q.111 An inverting operational amplifier has R f = 2MΩ and R1 = 2KΩ . Its scale factor is
(A) 1000. (B) − 1000 .

−3
(C) 10 . (D) − 10 −3 .
Ans: B
Q.112 In the context of IC fabrication, metallisation means

(A) Connecting metallic wires.
(B) Forming interconnecting conduction pattern and bonding pads.
(C) Depositing Sio2 layer.
(D) Covering with a metallic cap.
Ans: B
Q.113 The colour band sequence of a resistor is yellow, violet, orange and gold. The range in
which its value must lie so as to satisfy the tolerance specified is between
(A) 40KΩ and 42.5KΩ (B) 44.65Ω and 49.3Ω
(C) 44.65KΩ and 49.35KΩ (D) 43.25KΩ and 45.22KΩ
Ans: D
Q.114 A device whose characteristics are very close to that of an ideal voltage source is
(A) a vaccum diode. (B) a DIAC.
(C) a zener diode. (D) a FET.
Ans: C
17
Q.115 The forbidden energy gap in semiconductors

(A) lies just below the valance band
(B) lies just above the conduction band
(C) lies between the valence band and the conduction band
(D) is the same as the valence band
Ans: C
Q.116 The barrier potential for a Ge PN junction is

(A) 0.6V. (B) 0.3V.
(C) 0.1V. (D) 0.5V.
Ans: B
Q.117 The ripple factor of a power supply is a measure of

(A) its voltage regulation. (B) its diode rating.
(C) purity of power output. (D) its filter efficiency.
Ans: C
Q.118 In a BJT, if the emitter junction is reverse-biased and the collector junction is reverse-biased, it
is said to operate in
(A) in active region (B) in saturation region
(C) in cut-off region (D) none of the above
Ans: C
Q.119 In the switching type of voltage regulators, the power efficiency will be of the order of
(A) 50% or less. (B) 60%.
(C) 40% or more. (D) 90% or more.
Ans: D
Q.120 The resistance between bases of a UJT is typically in the range of

(A) 2 to 3 K Ω (B) 5 to 10 K Ω
(C) 15 to 20 K Ω (D) 18 to 20 K Ω
Ans: B
Q.121 The quantity that serves as a figure of merit for a DIFF AMP is
(A) slew rate. (B) bandwidth.
(C) input bias current. (D) CMRR.
Ans: D
Q.122 Practical range of resistance values obtainable with base diffused resistors is
18
(A) 10 Ω to 1 K Ω (B) 20 Ω to 30 K Ω
(C) 5 Ω to 3 K Ω (D) 20K Ω to 50 K Ω
Ans: D
Q.123 The colour band sequence of a resistor is Yellow, Violet, Orange and Gold. The range in
which its value must lie so as to satisfy the tolerance specified is between
(A) 44.66 KΩ and 49.35 KΩ (B) 44.65 KΩ and 49.35 KΩ
(C) 44.65 KΩ and 49.36 KΩ (D) 45 KΩ and 49.34 KΩ
Ans: B
Q.124 With increasing temperature, the resistivity of an intrinsic semiconductor decreases. This is
because, with the increase of temperature
(A) The carrier concentration increases but the mobility of carriers decreases.
(B) Both the carrier concentration and mobility of carriers decreases.
(C) The carrier concentration decreases, but the mobility of carriers increases.
(D) The carrier concentration remains the same but the mobility of carriers decreases.
Ans: A
Q.125 At room temperature of 25ºC, the barrier Potential for Silicon is 0.7V. Its value at 0ºC will be
(A) 0.7 V. (B) 0.65 V.
(C) 0.75 V. (D) 0.55 V.
Ans: C
Q.126 Which of the following is a unipolar device?

(A) P-N junction diode (B) Zener diode
(C) Tunnel diode (D) Schottky diode
Ans: D
Q.127 On applying a Positive voltage signal to the base of a normally biased N-P-N CE transistor
amplifier
(A) Base current will fall.
(B) Collector current will fall.
(C) Emitter current will fall.
(D) Collector voltage will become less positive.
Ans: D
Q.128 An N-channel JFET has Pinch-off Voltage of VP = – 4V and given that VGS = –1V,
then the minimum VDS for the device to operate in the Pinch-off region will be
(A) +1V (B) +3V
(C) +4V (D) +5V
19
Ans: B
Q.129 The extremely high input impedance of a MOSFET is Primarily because of

(A) Absence of its channel
(B) Depletion of current carriers
(C) Extremely small leakage current of its gate capacitor
(D) Negative VGS
Ans: A
Q.130 When two identical SCRs are placed back-to-back in series with a load and if each is fired at
90º, then the voltage across the load will be
2
(A) × Peak Voltage (B) Zero
π
1 1
(C) × Peak Voltage (D) × Peak Voltage
π 2
Ans: A
Q.131 In the differentiating circuit shown in Fig.1, the function of resistor R1 is to

RF
R1 C1 +VCC
-
+
VI ~ R OM –VEE
VO
Fig 1
(A) Enable the circuit to approach ideal differentiator
(B) Maintain high input impedance
(C) Eliminate high frequency noise spikes
(D) Prevent oscillations at high frequencies
Ans:C
20
PART – II
DESCRIPTIVES
Q.1 Define the following and give their units of measurement:-
(i) Resistance. (ii) Electric Potential.
(iii) Electric current. (2 x 3)
Ans:
(i) Resistance: - The opposition offered by a substance to the flow of electric current. The
unit of resistance is ohm and given by the symbol Ω.
(ii) Electric Potential: -The capacity of a charged body to do work. The unit of electric
potential is volt (V).
(iii) Electric Current: - The flow of free electrons constitutes electric current. The unit of
electric current is called ampere (A).
Q.2 Give reasons, why, starters are required for starting a motor. (6)
Ans:
In case of DC motors, when the motor is at rest, the induced emf in the armature is zero.
Consequently, if full voltagte is applied across the motor terminals, the armature will draw
heavy current because the armature resistance is relatively small. This heavy starting current
will blow out the fuses and it may also damage the armature winding due to excessive
heating effect. Excessive voltage drop will occur in the lines to which the motor is
connected. To avoid this havy current at start, a variable resistance is connected in series
with the armature called starting resistance or starter, thus the armature current is limited to a
safe value. Once the motor picks up speed, emf is built up and the resistance is gradually
reduced. The whole resistance is taken out of circuit when the motor attains normal speed.
The starter contains the protective device as overload protection coil (or relay), which
provides necessary protection to the motor against overloading. In case of induction motors,
the current drawn by the motor from the supply mains depends upon the rotor current. This
current is very large as compared to its full load current. So when squirrel cage motors are
directly connected to the supply mains, it draws very large current from the mains which
effects in two ways – it produces very lare voltage drop in the distribution lines and affects
the voltage regulation of the supply system. It causes disturbance of the other motors
connected to the same lines. Hence these motors should be started by means of some starting
device known as starter.
Q.3 Why single phase induction motor are not self starting? (8)
Ans:
Single phase induction motor
Single phase induction motors set up pulsating torque, instead inidirectional and continuous
torque. This is because force experienced by the current carrying conductors depends upon
the direction of current and the magnitude of the flux. As an alternating current, direction
and magnitude is changing so varying force is experienced by the conductors. Once in one
21
direction, say clockwise, then in other direction, i.e. anticlockwise. The change is so quick
that neither it moves in a clockwise direction nor in an anticlockwise direction. However, if
the motor is rotated by some means in any direction it will continue to rotate, even though
the starting means have been withdrawn due to resultant torque in that direction. Hence we
can say single phase motors are not self starting and certain means have to be used for
starting single phase induction motors.
Q.4 State and explain Maximum power transfer theorem. Also give its applications. (8)
Ans:
Maximum power transfer theorem deals with transfer of maximum power from the source to
load. This theorem states the relationship between load resistance and internal resistance of
the source for maximum power transfer from source to load. This condition is also referred
to as impedance matching. Impedance matching is very important in electronic and
communication circuits so as to obtain maximum power. Power transferred in an ac circuit is
maximum when RL (load resistance) = Ri (internal resistance of the source). This theorem is
useful in electronic circuits where maximum power transfer is usually desirable such as
Public address System. Also this theorem is applicable in starting of car engines.
Q.5 Based on the core construction, explain the two types of transformer. (8)
Ans:
Two types of core construction are adapted for transformers-core type and shell type. In the
core type of construction, the LV and HV coils are interleaved to reduce the leakage flux.
Half of LV and half HV are wound on each limb of the core type transformer. For
economical insulation, the LV coils are placed next to the core and HV coils are placed on
the outside. In the shell type transformer reduced leakage flux is obtained by sandwiching
the LV and HV coils. The LV coils are sandwiched between the sections of the HV coil.
Both the coils are placed on the central limb of the core.
1 HV 1 LV 1 LV 1 HV
2 2 2 2
Windings
Windings Core
CORE TYPE
22
Sandwiched LV
HV windings
Core
SHELL TYPE
Q.6 Explain the word back emf used for a dc motor and highlight its significance. (6)
Ans:
The rotating conductors of the armature between the poles of magnet, in a DC motor, cut
the magnetic flux, thereby developing an induced emf, which opposes the applied / external
voltage. The induced emf set up in the coil of DC motor opposing the current flowing
through the conductor, when the armature rotates, is called back emf. The value of the back
emf depends upon the speed of rotation of the armature conductors.When the motor starts,
the back emf in the beginning is zero. Consequently, the current flowing through the
armature conductors is very large, since the armature resistance is very small. This current
is very large and may damage the motor. In order to avoid this , additional resistance is
connected in series with the armature to limit the current at starting.
Q.7 Write a note on selection of motors for specific engineering applications. (8)
Ans:
Selection of motors for different engineering applications:
Series motors are used in cranes, pumps, trains, trolleys, etc. due to its very high starting
torque and variable speed.
Shunt motors run practically at constant speed at almost all loads. Such motors are used in
lathes, drills, printing press and for driving pumps.
Cumulative compounds are used in machine tools, coal cutting machines, punch presser,
crushers, compressor, rolling mills, elevators where very high starting torque is required and
adjustable varying speed is required.
Three phase induction motors are used for high power applications such as in industries.
Single-phase motors are used in most homes, offices and rural areas.
Fractional kilowatt motors are used in fans, refrigerators, mixers, vacuum cleaners, washing
machines, and small farming appliances.
Shaded pole motors are used in small fans, convectors, vending machines, photocopying
machines, advertising displays.
Q.8 Explain the principle of a transformer. (6)
23
Ans:
Working Principle of a transformer: The basic principle of a transformer is electromagnetic
induction. It consists of two separate windings placed over the laminated silicon steel core.
The winding to which ac supply is connected is called
primary winding and the winding to which load is connected is called a secondary winding.
When ac supply of voltage v1 is connected to primary winding, an alternating
flux is set up in the core. This alternating flux when links with secondary winding, an emf is
induced in it and is called mutually induced emf. The direction of this induced emf is opposite
to the applied voltage v1. The same alternating flux also links with the primary winding and
produces self-induced emf e1. Although there is no electrical connection between primary and
secondary winding, but electrical power is transferred from primary circuit to the secondary
circuit through mutual flux. The induced emf in the primary and secondary winding depends
upon the rate of change of flux linkages (i.e. N dφ/dt). The rate of change of flux (dφ/dt) is
same for both primary and secondary. Therefore, the induced emf in the primary is proportional
to number of turns of the primary winding (e1 ∝ N1) and in the secondary it is proportional to
the number of turns
of the secondary windings (e2 ∝ N2). In case N2 > N1 the transformer is step up and in
case N2 < N1 the transformer is step down.
Q.9 Explain the term slip in an induction motor. (4)
Ans:
Induction motor rotor always rotates at a speed less than synchronous speed. the difference
between the flus speed (Ns) and the rotor speed (N) is called slip. It is usually expressed as a
percentage of synchronous speed (Ns) and represented by the symbol ‘S’.
Ns − N
%S = × 100
Ns
24
Q.10 Differentiate between the ‘squirrel cage’ and ‘phase wound’ rotor types of induction
motors. (8)
Ans:
Squirrel cage rotor phase wound rotor

Almost constant speed but Speed decreases more rapidly than
decreases slightly with increased squirrel cage motor.
load.
Starting torque is somewhat less, Starting torque is about three times the
but running torque is good. full load torque. Running torque is also
good.
Starting current is about 5-6 times Starting current is about 2 times the full
the full load current. load current.
Speed control is done by changing Speed control is done by changing
poles. external resistance of rotor circuit.
Power factor is about 0.7 to 0.8. Power factor is about 0.8 to 0.9.
Cost of fabrication is low. Cost of fabrication is high.
Maintenance cost is very low. Maintenance cost is high (because of
extra resistance).
Application- lathes, drills, printing Applications – lifts, cranes, where high
machines, blowers. starting torque is needed.
Q.11 Explain application and advantages of storage batteries? (10)
Ans:
Applications of storage batteries: Because of the fact that storage batteries are portable,
economical, efficient and reliable source of d.c. supply, they have a number of commercial
applications. Some of the important applications are:-
i) These are used for starting, ignition and lighting of automobiles, aircrafts etc.
ii) For lighting on steam and diesel railways trains.
iii) As a source of power supply in telephone exchange, laboratories and broad casting
stations.
iv) Used at generating stations and substations for operation of protective devices and
for emergency lighting.
v) For emergency lighting at hospitals, banks, rural areas where electricity supply is not
possible.
Advantages of storage batteries
Following are the advantages of using storage batteries:-
i) It is the highest and most efficient device for the storage of energy in portable form.
ii) The stored energy is available immediately because there is no lag of time for
delivering the stored energy.
iii) The energy storing in the battery may be done at any convenient rate and delivered at
any other rate.
iv) It is very reliable source for supply of energy.
25
v) The energy can be drawn at a fairly constant rate.
Q.12 How does a three-phase synchronous motor differ from a three-phase induction motor?
Give a few applications of synchronous motors. (8)
Ans:
Synchronous motor is not self-starting and requires starting devices. It runs only at
synchronous speed. So the speed is constant. It has to be synchronized. It can be operated
under a wide range of p.f. both leading and lagging. The change in the applied voltage, does
not cause much effect on its torque. It is more costly and complicated. The breakdown
torque is approximately proportional to applied voltage. Where as induction motors are self-
starting and do not require any starting devices. Its speed decreases with load and it has not
to be synchronized. It always runs at lagging p.f., whose value becomes very low at light
loads. The change in the applied voltage causes much effect on its torque. It is simple,
rugged and low in cost. The breakdown torque depends on the square of the applied voltage.
Applications: Synchronous motors are used to improve power factor of large industries, in
substations. It is used to control the voltage at the end of transmission line by varying their
excitation. Also used in textile mills, cement factories, mining industries and rubber mills for
power applications. They are also used to drive constant speed equipment such as centrifugal
pumps, centrifugal fans, air compressors, motor-generator sets, and blowers.
Q.13 Explain the different methods for the starting of a synchronous motor. (6)
Ans:
Starting methods: Synchronous motor can be started:
(1) by means of an auxiliary motor: In this case, an auxiliary motor rotates the rotor of
synchronous motor. Then rotor poles are excited due to which the rotor field is locked with
the stator revolving field and continuous rotation is obtained.
( 2) By providing damper winding: In this case, bar conductors are embedded in the outer
periphery of the rotor poles and are short-circuited with the short-circuiting rings at both
sides. The machine is started as a squirrel cage induction motor first. When it picks up
speed, excitation is given to the rotor and the rotor starts rotating continuously as the rotor
field is locked with stator revolving field.
Q.14 Name the types of motors used in: vacuum cleaners, phonographic appliances, vending
machines, refrigerators, rolling mills, lathes, power factor improvement and cranes.
(8)
Ans:
Motors used are: -
Vacuum cleaners- Universal motor.
Phonographic appliances – Hysteresis motor.
Vending machines – Shaded pole motor.
Refrigerators – Capacitor split phase motors.
Rolling mills – Cummulative motors.
Lathes – DC shunt motors.
Power factor improvement – Synchronous motors.
26
Cranes – DC series motors.

Q.15 Name the different types of 1-phase A.C motors. Give some important application of these
motors. (8)
Ans:
Different types of 1-phase AC motors and their applications:
i) Single phase Induction motor:- These motors are of different types

1. Capacitor start single phase induction motor is generally used for fans, refrigerator,
washing machines, blowers and centrifugal pumps etc.
2. Split phase induction motor is used in bench grinder, drills etc.
3. Shaded pole single phase induction motor is used in electric record players, slide
projectors etc.
ii) Due to high efficiency and good speed of motor, universal motor is used for vacuum
cleaners, electric type writers etc.
iii) Reluctance motor is used in electric clocks due to constant speed.
iv) Hysteresis motor is used in record player, tape recorders and clocks due to
steady hysteresis torque.
Q.16 With the help of a neat sketch explain the various parts of a nuclear reactor. (8)
Ans:
Parts of a nuclear reactor: The fission of a nuclear material is carried out in a nuclear
reactor.
Fuels: - used in the reactor have some components of 238U. In advanced gas cooled reactor
enriched uranium dioxide fuel in pellet form encased in stainless steel cans is used. The fuel
could be in the form of rods enclosed in stainless steel.
Moderators: - are used to slow down the neutrons. Commonly used moderators are graphite,
light water and heavy water.
Coolants: - these remove the heat generated in the core by circulation and transfer it outside
for raising steam. Common coolants are light ordinary water, heavy water, CO2 gas and also
metals like sodium or sodium- potassium alloy in liquid form.
Control Materials: - control is achieved by means of a neutron absorbing material. The control
elements are commonly located in the core in the form of either rods or plates. The most
commonly used neutron absorber is boron.
Reactor Shield: - surrounding the reactor core with a radiation shield makes provisions for
health protection. This is also called biological shield.
The energy given off in a reactor appears in the form of heat, which is removed by a gas or
liquid coolant. The hot coolant is then used in a heat exchanger to raise steam. If the coolant is
ordinary water, steam could be raised inside the reactor. This steam runs a turbo generator for
producing electric energy.
27
Nuclear reactor
Q.17 Define the following terms:

(i) Diversity Factor. (ii) Annual Load Factor.
(iii) Capacity Factor. (6)
Ans:
Diversity Factor = Σ individual maximum demands of consumers
Maximum load on the system
Annual load factor = Total annual load (Mwh)

Annual peak load (MW) X 8760 h
Capacity factor = Actual annual generation (Mwh)

Maximum rating (Mw) X 8760 h
Q.18 Write note on Energy storage. (7)
Ans:
Energy storage: - Large-scale storage of energy, which can be quickly converted to electrical
form, can help fast changing loads. The options available are pumped storage, compressed air
storage, heat storage, hydrogen storage and batteries.
Pumped storage: - In areas where sufficient hydrogenation is not available, peak load may be
handled by means of pumped storage. This consists of upper and lower reservoirs and
reversible turbine-generator sets, which can also be used as motor –pump sets. The upper
reservoir has enough storage for full load generations.
Compressed air storage: - Compressed air can be stored in natural underground caverns or
old mines. The energy stored equals the volume of air multiplied by pressure. At times of
need, this air can be mixed with gas fuel to run a gas turbine.
Heat storage:- Water with good specific and latent heat has been used. In generating stations,
boilers can be kept ready on full steam for the turbine to pick up fast rising load. Boiler steam,
when not in use can heat feed water for boilers in the station.
28
Secondary batteries: - These have possible use in local fluctuating loads, electric vehicles
and back up for wind and solar power. There are a number of batteries like lead acid cell,
nickel cadmium cell and sodium sulphur cell.
Q.19 State the following:

(i) Thevenin’s Theorem.
(ii) Norton’s Theorem.
(iii) Maximum power transfer theorem.
(iv) Kirchoff’s laws. (8)
Ans:
(i)Thevenin’s Theorem states that the current flowing through a load resistance RL
connected across any two terminals A and B of a linear, active bilateral network is given by
Voc / (Ri + RL) where Voc is the open circuit voltage (ie. the voltage across the two terminals
when RL is removed) and Ri is the internal resistance of the network as viewed back into the
open circuited network from terminals A and B with all voltage sources replaced by their
internal resistance (if any) and current sources by infinite resistance.
(ii)Norton’s Theorem states that any two – terminal active network containing voltage
sources and resistances when viewed from its output terminals, is equivalent to a constant
current source and parallel resistance. The constant current is equal to the current which
would flow in a short circuit placed across the terminals and parallel resistance is the
resistance of the network when viewed from these open circuited terminals after all voltage
and current sources have been removed and replaced by their internal resistances.
(iii)Maximum power transfer theorem: A resistive load will abstract maximum power from
a network when the load resistance is equal to the resistance of the network as viewed from
the output terminals, with all energy sources removed leaving behind their internal
resistances.
(iv)Kirchoff’s first law states that the algebraic sum of all currents meeting at a point is zero.
Σ I = 0.
Kirchoff’s second law states that, in a closed circuit, the algebraic sum of all the emf’s plus
the algebraic sum of all the voltage drops (i.e. product of current and resistances) is zero.
Σ I R + Σ emf = 0.
Q.20 Write short notes on

(i) Different losses in transformer. (8)
(ii) Resonance in R-L-C series circuit. (8)
Ans:
(i) Different losses in transformer
There are two types of losses occurring in transformer:
1. Constant losses or Iron losses:These losses occur in the core, therefore known as core
losses or iron losses. There are two types of iron losses, one is the eddy current loss
and other is hysteresis loss. These losses depend upon the supply voltage, frequency,
core material and its construction. As long as supply voltage and frequency is constant,
these losses remain the same whether the transformer is loaded or not. Hence core
losses are known as constant losses.
29
2. Variable losses or copper losses: When the transformer is loaded, current flows in
primary and secondary windings and there is loss of electrical energy due to the
resistance of the primary winding and secondary winding. If current in primary is
I1 amp and in secondary is I2 amp and primary resistance is r1 and secondary resistance
2 2
is r2 ohms then total copper losses are equal to I1 r1 + I 2 r2 . In fact these losses are
winding material losses; therefore, these are known as copper losses.These losses
depend upon the loading conditions of the transformers. Therefore, these losses are
also called as variable losses.
(ii) Resonance in R-L-C Series circuit:A circuit in which the two components L and C
are connected in series with each other across a variable frequency a.c. source is called a
series resonance circuit as shown in fig.9(a)
XL
XL
O P f
XC
XC [at fr , X L = X C ]
XC
Fig 9(a) Fig 9(b)
If the frequency of the voltage source is varied, then the value of inductive reactance XL and
capacitor reactance XC at a particular frequency can be given as
The total impedance of the circuit will be given as Z = R 2 + ( X L − X C )

2
Where R is the resistance of the circuit which may be resistance of the coil.
It is clear from the above equation that XL increases linearly with frequency whereas XC
decreases inversely with frequency as shown in the fig. 9b. There will be a particular
frequency at which XL is equal to XC. This frequency is called resonance frequency (fr). At
this frequency Z = R and circuit will behave as purely resistive circuit.
At resonant frequency X L = XC
2πf r L = 1 / 2πf r C
2
f r = 1 / 4π 2 LC
f r = 1 / 2π (LC )
Q.21 What are the different types of D.C motors? Give their applications? (8)
Ans:
Different type of DC motors and their applications are as follows:-
1. Shunt motors: Shunt motor is a fairly constant speed motor though its starting
torque is not very high. Hence it is suitable for constant speed drive which do not
30
require very high starting torque such as pumps, blowers, fan, lathe machines, tools’
belt or chain conveyor etc.
2. Service motors: This motor develops a high starting torque & its sped is inversely
proportional to the loading conditions i.e. when lightly loaded, the speed is high and
when heavily loaded, it is low. Therefore, motor is used in lifts, cranes, traction
work, coal loader and coal cutter in coal mines etc.
3. Compound motors: This motor has a variable speed and high starting torque. It can
also run at NIL loads without any danger. This motor will therefore find its
application in loads having high inertia load or requiring high intermittent torque
such as elevators, conveyor, rolling mill, planes, presses, shears and puches, coal
cutter and winding machines etc.
Q.22 Derive the emf equation of a transformer. (6)
Ans:
When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to the primary winding of a transformer, a sinusoidal
flux as shown in the fig. is set up in the iron core which links with the primary and
secondary winding. Let ϕ m = maximum value of flux in wb, f-= supply frequency in Hz.
N1= No. of turns of the primary and N2 = No. of turns of secondary. As shown in the fig.
the flux changes from + ϕm to - ϕm in half a cycle ie. 1/2f seconds.
Average rate of change of flux = ϕm – (-ϕm) = 4 ϕm f wb/s
1/2f
Now, the rate of change of flux per turn is the average induced emf per turn in volts.
Therefore, average induced emf / turn = 4 ϕm f volts.
For a sinusoidal wave, R.M.S. value / Average value = Form factor = 1.11
Therefore, R.M.S. value of emf induced / turn, E = 1.11 X 4 ϕm f volts.
Therefore, R.M.S. value of emf induced in primary, E1 = (emf induced/ turn) X No. of
primary turns. = 4.44 N1 f ϕm volts.
Similarly R.M.S. value of emf induced in secondary, E2 = (emf induced/ turn) X No. of
secondary turns. = 4.44 N2 f ϕm volts.
+ ϕm
ϕ
1/2 f
1/ f - ϕm
Q.23 What are the different methods of measurement of power in 3-phase circuit. Explain two
wattmeter method in brief. (8)
Ans:
Following methods are available for measuring power in 3-phase circuit
31
i) Three wattmeter method

ii) Two wattmeter method
iii) One wattmeter method
Two wattmeter method: In this method Two wattmeters are used for power measurement.
As shown in fig.3a, the current coils of two wattmeters are inserted in any two line and the
voltage coil of each joined to the 3rd line. It can be proved that the sum of the instantaneous
power indicated by W1 and W2 gives the instantaneous power absorbed by the three loads
L1, L2 & L3.
Fig 3a Fig 3b
This method can be applied to star connected as well as delta connected load. Considering
star connected load
Instantaneous current through W1 = iR
Instantaneous Voltage across W1 = e RB = e R − e B
Instantaneous Power read by W1 = i R (e R − e B )
Instantaneous current through W2 = i y
Instantaneous Voltage across W2 = e yB = e y − e B
Instantaneous Power read by W2 = i y (e y − e B )
Therefore W1 + W2 = i R (e R − e B ) + i y (e y − e B )
= i R e R + i y e y − e B (i y + i R )
Now iR + i y + iB = 0 by kirchoffs point law
(i y + iR ) = −iB
W1 + W2 = i R e R + i y e y + i B e B = p1 + p 2 + p 3
Where p1 is the power absorbed by L1, p2 that absorbed by L2 and p3 that absorbed by L3
W1 + W2 = total power absorbed
Hence in two wattmeter method the sum of readings of two wattmeters gives the total
power absorbed by 3-Ф circuit.
Q.24 Explain the process of commutation in a dc machine. Explain what are inter-poles and why
they are required in a dc machine. (8)
32
Ans:
Commutation: When an armature coil moves under the influence of one pole- pair, it carries
constant current in one direction. As the coil moves into the influence of the next pole- pair,
the current in it must reverse. This reversal of current in a coil is called commutation. Several
coils undergo commutation simultaneously.
The reversal of current is opposed by the static coil emf and therefore must be aided in some
fashion for smooth current reversal, which otherwise would result in sparking at the brushes.
The aiding emf is dynamically induced into the coils undergoing commutation by means of
compoles or interpoles, which are series excited by the armature current. These are located
in the interpolar region of the main poles and therefore influence the armature coils only
when these undergo commutation.
Q.25 What are the different network theorems? State Thevenin’s theorem. (6)
Ans:
There are a number of theorems to solve electrical networks. Some of the important
network theorems are:
i. Thevenin’s Theorem
ii. Norton’s Theorem
iii. Super Position Theorem
iv. Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
Thevenin’s Theorem: It states that any two terminal linear networks containing a number of
e.m.f. sources and impedances may be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a
voltage generator (Vth) in series with an impedance (Rth). This circuit will be called as
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.
Fig 2a
Where Vth – Thevenin’s equivalent voltage (open circuit voltage across terminal AB)
Rth – Thevenin’s equivalent impedance (Resistance between terminal AB when all
emf sources in the network are reduced to zero.)
Q.26 Explain the operation of a three phase induction motor. (6)
Ans:
Operation of a 3- phase induction motor: When the 3- phase supply is given to the stator
of a 3- phase wound induction motor, a rotating field is set-up in the stator. At any instant
33
the magnetic field set up by the stator is shown in fig. An arrowhead Fm marks the direction
of
resultant field. Let this field be rotating in an anticlockwise direction at an angular speed of
ωs radians per second ie. Synchronous speed. The stationary rotor conductors cut the
revolving field and due to electromagnetic induction an emf is induced in the rotor
conductors. As the rotor conductors are short circuited, current flows through them in the
direction as marked in the fig. Rotor current carrying conductors set up a resultant field Fr.
This tries to come in line with the stator main field Fm. Due to this an electromagnetic Te is
developed in the anticlockwise direction. Thus, the rotor starts rotating in the same direction
in which stator field is revolving.
Q.27 Explain the working principle of operation of a single phase transformer. (6)
Ans:
Working principle of operation of a single phase transformer:When AC supply is given
to the primary winding, a current will start flowing in the primary. This will set up flux.
This flux is linked with primary and secondary windings. Hence voltage is induced in both
the windings. Now, if load is connected to the secondary side, then current will start
flowing in the load in the secondary winding, resulting in flow of additional current in the
secondary winding. Hence according to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction, emf
will be induced in both the windings. The voltage induced in the primary winding is due to
its self inductance and known as self induced emf and according to Lenze’s law it will
oppose the cause i.e. supply voltage hence called as back emf. The voltage induced in
secondary coil is known as mutually induced voltage. Hence transformer works on the
principle of electromagnetic induction.
Q.28 Define the following terms:-

Reliability, Maximum demand, Reserve-generating capacity, Availability (operational).
(8)
34
Ans:
Reliability: It is measure by the power system’s ability to serve all power demands without
failure over long periods of times.
Maximum Demand: It is the greatest demand of load on the power station during a given
period.
Reserve generating capacity: Modern generating plants are stressed to limits of temperature
and pressure to reduce the overall power costs. Therefore, extra generation capacity must be
installed to meet the need of scheduled downtimes for preventive maintenance.
Availability: As the percentage of the time a unit is available to produce power whether
needed by the system or not.
Q.29 What are the disadvantages of low power factor? How can it be improved? (8)
Ans:
Disadvantages of low power factor:
1) Line losses are 1.57 times those at unity power factor.
2) Larger generators and transformers are required.
3) Low lagging power factor causes a large voltage drop, hence extra regulation equipment is
required to keep voltage drop within prescribed limits.
4) Greater conductor size: To transmit or distribute a fixed amount of power at fixed voltage,
the conductors will have to carry more current at low power factor. This requires a large
conductor size.
Methods of improving power factor:
1) Static Capacitors: The static capacitors are connected in parallel with the load operating at
lagging power factor.
2) A synchronous motor takes a leading current when over excited and therefore behaves like
a capacitor.
3) Phase advancers: Are used to improve the power factor of induction motors. It provides
exciting ampere turns to the rotor circuit of the motor. By providing more ampere-turns than
required, the induction motor can be made to operate on leading power factor like an over-
excited synchronous motor.
Q.30 Explain why the following motors are used in the particular applications indicated against
them. Synchronous motors – power-factor improvement, DC shunt motors – lathes, DC
series motors- lifts and cranes, Cumulative compound motor – rolling mills. (8)
Ans:
Synchronous motors – power factor improvement- the power factor of the motor can be
controlled over a wide range by adjusting its excitation. Since it can be operated under a wide
range of power actors both lagging and leading by its field current it is used in power factor
improvement.
DC shunt motors – Lathes - shunt motor is almost constant speed motor. It is used where the
speed between no loads to full load has to be maintained almost constant.
35
DC series motors- lifts and cranes – series motor is a variable speed motor. It is used where
high torque is required at the time of starting to accelerate heavy loads.
Cumulative compound motor- rolling mills – Unlike a series motor, it has a finite no-load
speed but speed drops sharply relieving the peak power drawn from the mains as the billet is
passed through rolls.
Q.31 What are the advantages and disadvantages of high voltage DC transmission? (8)
Ans:
Advantages of the high voltage DC transmission are:
• These systems are economical for long distance bulk power transmission by overhead
lines.
• There is greater power per conductor and simpler line construction.
• Ground return is possible.
• There is no charging current.
• The voltage regulation problem is much less serious for DC since only the IR drop is
involved (IX =0).
• There is reversibility and controllability of power flow through a DC link.
• The DC line is an asynchronous or flexible link and it can interconnect two rigid systems
operating at different frequencies.
• Smaller amount of right of way is required. The distance between two outside conductors
of a 400kV AC line is normally 20m, whereas the same between a corresponding DC line
is roughly half.
• Line losses are smaller.
• There is considerable insulation economy. The peak voltage of the 400 kV AC line is √2
X 400 = 564kV. So the AC line requires more insulation between the tower and
conductors, as well as greater clearance above the earth as compared to corresponding
400 kV DC line.
The disadvantages of high voltage DC transmission are:
• The systems are costly since installation of complicated converters and DC switchgear is
expensive.
• Converters require considerable reactive power.
• Harmonics are generated which require filters.
• Converters do not have overload capability.
• Lack of HVDC circuit breakers hampers multiterminal or network operation. There is
nothing like DC transformer which can change the voltage level in a simply way.
• Reactive power required by the load is to be supplied locally as no reactive power can be
transmitted over a DC link.
Q.32 Explain the following terms – Busbar, load, system, outage. (8)
Ans:
Busbar – It is a solid electrical connection made of aluminium or copper bars connecting
various power system components like generators, transformers, lines, loads.
36
Load – It is a device or devices which draw electrical power from the busbar to do useful
work for the consumers, drive motors and other processes in industry, in domestic load it is
lighting, refrigeration, small electrical appliances.
System – The complete electrical networks, prime movers, generators, transformers, lines
and loads.
Outage – Removal of a circuit either deliberately or inadvertently.
Q.33 State a few applications of solar energy. Also explain the structure of a solar photovoltaic
cell. (2+6)
Ans:
Applications of solar energy: Solar energy is used in water heating, solar drying,
desalination, industrial process heating and passive / active heating of buildings. Also solar
radiation is used to heat a working fluid, which runs turbines. Also solar photovoltaic are
widely used in satellites in space, for meeting energy requirements of defence personnel
stationed at remote areas.
The structure of a solar photovoltaic cell is:
The top layer is glass cover, transparency 90 –95 %. Its purpose is to protect the cell from
dust, moisture etc. The next is a transparent adhesive layer, which holds the glass cover.
Underneath the adhesive is an antireflection coating to reduce the reflected sunlight to below 5
%. Then follows a metallic grid, which collects the charge carriers, generated by the cell under
incidence of sunlight, for circulating to outside load. Under the lower side of the metallic grid
lies a p-layer followed by n-layer forming a pn- junction at their interface. The thickness of the
top p- layer is so chosen that enough photons cross the junction to reach the lower n-layer.
Then follows another metallic grid in contact with the lower n- layer. This forms the second
terminal of the cell.
Incident sunlight
Glass covering
Transparent adhesive
Anti reflection coating
Metallic contact
Metallic grid p-type
n-type
Metallic contact
Structure of a photovoltaic cell
Q.34 State the factors, for the choice of electrical system for an aero turbine. Also draw the block
diagram of VSCF wind electrical system. What are the advantages of VSCF wind electrical
system? (2+2+4)
37
Ans:
The choice of electrical system for an aero turbine is guided by three factors:
1. Type of electrical output: dc, variable- frequency ac, and constant- frequency ac.
2. Aero turbine rotational speed: constant speed with variable blade pitch, nearly constant
speed with simpler pitch- changing mechanism or variable speed with fixed pitch blades.
3. Utilization of electrical energy output: in conjunction with battery or other form of
storage, or interconnection with power grid.
FFac
VFac dc
VS
Grid
Aero turbine ac-dc dc-ac

Syn. generator
converter converter Local load
Block diagram of VSCF wind electrical system:

VF(variable frequency), FF (fixed frequency)
Advantages of VSCF wind electrical system are:

1. No complex pitch changing mechanism is needed.
2. Aero turbine always operates at maximum efficiency point.
3. Extra energy in the high wind speed region of the speed – duration curve can be extracted.
4. Significant reduction in aerodynamic stresses, which are associated with constant – speed
operation.
Q.35 Derive the equivalent star circuit from a delta circuit. (8)
Ans:
Delta/Star Transformation: Consider three resistors RAB, RBC, RCA connected in delta to
three terminals A, B, C as shown in the Fig 2 (a). Let the equivalent star- connected network
have resistances RA, RB and RC (Fig 2(b)). Since the two arrangements are electrically
equivalent, the resistance between any two terminals of one network is equal to the resistance
between the corresponding terminals of the other network.
A A
RA
RC
A RAB
RC RB
C C B
RBC B
Fig 2(a) Fig 2(b)
38
Consider the terminals A and B of the network. RAB, RBC, RCA are connected in delta.
Equivalent star connected network has resistances RA, RB and Rc.
Resistance between A and B for star = Resistance between A and B for delta
RA+RB = RAB llel (RBC + RCA )
R AB (RBC + R CA )
or R a + RB = (i)
R AB + R BC + R CA
R BC (R CA + R AB )
Similarly RB + RC = (ii)
R AB + R BC + R CA
R CA (R AB + R BC )
RC + R A = (iii)
R AB + R BC + R CA
Adding (i),(ii) and (iii)
R AB (R BC + R CA ) R (R + R AB ) R (R + R BC )
R A + RB + R C + R C + R C + R A = + BC CA + CA AB
R AB + R BC + R CA R AB + R BC + R CA R AB + R BC + R CA
By adding,
R ABRBC + R ABR CA + RBCR CA + RBCR AB + R CAR AB + R CA RBC
2(R A + R B + R C ) =
R AB + RBC + R CA
 (R R + R ABR CA + R BCR CA ) 
2(R A + RB + R C ) = 2 AB BC 
 R AB + RBC + R CA 
(R ABRBC + R ABR CA + RBCR CA )
or R A + RB + R C = (iv)
R AB + RBC + R CA
Subtracting (i) from (iv)

R CA R BC
RC = (v)
R AB + R BC + R CA
RBCR AB (vi)
RB =
R AB + RBC + R CA
R ABR CA
RA = (vii)
R AB + RBC + R CA
Q.36 Explain the uses of: shaded – pole motor, capacitor start motor, DC series motor and DC
shunt motor. (8)
Ans:
Shaded pole motors - are used in small fans, convectors, vending machines, photocopying
Capacitor start motors – It have larger starting torque and is used in machine tools,
refrigeration, and air-conditioning.
DC series motors- lifts and cranes – series motor is a variable speed motor. It is used where
high torque is required at the time of starting to accelerate heavy loads.
39
DC shunt motors – Lathes, drills, printing press and for driving pumps.- Shunt motor is
almost constant speed motor. It is used where the speed between no loads to full load has to
be maintained almost constant.
Q.37 Explain the terms real power, apparent power and reactive power for ac circuits and also the
units used. (6)
Ans:
Real Power: is equal to the product of voltage, current and power factor i.e.
Power = voltage X current X power factor or P = V I cos ϕ and basic unit of real power is
watt. i.e. Expressed as W or kW.
Apparent power: is equal to the product of voltage and current
Apparent power = voltage X current or Apparent power = V I and basic unit of apparent
power is volt- ampere. Expressed as VA or KVA.
Reactive Power: is equal to the product of voltage, current and sine of angle between the
voltage and current i.e.
Reactive power = voltage X current X sinϕ or Reactive power = V I sin ϕ and has no other
unit but expressed in VAR or KVAR.
Q.38 Explain how motors are selected for specific engineering applications. (8)
Ans:
Selection of motors for different engineering applications:
Series motors are used in cranes, pumps, trains, trolleys, etc. due to its very high starting
torque and variable speed.
Shunt motors runs practically at constant speed at almost all loads. Such motors are used in
lathes, drills, printing press and for driving pumps.
Cumulative compounds are used in machine tools, coal cutting machines, punch presser,
crushers, compressor, rolling mills, elevators where very high starting torque is required and
adjustable varying speed is required.
Three phase induction motors are used for high power applications such as in industries.
Single-phase motors are used in most homes, offices and rural areas.
Fractional kilowatt motors are used in fans, refrigerators, mixers, vacuum cleaners, washing
machines, and small farming appliances.
Shaded pole motors are used in small fans, convectors, vending machines, photocopying
Synchronous motors – power factor improvement- the power factor of the motor can be
controlled over a wide range by adjusting its excitation. Since it can be operated under a wide
range of power actors both lagging and leading by its field current it is used in power factor
improvement.
Q.39 Explain, the construction, working principle & applications of a single-phase induction
motor. (8)
40
Ans:
Working : Construction of a single -phase induction motor is similar to that of a three -
phase induction motor except that the stator is provided with a single- phase winding. Thus,
it has a stator with slots, and squirrel cage rotor with a small air-gap in between.
When it is connected to single- phase ac supply, alternating current flows in its stator winding
and the polarity of stator poles would alternately be N and S. The field so produced will be
pulsating i.e. polarities will be alternating with the flux rising and falling in strength. The
current induced in the rotor will tend to turn it in both directions alternately and thus the rotor
will be at standstill due to inertia. If rotor is given a push by hand or by another means in any
direction, it will rotate in the same direction developing operating torque. Thus a single –phase
induction is not self- starting and requires special starting means.
Applications: Due to their relatively simple construction, availability in variety of designs,
and characteristics and promoted by economics as well as meeting the special requirements,
single-phase induction motors are widely used, particularly where fractional horse power
range is less than 2 H.P. For example motors in 1/8 to 3/4 H.P. ranges are used in fans,
refrigerators, washing machines, blowers, centrifugal pumps, 1/30 to 1/20 H.P. range, are used
in toys, hair dryers, vending machines, etc.
Single Phase Induction Motor
Q.40 Explain the basic construction and working principle of a single –phase transformer.
(8)
Ans:
Basic Construction and Working Principle of a single – phase Transformer: A
transformer consists of a soft iron or silicon steel core and two windings placed on it. The
windings are insulated from both the core and each other. The core is built up of thin soft
iron or silicon steel laminations to provide a path of low reluctance to the magnetic flux.
The winding connected to the supply mains is called the primary and that connected to the
load circuit is called the secondary. When the primary winding is connected to an ac supply
mains, current flows through it. Since this winding links with an iron core, so current
flowing through this winding produces an alternating flux in the core. Since this flux is
alternating and links with secondary winding also, it induces an emf in the secondary
winding. The frequency of induced emf in the secondary winding is the same as that of the
flux or that of the supply voltage. The induced emf in the secondary winding enables it to
deliver current to an external load connected across it. Thus the energy is transformed from
primary winding to the secondary winding by means of electro-magnetic induction without
any change in frequency. The flux of the iron core not only links with the secondary
41
winding but also with the primary winding, so produces self-induced emf in the primary
winding. This induced emf in the primary winding opposes the applied voltage and
therefore, sometimes it is known as back emf of primary.
Laminated steel core

Primary
Windings
Secondary Windings
Yoke
AC
Source Load
Q.41 How does the three – phase transformer differ from a single – phase one. Give advantages
and disadvantages of a 3 – phase transformer. (8)
Ans:
Three, single - phase transformers have each a primary winding upon one leg. These
transformers are symmetrically wound and each winding is connected to one wire of a 3 -
phase system. The three cores are placed 1200 apart so that the empty legs of the three are
in contact. The centre leg formed by these three carries the sum of the three flux produced
by the three phase currents. Since the sum of the three currents at any instant is zero, the
sum of the three fluxes must also be zero. Any two legs act as the return for third, just as in
a 3- phase system any two wire act as the return for the current in third wire. Like single
phase transformers 3 - phase transformers are also of core and shell type.
Advantages – 3 – Phase transformers have considerably less weight,occupy less floor space
and cost less than 3 single phase transformers of equal rating.
Disadvantages – If one of the phase becomes defective, then whole of transformer is to be
replaced,but in case of 3 - single phase transformers, if one of the transformer becomes
defective, the sysrem can still be run open delta at reduced capacity or the defective
transformer can be replaced by a single spare.
Q.42 Explain DC series, shunt and compound motors and their speed torque characteristics.
(8)
Ans:
Types of D.C. Motors:
Series – wound motor possesses the field winding of a few turns of heavy conductor,
connected in series with the armature, i.e. load current flows through both the field and
armature. With increasing load, the speed decreases. Consequently, at no-load, the speed of
the motor is very high. Hence, series-wound motor should never be used without load. Such
motors are used in cranes, pumps, trains, trolleys, etc. due to its very high starting torque.
42
Fig (a).
Shunt – wound motor possesses the field winding of large number of turns, and high
resistance, which is connected in parallel with the armature. Its staring torque is about 2.5 to 3
times greater than the full-torque. By using shunt regulator the variations of speed of the motor
can be achieved. It runs practically at constant speed at almost all loads. Such motors are used
in lathes, drills, printing press and for driving pumps. Fig.(b)
Compound – wound motor has series as well shunt windings. Depending upon the type of
field connections, a compound motor can be one in which series field assists the shunt field
windings. With heavy starting loads, the torque increases. As the load increases, the speed
decreases, and vice-versa, similar to series motor. However, when the load is suddenly
decreased, the shunt prevents the motor from speeding beyond safe limits.Such motors are
used in machine tools,coal cutting machines, punch presser, crushers, compressor, etc. Fig (c)
Differential compound motor is one in which the field due to series winding opposes that
due to shunt- winding. Its speed remains constant. However, when such a motor is started, the
series winding requires to be short- circuited; otherwise the series winding would rise to its
full-value before the shunt field does so. If the series winding is not short circuited at the time
of starting, motor starts with high speed, and that too in wrong direction. Such motors are
rarely used since ordinary shunt motor serves the purpose of providing constant speed.
Fig. (d)
Shunt field
Shunt field
DC Supply
DC Supply
Fig. (a) Fig. (b)
Ish
Shunt Field
Shunt Field
Ia
Series Series
I
I
DC Source
Fig. (c) DC Source Fig. (d)
43
Speed–torque characteristics: Series Motor: Since a series motor develops a high initial
torque at low speeds; and a low torque at high speed, so speed-torque characteristic of a series
motor is hyperbola. High initial torque at low speeds enables even a small series motor to
start a heavy load. However when starting friction is overcome the motor begins to
accelerate, counter emf increases, current and torque decreases correspondingly as the motor
speeds up. Fig. (e)
Shunt Motor: The speed – torque characteristics is similar to speed-armature current
characteristics. The flux is independent of load and remains constant. As the back emf is also
practically constant, speed is a constant. But strictly speaking both back emf and flux
decrease with increasing load. However the back emf decreases slightly more than flux so
that on the whole there some decrease in speed. Hence, the torque curve is slightly drooping.
Fig. (f)
Compound motors: Speed –Torque characteristic depends on the type of compound motor.
In a cumulative compound motor Fig.(g), the series excitation helps the shunt excitation. So,
its speed- torque characteristic lies between that of shunt- motor and series motor.
In a differential compound motor Fig.(g)the torque increases very slightly with speed.
Q.43 Define the following:

(i) Average demand
(ii) Maximum demand
(iii) Demand factor.
(iv) Load factor. (8)
44
Ans:
i) Average Demand
By average demand of an installation is meant its average power requirement during some
specified period of time of considerable duration such as a day or month or year giving a
daily or monthly or yearly average power respectively.
kwh Consumed in the period
Average Power =
hours in the period
ii) Maximum Demand
The maximum demand of an installation is defined as the greatest of all the demand which
have occurred during a given period.
It is measured accordingly to specifications, over a prescribed time interval during a certain
period such as day, a month or a year.
iii) Demand Factor
It is defined as the ratio of actual maximum demand made by the load to the rating of the
connected load.
Maximum demand
Demand factor =
Connected load
iv) Load Factor
It is defined as the ratio of the average power to the maximum demand. It is necessary that
in each case the time interval over which the maximum demand is based and the period
over which the power is average must be definitely specified.
When applied to a gereating station annual load factor is
No. of units actually sup plied / year
=
Maximum possible no. of units that can be sup plied
Q.44 Explain the working of a capacitor-start and capacitor-start and-run single-phase induction
motors with suitable diagrams. (8)
Ans:
Capacitor – start motor – For obtaining the necessary phase difference in the currents of
the two windings a capacitor is placed in series with the auxiliary winding. While the main
winding draws a lagging current Im the current in the auxiliary winding Ia is leading and it is
possible to make the phase difference between them 900 at start. During running the
auxiliary winding is cut out so the capacitor is only short – time rated. Such a motor is
known as Capacitor – start motor.
45
Ia
Im
Capacitor – start motor

Capacitor start and run single phase induction motor: The connection diagram is as
shown in the fig. A larger capacitance (C (run)) and C(start in parallel) is employed to
provide best starting conditions. The phase separation is adjusted to more than 900. The C
(start) is cut out at a certain speed leaving C (run) in circuit to give best running performance.
C (run) also helps to improve the overall pf of the motor. While C (run) is continuous rated, C
(start) need only the short time rated. This motor is employed for hard to start loads.
Ia
Im
Capacitor start and run single - phase induction motor
Q.45 Explain, how Biofuels can be used to produce electricity. Also draw the biomass cycle.
(8)
Ans:
Biomass is the material of all plants and animals. The organic carbon part of this material
reacts with oxygen in combustion and in the natural metabolic processes. The end product
of these processes is mainly CO2 and heat. This biomass can be transformed by chemical
and biological processes into intermediate products (biofuels) like methane gas, ethanol
liquid or charcoal solid that are used in agro industries, which may be nonpolluting.
Biofuels can be used to produce electricity in two ways; - By burning in furnace to produce
steam to drive turbines or by allowing fermentation in land fill sites or in special anaerobic
tanks, both of which produce methane gas which is used as fuel for household stoves and in
spark ignition engines or gas turbines. The carbon di-oxide produced in this process may be
recycled by cultivating crops or planting trees as CO2 is absorbed during photosynthesis by
46
plants. Biofuels have a potential to meet about 5 per cent of the electricity requirement of an
industrialized country by exploiting all forms of the household and industrial waste,
agricultural waste etc.
Biomass cycle
Q.46 Explain the construction of a lead acid battery and give the equations during the charging
and discharging process. (8)
Ans:
The most common type of secondary cell used is Lead - acid Accumulator. The electrolyte
is a solution of sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and pure water, and the electrodes are made from
lead.
Initial Charging: The lead acid cell fundamentally has two electrodes made of pure lead. For
charging purposes, the device is connected across a source of D.C. supply having a voltage
approximately 3 volts. When the circuit is switched on, the current flows inside the cell
through ions and outside the cell through electrons. The acid molecules break into
negative ions represented by (SO4-) and positive ions given by (H+) which are two in number
against each negative ion. or H2SO4 (SO4-) + 2 (H)+
Each negative ion has two extra electrons and each positive ion is short of one electron. The
negative ions go towards the positive electrode and vice versa.
Each negative ion transfers two electrons to the external circuit after coming in contact with
the positive electrode. The ion becomes radical after departing with its extra electrons. It now
reacts with water as follows
SO4+H2O H2SO4 +O
Which shows formation of sulphuric acid and nascent oxygen.
Two such oxygen atoms react with lead of the positive electrode of anode forming lead
peroxide on the surface of the electrode.
Pb +2O PbO2
47
As the charging proceeds a layer of brown coloured lead peroxide is formed on the positive
plate .The electron supplied by the negative ions reach the negative plate / electrode of cathode
through the charging circuit. The H+ ions move towards the cathode and receive one electron
each, when coming in contact with the electrode. These ions become hydrogen
atoms. Two such atoms combine together to form Hydrogen molecules, which escape into the
atmosphere. Thus during charging: Lead peroxide is coated on the positive electrode. Density
or specific gravity of the electrolyte improves due to formation of H2SO4.Hydrogen escapes
from the negative electrode, which remains pure lead during the process of charging. The
electrodes show a potential difference, which reaches a value of 2.6 to 2.7 volts when across
the charger.
DC Source Load
Pb Pb
PbO
Pb
Dilute
H2SO4
(a) (b)
It goes to 2.1 volts when removed from the charger. The larger potential difference is due to
various ions in contact with electrodes, and the indication given by the voltmeter does not
give the true voltage or emf developed across the electrode if measured by keeping the
charger circuit on.
Discharging : For this, the charged cell is connected across some load. This can be a small
resistance as shown in fig (b). Since, the direction of current through the cell is reversed
during discharging the negative ions go towards the negative electrode and vice versa. This is
opposite to the movement of ions during charging. After passing on two electrons to the
external circuit, the negative ions become SO4 radical, which reacts with lead of negative
electrode so that Pb + SO4 PbSO4 or the negative electrode is coated with a layer of
white coloured lead sulphate.
On the other hand the H+ ions receive electrons from the external circuit to become hydrogen
atoms. The reaction on the positive electrode is as follows:
PbO2 + 2H+ H2SO4 PbSO4 + 2H2O.
Thus during discharging both the electrodes are coated with PbSO4 coating which is
whitish in colour, formation of water results in fall in specific gravity of the electrolyte.
Q.47 Give constructional details of ceramic, mica, film and electrolytic capacitors. Give their
typical applications. (7)
48
Ans:
Mica: Mica is a transparent, high dielectric strength mineral that is easily formed into
uniform sheets as thin as 0.0025mm.
Mica-capacitors are built in round, rectangular or irregular-shapes. They are constructed by
sandwiching layers of metal foil and mica. Some times silver is deposited in lieu of metal
foil and encapsulated in a plastic-package.
Applications:
1) Used as a precision capacitors.
2) Employed in high-frequency applications such as oscillator tuning and filter
construction.
Ceramic: Ceramic capacitors are quite suitable for generation of large-powers at radio
frequencies. The ceramic is a dielectric material made from earth fired under extreme heat.
Titanium oxide or several other types of silicates are used to obtain very high value of
dielectric constant of ceramic material.
Applications:
1) Primarily used as COUPLING and Bypass portions of radio-frequency circuits.
2) Specially designed ceramic-capacitors are employed in resonant circuits.
Film: Plastic-film capacitors are constructed by a thin-sheet of plastic (such as Mylar,
Teflon, or Polyethylene) is employed as dielectric. Thus dielectric improves the properties
of the capacitor by minimizing leakage currents.
Applications: Used for both dc and ac circuits.
Electrolytic: Electrolytic capacitors are usually made of aluminium or tantalum because
they form oxides with very high dielectric-strengths. Electrolytic capacitors should only be
connected in a circuit with the proper polarities.
Applications: 1) Used in ac-circuits.
Q.48 Differentiate between an insulator, a semi-conductor and a good conductor. How can we
make an intrinsic material to improve conduction necessary for use in BJTs. (7)
Ans:
(a) For Insulator (b) For Semiconductor (c) For Conductor

In case of insulators, there is practically no electron in the conduction band, and valence
band is filled. For an insulator, the valence band and conduction bands are so apart.
For semiconductors at a temperature of absolute zero the valence band is usually full and
there may be no-electron in the conduction band. However both the bands are so close that
electron can be lifted from the valence band to the conduction band by imparting some
energy to it. This energy must be more than energy gap EG .
49
In case of conducting materials there is no forbidden gap, and valence and conduction bands
overlap. The orbits in the conduction band are very-large.
When the material is heated, electrons break away from their atoms and move from the
valence band to conduction-band. This produces holes in the valence band and free-
electrons in conduction-band. Conduction can then occur by electron movement and by
hole-transfer with the increase in temperature, the rate of generation of electron-hole pairs is
increased. Thus in turn increases the rate-of recombination.
When the semiconductor is illuminated, its resistance decreases in the same way as in case
of increase in temperature. The forbidden energy gap EG also depends somewhat on
temperature.
Q.49 For a p n junction diode, draw a typical V-I characteristic. What is meant by
a. forward resistance
b. static resistance
c. dynamic resistance of a diode. (7)
Ans:
VI Characteristics of Diode
Forward Resistance: The resistance offered by a diode in the circuit, when forward biased,
is known as the forward-resistance. Thus resistance is not the same for dc as well as
changing-current.
DC or Static Resistance: R is the resistance offered by a diode to the direct-current. It is
the simply the ration of the dc-voltage across the diode to the direct-current flowing
through it. At any point P on the V-I characteristic of the diode, the voltage across the diode
is OA and corresponding current is OB.
So dc or static resistance, R = V = OA
I OB
Thus at any point on the V-I characteristic of the diode, the dc or static resistance R is equal
to the reciprocal of the slope of the line joining the operating point to the origin.
AC or Dynamic Resistance: r is a resistance offered by a diode to the changing forward-

current. It may also defined as the reciprocal of the slope of the forward characteristic of the
diode.
50
dv ηVT ηVT
r= = =
V
dI I o .e ηV I + Io
T
V
For >> 1, then
ηVT
ηV
r= T .
I
Q.50 With the help of neat diagram, explain the functioning of a full-wave rectifier. Clearly
explain the importance of
(i) PIV
(ii) Ripple factor
(iii) Voltage regulation
(iv) Capacitor filter in the context of a full-wave rectifier with centre tapped
transformer. (14)
Ans:
51
When the top of the transformer secondary winding is positive the anode of diode D1 is
positive w.r.t cathode, and anode of diode D2 is negative w.r.t cathode. Thus only diode D1
conducts, being forward biased and current flows from cathode to anode of diode D1,
through load resistance RL and top half the transformer secondary making cathode end of
load resistance RL positive. During the secondary half-cycle of input voltage the polarity is
reversed, making the bottom of the secondary winding positive w.r.t centre top and thus
diode D2 is forward biased and diode D1 is reverse biased.
(i)PIV(Peak Inverse Voltage): It is the maximum possible-voltage across a diode when it

is reverse-biased.
PIV of diode, D2 = VSmax + VSmax = 2VSmax
PIV of diode, D1 = 2VSmax
(ii) Ripple Factor:
I rms I max / 2 π
Kf = = = = 1.11
I av 2 I max / π 2 2
(iii) Voltage Regulation:

2 2VSmax .RL
Vdc = I max .RL =
π π ( RF + RL )
2VS max  RF  2VSmax
= 1 − = − I dc RF
π  RF + RL  π
2VSmax
Vdc = − 2 I dc RF
π
(iv) Capacitor filter in context of transformer :
γ = K 2f − 1 = (1.11)2 − 1 = 0.482 .
Q.51 Explain the Zener phenomenon. How does it differ from Avalanche breakdown? (7)
Ans:
Under a very high-reverse voltage, the depletion region expands and the potential barrier
increases leading to a very high electric field across the junction. The electric-field will
break some of the covalent-bonds of the semiconductor atoms leading to a large number of
free minority carriers, which suddenly increase the reverse current. This is also called the
Zener-Effect.
Zener-breakdown or Avalanche breakdown may occur independently or both of these may
occur simultaneously. Diode junctions that breakdown below 5v are caused by Zener
Effect. Junctions that experience breakdown above 5v are caused by avalanche-effect.
The Zener-breakdown occurs in heavily doped junctions which produce narrow depletion
layers. The avalanche breakdown occurs in lightly doped junctions, which produce wide
depletion layers.
52
Q.52 Why do we require Voltage Regulators? Explain in detail the working of a DC series
Voltage Regulator. Clearly explain the functions of series-pass transistor, current limiter
and error amplifier of such a Voltage Regulator. (10)
Ans:
The primary function of a voltage-regulator is to maintain a constant dc-output voltage.
However, it also rejects ac-ripple voltage that is not removed by the filter. The regulator
may also include protective functions such as short-circuit protection, current limiting,
thermal shut down, or over-voltage protection.
Transistor-series voltage regulator:
Thus circuit is a series-regulator because collector and emitter-terminals of the transistor are
in series with the load.
Series-pass transistor: In the above circuit, the transistor Q is termed a series-pass
transistor. The series element controls the magnitude of the input-voltage that gets to the
output.
Current limiter: If the load resistance RL is reduced or load-terminals are shorted
accidentally, a very large load current will flow in the circuit. It may destroy the pass-
transistor Q1, diode or possibly some other component. To avoid this situation, a current
limiting circuit is added to a series regulator.
Error Amplifier: The error amplifier is used to maintain a constant-voltage through a
negative feedback. The internal voltage reference is tightly controlled during the fabrication
of IC.
Q.53 With the help of neat diagram explain the working of a Voltage Doubler. (4)
Ans:
Voltage-multiplier is a modified-capacitor filter circuit that delivers a dc-voltage twice or
more times of the peak value (Amplitude) of the input ac-voltage. Such power supplies are
used for high-voltage and low-current devices such as cathode-ray-tubes.
Half-wave voltage doubler:
53
During the positive half-cycle of the ac-input voltage, diode D1 being forward biased
conducts and charges C1 upto peak value of secondary voltage VSmax. During the negative
half-cycle of the input voltage diode D2 gets forward-biased and conducts charging
capacitor C2.
Applying Kirchoff’s- voltage law to the outer loop we have
– VSmax − VC1 + VC2 = 0
Or VC2 = VSmax + VC1 = VSmax + VSmax
= 2VSmax
= Twice the peak value of the transformer secondary voltage.
Q.54 Explain the functioning of a bipolar junction transistor. What is the
a. relation between α and β (3)

b. effect of variation of VCC on the collector current (4)
c. method of biasing the BJT (3)
d. selection of proper Q-point for linear operation of a BJT amplifier. (4)
Ans:
Operation of transistor: For normal operation the emitter-base junction is always forward
biased while the collector-base junction is always reverse-biased.
The forward bias at the emitter-base junction reduces the barrier potential and narrows the
depletion region. However, the relatively light doped base and collector-regions produce a
wide depletion region under the reverse-bias. Thus the effective base width Wb between the
two depletion regions is very narrow.
Electrons are injected into the emitter region by the emitter bias supply VEB. These
conduction band electrons have enough energy to overcome the emitter-base barrier
54
potential. The injected electrons enter the very thin, lightly doped base region. Because the
base is very lightly doped relative to the emitter region, only a few of the electrons
recombine with the holes doped into the base.
Injected electrons diffuse into collector region due to extremely small thickness of base
which is much less than the diffusion length. Most of the electrons cross into the collector-
region. Collector is reverse-biased and creates a strong electro-static field between base and
collector. The field immediately collects the diffused-electrons which enter the collector
junction.
(a) The relation between α and β:

∆I ∆I ∆I C
β = C and α = C =
∆I B ∆ I E ∆I C + ∆I B
∆I + ∆I B ∆I
∴ 1 = C = 1+ B = 1+ 1
α ∆I C ∆I C β
∴ α =β
β +1.
(b) Effect of variation of VCC on the collector current:
- The collector current IC varies with VCB or VCC only for very low-voltage but transistor is
never operated in this region.
- In active-region collector current IC is almost equal to IE and appear to remain constant
when VCB is increased.
- The increase in VCB, it conducts better, although the effect is not very significant. This is
because large reverse-bias voltages causes the depletion layer at the collector-base
junction to penetrate deeper into the base of the transistor, thus reducing the distance and
the resistance between the emitter-base and collector-base regions.
(c) Method of biasing the BJT:
There is a large number of circuits for biasing of a transistor. These circuits differ so as to
their ability to keep the quiescent point fixed in spite of variations in transistor
characteristics and also effects of temperature variations and ageing.
A Biasing network associated with a transistor should fulfil the following requirements:
(1) Establish the operating point in the middle of the active region of the characteristics, so
that on applying the input-signal the instantaneous operating does not move either to the
saturation region, even at the extreme values of the input signal.
(2) Stabilize the collector-current IC against temperature variations.
(3) Make the operating point independent of transistor parameters so that replacement of
transistor by another of the same type in the circuit does not shift the operating point.
(d) Methods of different biasing:
1. Simplest Biasing Circuit,
2. Fixed bias circuit
3. Self-bias or Emitter Bias
4. Potential-divider bias.
5. Collector-to-base bias.
Q.55 In the cases of CE and CC configurations of BJT amplifiers, compare:

(i) their input and output impedances. (3)
(ii) their Voltage gains and Current gains. (7)
55
(iii) their typical uses-give two uses of each case. (4)
Ans:
Configuration Common Emitter Common Collector
Characteristics
Input Impedance Medium ( ≈ 800Ω ) Very high( ≈ 750KΩ )
Output Impedance High ( ≈ 50KΩ ) Low( ≈ 50Ω )
Current Gain High ( ≈ 80 ) High ( ≈ 100Ω )
Voltage Gain About 500 Less than unity
Applications: CE – For AF-applications.

CC – For impedance matching.
Q.56 Explain the principle of operation of Field Effect Transistors (FET). How does a JFET and
a MOSFET differ in operation? Define the FET parameters g m , rd & µ. Show that
µ = g m rd . (7)
Ans:
Operation: let us consider an N-channel JFET for
discussing it’s operation
I. When neither any bias is applied to the
gate nor any voltage to the drain w.r.t
source (i.e. when VDS = 0 ), the
depletion regions around the P-N
junctions are of equal thickness and
symmetrical.
II. When positive voltage is applied to the
drain terminal D w.r.t source terminal S
without connecting gate-terminal G to
supply, the electrons flow from terminal
S to terminal D whereas conventional
drain-current ID flows through the
channel from D to S.
Comparison of JFET’s and MOSFET’s

I. JFET’s can only be operated in the depletion mode whereas MOSFET’s can be
operated in either depletion or in enhancement mode. In a JFET, if the gate is
forward-biased, excess-carrier injunction occurs and the gate-current is substantial.
II. MOSFET’s have input impedance much higher than that of JFET’s. Thus is due to
negligible small leakage current.
III. JFET’s have characteristic curves more flatter than those of MOSFET’s indicating
a higher drain resistance.
IV. When JFET is operated with a reverse-bias on the junction, the gate-current IG is
larger than it would be in a comparable MOSFET.
56
∆VDS
Amplication factor, µ = at constant ID.
∆VGS
∆V ∆I
µ = DS × D
∆I D ∆VGS
= rd × g m = a.c. drain resistance × transconductance.
Amplification factor µ of a JFET may be as high as 100.
Q.57 How can we use FET

(i) as an Amplifier.
(ii) as a Switch. (7)
Ans:
FET Amplifier:
The circuit consists of a three independent signal
sources (i.e. Vin, Va , VS ). For a common-source
amplifier Va = VS = 0 , and the output VOUT1 is
taken at the drain terminal D.
For common-gate circuit Vin = Va = 0 , the input-
signal voltage is VS with source resistance RS, and
the output VOUT1 is again taken at drain terminal D.
For common-drain (or source follower)
RD = 0, VS = Va = 0 , the input-signal voltage is Vin
and the output VOUT2 is taken at the-source
terminal.
As a Switch:
When no gate-voltage is applied to the FET i.e.
VGS = 0, FET – becomes saturated and it behaves
like a small-resistance usually of the value less
than 100Ω and, therefore, output-voltage becomes
equal to
RDS
Vout = .Vin
RD + RDS ( ON )
Since RDS is very large in comparison to RDS (ON ) ,
so Vout can be taken equal to zero.
When a negative-voltage equal to VGS (OFF ) is applied to gate, the FET operates in the cut-
off region and it acts like a very high resistance usually of some mega-ohm’s. Hence output
voltage becomes nearly equal to input-voltage.
Q.58 Describe in detail the construction of a triode. To what use a triode may be put? How does
it differ from a BJT? (7)
57
Ans:
Construction: It consists of three electrodes namely cathode, anode and control grid. The
cathode is located at the centre of the tube and is surrounded by the control-grid which in
turn is surrounded by the anode (or plate). The grid is nearer to the cathode than to plate.
The control-grid has a mesh-structure so that electrons emitted by the cathode can pass
through it. The whole assembly of heater filament, cathode, grid and plate is placed inside
an evacuated glass envelope. The connections for grid, plate, and cathode and heater
filament are usually brought-out at the base of the tube.
Applications:
1. As an amplifier.
2. Detectors and oscillators at audio or radio frequencies.
The main difference between BJT and vacuum triode is that the transistor is a current-
controlled device where as vacuum triode is a voltage-controlled device.
Q.59 Give three uses of a Unijunction Transistor (UJT). Explain one use in detail. (7)
Ans:
UJT can be used in variety of applications. A few include oscillators, pulse-generators, saw-
tooth generators, triggering circuits, phase control, timing circuits, and voltage-or current-
regulated-suppliers.
UJT Relaxation Oscillator:
Basic Circuit Out-put voltage wave-form across C
The relaxation oscillator consists of UJT and a capacitor C which is charged through
resistor RE when interbase voltage VBB is switched on. During the charging period, the
voltage across the capacitor increases exponentially until it attains the peak-point voltage
VP. When the capacitor voltage attains voltage VP, the UJT switches on and the capacitor C
rapidly discharges via B1 and capacitor voltage drops to the value Vv. The device then cuts
off and capacitor commences charging again. The cycle is repeated continually generating a
saw-tooth wave-form across capacitor C.
Q.60 Write short notes on any TWO of the following:
(i) An Operational Amplifier as an adder and as a voltage follower.
58
(ii) Differential Amplifier, explain CMRR and the uses of a differential amplifier.
(iii) IC Fabrication techniques – for monolithic IC’s.
(iv) Realization of an Integrator and a Differentiator using OPAmps. (2 x 7)
Ans:
(i) An Operational Amplifier as an adder and as a voltage follower.

This circuit can add ac or dc-signals. Thus provides an output-voltage proportional to or
equal to the algebraic sum of two or more input voltages multiplied by a constant gain-
factor.
Vout = − R f  1 + 2 + 3 
V V V
 R1 R2 R3 
If R1 = R2 = R3 = R f , Then Vout = −(V1 + V2 + V3 ) .
Voltage follower:
The output-voltage of the op-amp exactly track the input voltage both in sign and
magnitude. This is the reason that this current is called voltage-follower.
(ii) Differential Amplifier:

Sometimes it necessary to amplify the voltage difference between two input-lines neither
of which is grounded. In this case, the amplifier is called a differential-amplifier.
This reduces the amount of noise injected into the amplifier, because any noise appears
simultaneously on both input-terminals and the amplifying circuitry rejects it being a
common mode signal.
59
CMRR: It is defines as the ratio of differential voltage-gain to common made voltage gain
and it is given as
A
CMRR = d
ACM
If a differential amplifier is perfect, CMRR would be infinite because in that case common
mode voltage gain ACM would be zero.
(iii) IC-Fabrication Techniques for-monolithic IC’s:

A monolithic IC is one in which all circuit components and their interconnections formed
on a single thin wafer, called the substrate. The basic production process for monolithic
IC’s are given below:
1. A typical P-type or N-type is grown in dimensions of 250mm length and 25mm
diameter. The crystal is then cut-by a diamond saw into thin slices called wafers. These
wafers after being lapped and polished to mirror –finish serve as the base or substrate
on which hundreds of IC’s are produced.
2. Epitaxial Growth: On high resistivity P-type substrate a low resistivity 25µm thick
layer of N-type is epitaxially grown. On this epitaxial-layer all active and passive
components of an IC are formed.
3. Insulation layer: In order to prevent the contamination of the epitaxial layer, a thin
layer of Sio2 is formed over the entire surface.
4. Photolithographic Process: The monolithic technique requires a the selective removal
of the Sio2 to form openings through which imparities may be diffused, if required.
5. Isolation Diffusion: Sio2 layer is removed from the desired areas using
photolithographic etching process. The remaining Sio2 layer serves as mask for the
diffusion of acceptor imparities. This process results in formation of N-type regions
called the isolation islands.
6. Base Diffusion: During this process new layer of Sio2 is formed over the wafer. The
new pattern of openings is created depending upon the circuit needs.
7. Emitter Diffusion: A layer of Sio2 again formed over the entire surface and openings
in the P-type regions are formed again by employing masking and etching process.
8. Aluminium Metallization: For making electrical connections between various
components of the IC, several windows are opened on a newly created Sio2 layer.
(iv) Realization of an Integrator and a Differentiator using OPAmps.
An integrator is a circuit that performs a mathematical operation called integration.
60
v(t ) − 1 v(t )
and Vout (t ) =
C ∫ R
i (t ) = dt
R
Differentiator: It’s function is to provide an output voltage proportional to the rate of

change of the input voltage.
q = C.Vc
d dV
i = dq = C.Vc = C. c
dt dt dt
∴ Vout = −iR = − C. c  R

dV
 dt 
dV
Vout = − RC. c .
dt
Q.61 What is a passive circuit element? Name the most commonly used passive circuit elements.
Briefly explain the following:
(i) Thin film resistors.
(ii) Wire-wound resistors. (8)
Ans:
Passive components by themselves are not capable of amplifying or processing an electrical
signal. Passive components include resistors, inductors and capacitors.
(i)Thin film resistors- It is constructed by using film deposition techniques of depositing a
thin film of resistive material on to an insulating substrate. Desired values are obtained by
either trimming the layer thickness or by cutting helical grooves of suitable pitch along its
length. During this process the value of the resistance is monitored closely and cutting of
grooves is stopped as soon as the desired value of resistance is obtained.
(ii) Wire wound resistors – These resistors are a length of wire wound around an
insulating cylindrical core. Usually wires made of materials such as Constantan and
Manganin which have high resistivity and low temperature coefficients are employed. The
complete wire wound resistor is coated with an insulating material such as baked enamel.
Q.62 Describe the V-I characteristic of a practical voltage source. Find the largest practical
value of load resistance to provide constant current from a current source with I s = 30 mA
and Rs = 1KΩ . Comment on the variation of current from the short-circuited value.
(8)
61
Ans:
(a) DC-voltage source (b) AC-voltage source V-I characteristics
An ideal voltage source is not practically possible. There is no voltage source which can
maintain its terminal voltage constant even when its terminals are short circuited. An ideal
voltage source does not exist in practice. A practical voltage source can be considered to
consist of an ideal voltage source in series with an impedance. The impedance is called
internal impedance of the source.
Practical DC-voltage Source Practical AC-voltage Source
VS
IS = ⇒ R IN ⋅ I S = VS
R IN
∴ VS = 30V and V = I ⋅ R L
Q.63 What is an N-type semiconductor? Write its energy band diagram. (5)
Ans:
Energy band diagram for N-Type semiconductor
62
When a small amount of pentavalent impurity such as Arsenic, Antimony, Bismuth or

Phosphorous is added to pure semi-conductor crystals during the crystal growth, the
resulting crystal is called N-type extrinsic semi conductor.
Q.64 What is monolithic IC? Explain photolithographic Process in monolithic IC Production.

(8)
Ans :
The word monolithic is derived from Greek mono meaning ‘single’ and lithus meaning
stone. Thus monolithic circuit is built into a single stone or single crystal ie., in monolithic
IC’s all circuit components and their interconnections are formed into or on the top of a
single chip of silicon.
Photolithographic Process :
The monolithic technique requires the selective removal of the Sio2 to form openings through
which impurities may be diffused. The Photolithographic process shown in the figures (a&b)
is used for this purpose.
During the process wafer is coated with a thin layer of photosensitive material (Kodak photo
resist). The negative or stencil of the required dimensions is placed as a mask over the photo-
resist as shown in fig(a). This wafer surface with mask is exposed to the ultra violet light.
Due to UV light the photo-resist below the transparent portions of the mask becomes
polymerised. The mask is now removed and the wafer is developed by using a chemical like
trichloroethylene. The chemical dissolves the unpolymerised portions of the photo-resist film
and leaves the surface as shown in fig (b). The oxide not covered by polymerised photo-
resist is then removed by immersing the chip in an etching solution HCL. After etching and
diffusion of impurities the resist mask is stripped off with a chemical solvent like hot
sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and by means of mechanical abrasion process.
Q.65 What is a PN junction? Draw its circuit symbol. What is the convention followed in
writing its symbol? Illustrate its characteristic and make it self explanatory. (6)
Ans:
The PN junction is produced by placing a layer of P type semiconductor next to the layer of
N type semiconductor. The contact surface is called PN junction.
(a) Circuit Symbol (b) Graphical Symbol
63
The graph plotted between potential difference across the PN junction and the circuit
current is known as volt–ampere characteristics.
Forward Characteristics: When the external voltage is zero, i.e., when the circuit is open,
the potential barrier at the junction does not allow the flow of current and, therefore, the
circuit current is zero.
With forward bias to PN junction, very little current, called the forward current flows until
the forward voltage exceeds the junction barrier potential. As the forward voltage increased
to the knee of characteristics, the potential barrier is completely eliminated, forward current
increases linearly with the increase in forward voltage.
Reverse characteristics: When the reverse bias is applied, the potential barriers at junction
is increased. Therefore, the junction resistance becomes very high and there is no possibility
of a majority carriers flowing across a reverse-biased junction. But still minority carriers
generated on each side can cross the junction. This results in a very small current which is
known as reverse current.
Q.66 Explain the operation of a two-diode full wave rectifier circuit. (7)
Ans:
64
When the top of the transformer secondary winding is positive, the anode of diode D1 is
positive with respect to cathode and anode of diode D2 is negative with respect to cathode.
Thus only diode D1 conducts, being forward biased and current flows from cathode to
anode of diode D1, through load resistance RL.
During the second half-cycle of the input voltage polarity is reversed, making the bottom of
the secondary winding positive with respect to centre-tap and thus diode D2 is forward
biased and the diode conducts and current flows the load resistance RL.
Q.67 How are Zener diodes specified? Define the important specification factors for the device.
(5)
Ans:
Specification of typical Zener diode at 250C ambient are given below.
VZT : 20 V ± 10%; IZT : 12.5 mA for VZT = 20 V;
IZK = 0.25 mA for VZK = 12 V; IZM : 32 mA; rZK = 22 Ω max;
PZmax : 1 W; IR = 1 µA for VR : 6 V
A Zener diode is specified by its breakdown voltage VZ, breakdown current IZK, the
maximum power dissipation PZ(max) and Zener-impedance measured at test point, ZZT.
Zener Impedance: Zener impedance ZZ is essentially the dynamic resistance of a Zener
diode. It is defined as the reciprocal of the slope of the Zener curve
∆VZ
i.e. rZ =
∆I Z
Where ∆VZ and ∆IZ are the small variations in voltage and current respectively.
Zener Voltage (VZ) and Zener Current (IZ):
When the reverse bias on a crystal diode is gradually increased, a point is reached when the
junction breaksdown and a reverse current increases abruptly. The breakdown voltage is
called Zener Voltage (VZ) and the sharply increased current is called the Zener Current (IZ).
Q.68 Establish the theory of a Zener diode shunt regulator. (7)
Ans:
Above circuit diagram shows Zener diode can be used as a voltage regulator to provide a
constant voltage from a source whose voltage may vary appreciably. A resistor RS is
necessary to limit the reverse current through the diode to safer value.
As long as voltage across the load resistor RL is less than the break-down voltage VZ, the
Zener diode does not conduct, the resistors RS and RL constitute a potential divider across
65
VS’. At an increased supply voltage VS, the voltage drop across load resistor becomes
greater than the Zener breakdown voltage. It then operates in its break down region. The
series resistor RS limits the Zener current IZ from exceeding its rated IZmax because Zener
V − VZ
current is given as IZ= S
R S'
So, IS = IZ + IL
Q.69 What are the three modes in which a transistor can operate? Explain the meaning of each
mode of operation. (9)
Ans:
The three modes of operations of a transistor are
(1) Common – Base configuration – In common base configuration, input is connected
between emitter base and output is taken across collector and base.
(2) Common – Emitter configuration – In common emitter configuration, input is

connected between emitter base and output is taken across collector and emitter. This
emitter is common to both input and output circuits.
(3) Common – Collector configuration – In common collector configuration, input is

applied between base and collector while the output is taken across collector and emitter.
Thus the collector forms the terminal is common to both input and output circuits.
Q.70 Draw the circuits of an NPN and a PNP transistor in CE configuration. Define the
following:
(v) CE dc current gain.
(vi) CE ac current gain. (4)
66
Ans:
CE-N-P-N-Transistor CE-P-N-P-Transistor
The output characteristics used to determine the dc- current gain β and ac current gain βo is
as follows.
DC current gain β = IC / IB
and AC current gain, βo = ∆ IC / ∆ IB
VCE = constant.
Q.71 What is a field effect transistor (FET)? Which are the different types of FET’s available?
Draw the circuit arrangement for obtaining the drain characteristics of a JFET and explain
the procedure for obtaining the above characteristic curves. Illustrate the typical drain
characteristic curves for the device. (13)
Ans:
The device is called the FET because the drain current is controlled by the effect of the
extension of the field associated with the depletion region developed by the reverse –bias at
the gate.
Types – There are two major categories of FET namely
(1) Junction field effect transistor
(2) The Insulated –gate field effect transistor (MOSFET or MOST’s)
Output or Drain characteristics- The curve drawn between drain current ID and drain
source voltage VDS with gate- to- source voltage VGS as the parameters is called the drain or
output characteristic.
Circuit Diagram
67
Initially when VDS is zero, there is no attracting potential at the drain, so no current flows in
spite of the fact that the channel is fully open. Thus given drain- current ID= 0. For small
applied voltage VDS, the N-type bar acts as a simple semiconductor resistor, and the drain
current ID increases linearly with the increase in VDS, upto the knee point. This region of the
curve is called the Channel ohmic –region.
With the increase in drain current ID the ohmic voltage drop between the source and channel
region reverse-biases the gate junction. The reverse biasing of the gate junction is not
uniform throughout. The reverse- bias is more at the drain end than that at the source- end
of the channel, so with the increase in VDS, the conducting portion of the channel begins to
constrict more at the drain- end. Eventually a voltage VDS is reached at which the channel is
pinched off.
The drain current ID no longer increases with the increase in VDS. It approaches a constant
saturation value. The value of voltage VDS at which the channel is pinched off is called the
pinch-off voltage VP. The pinch off voltage VP, is not too sharply defined on the curve,
where the drain current ID begins to level off and attains a constant value. From point A to
the point B, the drain current ID increases with the increase in voltage VDS following a
reverse square law. The region of the characteristic in which drain current ID remains fairly
a constant is called the pinch off region. It is also called the saturation region of the
amplifier-region. In this region the JFET operates as a constant current device, since the
drain current remains almost constant. The drain current in the pinch off region with VGS =0
is referred to the drain source saturation current IDSS.
Drain current in the pinch off region is given by Shockely’s equation
2 2
 V   VGS 
I D = I DSS 1 − GS  = I DSS 1 −
VP   V 
  GS( OFF ) 
Where ID is the drain current at a given gate source voltage VGS, IDSS is the drain current
with gate shorted to source and VGS (off) is gate source cut-off voltage.
If the drain source voltage VDS is continuously increased, a stage will come when the gate
channel junction breaksdown. At this point the drain current increases very rapidly, and the
JFET may be destroyed. This happens because the charge carriers making up the saturation
current at the gate channel junction accelerate to a high velocity and produces an avalanche
effect.
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Q.72 What is an unijunction transistor? Compare it with an ordinary diode & briefly describe its
construction. Draw its circuit symbol and equivalent circuit. (9)
Ans:
Unijunction transistor is also called the double base diode is a two layer, three terminal
solid state switching device. The device has unique characteristic that when it is triggered,
its emitter current increases regeneratively until it is restricted by emitter power supply.
The device, because of one PN junction, is quite similar to a diode but it differs from an
ordinary diode that it has three terminals.
Basic structure Schematic symbol

Construction- The basic structure of a unijunction transistor is shown in the above fig. It
essentially consists of a lightly doped N-type silicon bar with a small piece of heavily doped
P-type material alloyed to its one side to produce single P-N junction. The single P-N
junction accounts for the terminology unijunction.
Q.73 What is an integrated circuit? What are its limitations? (5)
Ans:
An integrated circuit consists of several interconnected transistors, resistors, capacitors etc.,
all contained in one small package with external connecting terminals.
Limitations-
1.In an IC, the various components are part of a small semiconductor chip and the
individual component or components cannot be removed or replaced, therefore, if any
component in an IC fails, the whole IC has to be replaced by a new one.
2. Limited power rating as it is not possible to manufacture high power.
3. Need of connecting inductors and transformers exterior to the semiconductor chip as it is
not possible to fabricate inductors and transformers on the semiconductor chip surface.
4. Operation at low voltage, as IC’s function at fairly low voltage.
5. High grade P-N-P assembly is not possible.
6. Low temperature co-efficient is difficult to be achieved.
7. Difficult to fabricate an IC with low noise.
Q.74 Define the term ‘work-function’ of a metal. What is thermionic emission? (2)
Ans:
The work function of a metal may be defined as the difference between the energy required
to move an electron of a metal to infinitely large distance and maximum energy an electron
can have at absolute zero of temperature.
69
A very common method used for electron emission is by heating the metal piece to a high
temterature.
The process of electron emission from the surface of a metal into the surrounding space by
heating the material to a very high temperature is known as thermionic emission.
EW= EB–EF where EW work function of a metal,
EB is the total barrier an electron has to overcome for coming out of the metal surface,
EF is Fermi level of energy.
Q.75 List the characteristics of an ideal and a practical OPAMP. (6)
Ans:
Characteristics of an ideal and a practical OPAMP
1. It’s open loop gain A is infinite.
2. It’s input resistance Rin is infinite. It means that the input current is zero and so it does
not load the source.
3. It’s output impedance Rout is zero. Output voltage Vout is independent of the current
drawn by the load.
4. Perfect balance ie. Differential input voltage Vd = V2-V1 is essentially zero.
5. Infinite frequency bandwidth.
6. Drift of characteristics with temperature is not.
7. CMRR is infinite so that amplifier is free from undesired common mode signals such
as pick-ups thermal noise etc.
8. Slew rate is infinite.
9. Output voltage is zero when input voltage is zero ie. Offset voltage is zero.
Q.76 Draw the circuit of an OPAMP V-to-I converter with grounded load and derive the equation
for the current through the load. (6)
Ans:
V to I-Converter
In industrial electronics, it is necessary to provide a current proportional to certain voltage,
even though the load resistance may vary. A circuit which can perform this job is called a
voltage to current converter.
V
I L = I = in
R
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Q.77 What are active and passive components? Categorise the following components into these
categories. Mettalized polyster capacitor, Preset Filter circuits, Audio-frequency chokes,
FET, Vacuum tubes. (4+4)
Ans:
All electronic circuits, however complicated contain a few basic components – two active
and three passive. Though passive components by themselves are not capable of amplifying
or processing an electrical signal but these components are as important as active ones.
Active components – FET, Vacuum tubes
Passive components – Metalized polyester capacitors, preset filter circuits, audio frequency
chokes.
Q.78 Draw the energy band diagram of a P-N junction under open-circuited condition. Clearly
indicate energy levels in P-region, space region and N-region. How will it be modified if
P-N junction is forward biased? (8)
Ans:
If the external bias voltage were set equal to zero, the P-N junction would be short-
circuited. Under these conditions no current can flow i.e. I = 0 and electrostatic potential VO
remains unchanged and equal to the value under open circuit conditions.
Suppose forward bias voltage V is increased until V approaches junction potential VO. If V
were equal to VO, the barrier would disappear and the current could be arbitrarily large,
exceeding diode rating. In practice, barrier cannot be reduced to zero because, as the current
increases without limit, the bulk resistance of the crystal and the resistance of the ohmic
contacts will limit the current.
Thus it is no longer possible to assume that all the voltage V appears as change across the
P-N junction.
Forward Biasing
71
Q.79 Draw input and output characteristics of common base transistor configuration. (8)
Ans:
Common-Base NPN transistor
Input characteristics for common-base NPN transistor
Output characteristics for common-base NPN transistor
∆I C ∆I ∆I C
β= andα = C =
∆I B ∆I E ∆Ic + ∆I B
1 ∆Ic + ∆I B 1 1+ β
or = = 1+ =
α ∆I C β β
β
henceα =
1+ β
α
andβ =
1−α
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Q.80 Sketch and explain the basic structure of an N-channel junction field effect transistor.
(8)
Ans:
(a) N-channel JFET N-Channel JFET

In an N-channel JFET a N-type silicon bar referred to as the channel, has two smaller pieces
of P-type silicon material diffused on the opposite sides of its middle part, forming P-N
junctions. The two P-N junctions forming diodes or gates are connected internally and
common terminal, called the gate terminal is brought out. Ohmic contacts are made at the
two ends of channel one lead is called the source terminal and the other drain terminal D.
The silicon bar behaves like a resistor between two terminals D and S. The gate terminal is
used to control the flow of current from source to drain.
Q.81 Why is a FET known as a unipolar device? How do you compare this device with BJT?
(8)
Ans:
In field effect transistors current conduction is only by one type of majority carriers (either
by electrons or holes) and therefore, these are called unipolar transistor.
1) It’s operation depends upon the flow of majority carriers only. It is, therefore, a unipolar
device. In BJT both majority and minority carriers take part in conduction and therefore
BJT is sometimes called the bipolar transistor.
2) It has high input impedance (≅100MΩ) because its input circuit is reverse biased, and so
permits high degree of isolation between the input and output circuits. However, the
input circuit of an ordinary BJT transistor is forward biased and, therefore, ordinary
transistor has low input impedance.
3) JFET carries very small current because of reverse biased gate and, therefore, it operates
just like a vacuum tube where control grid carries extremely small current and input
voltage controls the output current. This is the reason that JFET is essentially a voltage
driven device. BJT is a current operated device since input current controls the output
current.
Q.82 Explain the terms “work function” and “threshold frequency” in connection with electron
emission. Name one material suitable for thermionic emission and one material for photo-
emission. (8)
73
Ans:
The work function of a metal may be defined as the difference between the energy required
to move an electron of a metal to an infinitely large distance and maximum energy an
electron can have at absolute zero of temperature.
Threshold frequency – The minimum frequency which can cause photo emission is called
the threshold frequency and is given by fo= eφ/h where e = electronic charge, h= Plank’s
constant φ = work function.
Photo emission materials- Alkaline material such as sodium, potassium, cesium or
rubidium.
Thermionic emission materials- Carbon, cesium, molybdenum, nickel, platinum.
Q.83 What is photoelectric emission? How is the electron emission affected if

(i) the frequency and
(ii) the intensity of the incident radiations are increased? (8)
Ans:
When the surface of certain alkaline material such as sodium, potassium, cesium is
illuminated by a beam of light or ultraviolet radiations the electrons are emitted. This
phenomenon is called photoelectric emission.
The work function of the alkaline materials is very low and therefore when energy of the
light radiations (called photons) or the energy of the ultraviolet radiations (called quanta)
fall on the alkaline material, it gives sufficient energy to the free electrons of the material to
speed up sufficiently to overcome the surface restraining forces of the metal and hence
emission takes place. The electrons emitted in this way are called photo electrons. The
number of electrons emitted depends upon the intensity of light beam falling upon the
emitter surface and the frequency of radiations. This property is very useful for the
measurement of intensity of illumination.
If the frequency of incident radiations is greater than fo then the incident radiations has more
energy.
Q.84 Explain the working of a full-wave rectifier using centre-tapped transformer. (8)
Ans.
In centre tap rectifier, the ac input is applied through a transformer, the anodes of the two
diodes D1 and D2 are connected to the opposite ends of the centre tapped secondary winding
and two cathodes are connected to each other and are connected through the load resistance
RL and back to the centre of the transformer as shown in the fig.
74
Input and Output waveform

When the top of the transformer secondary winding is positive, diode D1 is positive with
respect to cathode and anode of diode D2 is negative with respect to cathode. Thus only
diode D1 conducts, being forward biased and current flows from cathode to anode of diode
D1 through load resistance RL and top half of the transformer secondary , making cathode
end of load resistance RL positive.
During the second half cycle of the input voltage the polarity is reversed, making the
bottom of the secondary winding positive with respect to centre tap and thus diode D2 is
forward biased and diode D1 is reversed biased.
Q.85 Draw the schematic diagram of an op-amp connected as

(i) an inverter (ii) a scale changer
(iii) a phase shifter and (iv) an adder. (8)
Ans:
Inverting Amplifier
R
Scale changer – If the ratio f = K , a real constant, then amplifier gain Af = –K. Thus the
R1
input voltage scale has been multiplied by a factor –K to give the output voltage scale. The
circuit, can act as negative - scaler or scale changer.
75
Phase shifter- In the inverting amplifier, resistors Rf and R1 in the circuit are replaced by Zf
and Z1 respectively so that Zf and Z1 are equal in magnitude but differ in phase angle, the
inverting OP- amp shifts the phase of the sinusoidal input voltage without making any
change in it’s amplitude. Thus any phase-shift from 00 to 3600 can be obtained.
Summing Operational Amplifier
Q.86 Briefly explain the thin-film and thick –film methods of producing ICs. Discuss their
advantages and limitations. (8)
Ans:
Thin and thick film IC’s are larger than monolithic IC’s but smaller than discrete circuits.
These IC’s can be used when power requirement is comparatively higher.
Thin film IC’s are fabricated by depositing films of conducting material on the surface of a
glass or ceramic base. By controlling the width and thickness of the films and by using
different materials of selected resistivity resistors and conductors are fabricated.
Thick film IC’s are sometimes referred to as printed thin film circuits. In their
manufacturing process silk screen printing techniques are used to create the desired circuit
pattern on a ceramic substrate.
IC’s produced by thin or thick film techniques have the advantages of forming passive
components with wider range and better tolerances, better isolation between their
components, greater flexibility in circuit design and providing better high frequency
performance than monolithic IC’s.
However such IC’s suffer from the drawbacks of larger physical size, comparatively higher
cost and incapability of fabrication of active components.
Q.87 Differentiate between SSI, MSI, LSI and VLSI. (8)
Ans:
IC’s can be classified on the basis of their chip size as given below:
1) Small Scale integration (SSI) – 3 to 30 gates/chip.
2) Medium Scale integration (MSI) – 30 to 300 gates/chip.
3) Large Scale integration (LSI) – 300 to 3000 gates/chip.
4) Very Large Scale integration (VLSI) – more than 3000 gates/chip.
76
Q.88 Why colour coding system is used to indicate the value of a resistor? What is the role of a
capacitor in an electronic circuit? Write a brief note on paper capacitors. (8)
Ans:
Some resistors are large enough in size to have their resistance values (in Ω) printed on the
body. However there are some resistors, which are too small in size to have their resistance
values printed on them. Hence, a system of colour coding is employed for indicating their
values.
A capacitor is a physical device which is capable of storing energy by virtue of a voltage
existing across it. The voltage applied across the capacitor sets up an electric field within it
and the energy is stored in the electric field. A capacitor is basically meant to store electrons
(or electrical energy), and release them when required.
Paper capacitor – Paper capacitors are the most widely used type of capacitors. Their
popularity is due to their low cost and the fact that they can be built over a wide range of
capacitance values. They are designed to withstand very high voltages. The leakage currents
of paper capacitors are high and their tolerances are relatively poor.
Q.89 Illustrate and explain the V-I characteristic of a practical current source. Comment on the
equivalence between voltage source and current source. (6)
Ans:
An ideal current source is not practically possible. There is no current source which can
maintain current supplied by it constant even when its terminals are open circuited.
A practical current source can be represented as shown in above fig. A practical current
source can be considered to consist of an ideal current source in parallel with an impedance
Zin. The shunt impedance is called internal impedance of the source and accounts for the
fall in output current with increase in load impedance.
A given voltage source with a series resistance can be converted into an equivalent
current source with a parallel resistance. Conversely a current source with a parallel
resistance can be replaced by an equivalent voltage source with a series resistance.
Q.90 What is a semiconductor? Give its important properties. Briefly explain the energy band
diagram for a semiconductor. (10)
Ans:
The group of materials which are neither good conductors nor good insulators are called
semiconductors. At room temperature such materials have conductivities considerably
lower than those of conductors and much higher than those of insulators such materials are
77
called semiconductors. The resistivity of various semiconductor materials lies in a very

wide range from 10-4 to about 0.5 Ω -m.
Properties-
1) Their resistance depends largely on various factors and therefore, it can be controlled.
2) The resistance of semiconductors decreases with the increase in temperature i.e.
temperature coefficient of semiconductors is negative.
3) Semiconductors are non-linear resistor.
4) The resistivity of semiconductors changes considerably when even minute amounts of
certain other substances called the impurities are added to them.
Energy Bands-
Within any given material there are two distinct energy bands in which electrons may exist.
These two energy bands are valence band and conduction band and are separated by an
energy gap in which no electron can normally exist.
The energy band of interest is the highest band or valence band. If a sufficient amount of
energy is given to an electron in the valence band, the electron is free of the atomic
structure. Such an electron is said to posses enough energy to be in the conduction band
where it can take part in electric current flow. Free electrons (electrons in conduction band)
can move readily under the influence of an external field.
Q.91 Define the following as applied to a PN-junction:

(i) Depletion region (ii) Width of the barrier
(iii) Barrier voltage
Support your answer with neat illustrations. (6)
Ans:
78
The negative potential on the P-side prevents the migration of any more electrons from the
N-type material to the P-type material. Similarly the positive potential on the N-side
prevents any further migration of holes across the boundary. Thus the initial diffusion of
charge carriers creates a Barrier Potential at the junction.
The region around the junction is completely ionised. As a result, there are no free electrons
on the N-side nor there are holes on the P-side. Since the region around the junction is
depleted of mobile charges it is called the Depletion Region. The thickness of the depletion
region (or layer) is of the order of 1 micron.
Barrier voltage depends on doping density, electronic charge and temperature, the first two
factors are fixed thus making barrier potential dependent on temperature.
Q.92 What do you mean by a voltage regulator? Distinguish between a linear regulator and a
switching regulator. Draw the circuit of a simple emitter-follower regulator and briefly
explain. (12)
Ans:
The primary function of a voltage regulator is to maintain a constant dc output voltage.
However, it also rejects ac ripple voltage that is not removed by the filters. The regulator
may also include protective functions such as short-circuit protection, current- limiting,
thermal - shut down or over -voltage protection.
Linear voltage regulator- The main drawback of linear voltage regulator is the power
dissipation in the pass –transistor which is operated in its linear mode. Other drawbacks are
regulated power supplies using these regulators require a step-down transformer and large
sized filter capacitors to reduce the ripple.
Switching Regulators- In this the transistor is operated either in cut-off region or in the
saturation region. This results in much less power dissipation in the pass-transistor.
Switching regulators can provide large load currents at low voltages.
Emitter-follower regulator-
This circuit is called a series regulator because collector and emitter terminals of the
transistor are in series with the load. The unregulated dc- supply is fed to the input-
terminals and regulated output voltage Vout is obtained across the load resistor RL. Zener
diode provides the reference voltage and the transistor acts as a variable resistor, whose
resistance varies with the operating conditions (Base current IB)
Vout= VZ- VBE
79
Q.93 What are the unique features of IC voltage regulators? (4)
Ans :
IC voltage regulators are versatile and relatively inexpensive and are available with features
such as programmable output, current-voltage boasting, terminal short circuit current
limiting, thermal switching and floating operation for high voltage applications.
Q.94 How are BJTs classified? Draw the circuit symbol for each type. What are the advantages
of transistors over electron tubes? (8)
Ans :
Transistors are of two types. P-N-P and N-P-N, behave exactly in the same way except
change in biasing and majority carrier. In P-N-P transistors the conduction is by holes
whereas in N-P-N transistors the conduction is by electrons.
P-N-P Transistor
N-P-N Transistor
Advantages over vacuum tubes-

Compact size, light weight, Rugged construction, more resistive to shocks and vibrations,
instantaneous operation, low operating voltage, high operating efficiency and long life with
essentially no ageing effect if operated with in permissible limits of temperature and
frequency.
Q.95 Give a table of comparison between CE and CB configurations with regard to the important
parameters. (4)
Ans :
COMMON BASE COMMON EMITTER
Low input impedance(≅100Ω) Medium input impedance (≅800Ω)

Very high output impedance (≅500KΩ) Output impedance high (≅50KΩ)
80
Current gain less than unity. High current gain.

Voltage gain ≅150 Voltage gain ≅800
Very small leakage current. Very large leakage current.
Q.96 How does an FET differ from the conventional junction transistor? In the structure of an
N-channel JFET, why the N-type bar is called a channel? Give the structure of a P-channel
JFET. What is the difference between a JFET and a MOSFET? (9)
Ans :
JFET’s operation depends upon the flow of majority carriers only. It is therefore a unipolar
device. On the other hand BJT is sometimes called the bipolar transistor.
JFET has high input impedance, because its input current is reversed biased. However the
input current of a BJT is forward biased and therefore ordinary transistor has low input
impedance.
JFET is essentially a voltage driven device. BJT is a current operated device since input
current controls the output current.
Channel – The region between the source and drain sandwiched between the two gates is
called the channel and the majority carriers move from source to drain through this channel.
P-Channel JFET
Difference between a JFET and a MOSFET:-

1. JFET’s can only be operated in the depletion mode whereas MOSFET’s can be operated in
either depletion or enhancement mode.
2. MOSFET’s have input impedance much higher than that of JFET’s. This is due to
negligibly small leakage current.
3. JFET’s have characteristic curves more flatter than those of MOSFET’s indicating a
higher drain resistance.
4. When JFET is operated with a reverse bias on the junction, the gate current IG is larger
than it would be in a comparable MOSFET.
Q.97 Write a brief note on DIAC. (7)
81
Ans :
Basic structure Schematic Symbols

A DIAC is an important member of the thyristor and usually employed for triggering triacs.
A DIAC is a two electrode bidirectional avalanche diode which can be switched from OFF
state to the ON state for either polarity of the applied voltage.
A DIAC is a P-N-P-N structured four layer two terminal semiconductor device. MT1 and
MT2 are the two main terminals of the device. There is no control terminal in this device.
Q.98 What is an OPAMP? Why is it called so? Briefly explain the following for an OPAMP
(i) Input offset voltage (ii) Input bias current
(iii) CMRR (9)
Ans :
An operational amplifier is basically a multistage very high gain direct coupled negative
feedback amplifier that uses voltage shunt feedback to provide a stabilized voltage gain.
An OPAMP is so called as it was originally designed to perform mathematical operations.
Input offset voltage – Input bias current Vin(offset) defined as that voltage which is to be
applied between the input terminals to balance the amplifier.
Input bias current –The OPAMP‘s input is a differential amplifier. It may be made of
BJT’s or FET’s. In either case these transistors are required to be biased and this takes
current.
I + I B2
i.e., IB = B1 for VOUT =0
2
CMRR – It is defined as the ratio of differential voltage gain to common mode voltage gain
and it is given as CMRR = Ad/ACM.
Q.99 What do you mean by Passive components? Explain how the variable resistor can be used
as a rheostat and Potentiometer with the help of symbols. Give their applications. (5)
Ans :
Passive components are those components which by themselves are not capable of
amplifying or processing an electrical signal. Passive components include resistors,
inductors and capacitors.
Symbols of Rheostats
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Symbols of “POTS”
Variable resistors usually have three leads, two fixed and one movable. If contacts are made
with to only two leads of the resistor, the variable resistor is being used as a rheostat.
Rheostats are usually employed to limit the current flowing in the circuit branches.
If all three contacts are employed in a circuit it is termed as a potentiometer or ‘POT’.
POT’s are often used as voltage dividers to control or vary voltage across a circuit branch.
Q.100 What is a Practical Current source; Explain its V-I characteristics. Convert an a.c. current
source of 2A in parallel with an impedance of 100Ω into its equivalent voltage source.
(6)
Ans :
Practical Current source is one in which if the load impedance is very small in comparison
to the internal impedance of the source.
Voc = I s ⋅ R IN = 2 × 100 = 200V
The current supplied by a source should remain constant irrespective of the load impedance.
Q.101 Explain what do you understand by intrinsic, P-type and N-type semiconductors. Discuss
the position of Fermi Level in each case with the help of Energy Band Diagram. (7)
Ans :
An intrinsic semiconductor is one which is made of the semiconductor material in its
extremely pure form.
When a small amount of pentavalent impurity such as arsenic, antimony or phosphorous is
added to a pure semiconductor crystal during the crystal growth, the resulting crystal is
called the N-type extrinsic semiconductor.
When a small amount of trivalent impurity, such as baron, gallium, indium or aluminium is
added to a pure semiconductor crystal during the growth the resulting crystal is called the P-
type extrinsic semiconductor.
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The Fermi level is simply a reference energy level. It is the energy level at which the
probability of finding electron n energy units above it in the conduction band is equal to the
probability of finding hole n energy units below it in the valence band.
Average energy level of Energy
Zero-energy reference level

In intrinsic semiconductor the Fermi level lies midway between the conduction and valence
bands.
Q.102 Distinguish between Mobile Charge Carriers and Immobile Ions. (5)
Ans :
The mobility of electrons is more than that of holes because the probability of an electron
having the energy required to move to an empty state in conduction is much greater than the
probability of an electron having the energy required to move to the empty state in valence
band. The mobility of an electron is double that of an hole.
Q.103 What is breakdown diode? What is its use? Describe physically how two mechanisms of
breakdown occur in a p-n junction diode. (7)
Ans :
Zener diode also sometimes called the breakdown diode is a PN junction diode specially
designed for operation in the breakdown region in reverse bias condition.
The diode may use either Zener breakdown mechanism or avalanche breakdown
mechanism.
When the reverse bias on a crystal diode is gradually increased a point is reached when
the junction breakdown and a reverse current increases abruptly, the breakdown region is
the knee of the reverse characteristic.
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The minority carriers under reverse biased conditions flowing through the junction acquire
a kinetic energy which increases in reverse voltage. At a sufficiently high reverse voltage
the kinetic energy of minority carriers becomes so large that they knock out electrons from
the covalent bonds of semiconductor material. As a result of collision, the liberated
electrons in turn liberate more electrons and the current becomes very large leading to the
breakdown of the crystal structure itself. This phenomenon is called the “Avalanche
Breakdown”.
Q.104 What is Schottky diode? Why is it also called Hot-Carrier diode? How does it differ in
construction from a normal P-N junction diode? (5)
Ans :
Schemaic Symbols of Schottky Diode
(a) Equivalent Circuit (b) Approximate Equivalent Circuit
The reverse recovery time is so short in small signal diodes that its effect cannot be noticed
at frequencies below 10MHZ or so. It becomes very important well above 10 MHZ. The
solution is a special purpose device called Schottky diode. Such a diode has no depletion
layer eliminating the stored charges at the junction. Due to the lack of charge storage the
Schottky diode can switch off faster than an ordinary diode.
85
Its construction is very different from the normal PN junction in which metal semiconductor
junction is developed. On one side of the junction a metal is used and the other side of the
junction N-type doped silicon is used.
In both materials, the electrons are the majority carriers. In the metal, the level of minority
carriers is insignificant. When diode is unbiased, electrons on N-side have low energy levels
than the electrons in the metal and so the electrons cannot cross the junction barrier called
Schottky barrier. But when the diode is forward biased the electrons on the N-side gain
enough energy to cross the junction and enter the metal. Since these electrons plung into the
metal with very large energy they are usually called the hot carriers and the diode is called
the hot carrier diode.
Q.105 Draw the circuit diagram of Four-diode Full-wave Bridge Rectifier and explain its
operation. What are its advantages and disadvantages? (6)
Ans :
When the upper end of the transformer secondary winding is positive, diodes D1 and D3 are
forward biased and current flows through arm AB, enters the load at positive terminal,
leaves the load at negative terminal and returns back flowing through arm DC. During this
half of each input cycle, the diodes D2 and D4 are reverse biased, and so the current is not
allowed to flow in arms AD and BC. The flow of current is indicated by solid arrows in the
figure.
In the second half of the input cycle the lower end of ac supply becomes positive diodes D2
and D4 become forward biased and current flows through arm CB, enters the load at the
positive terminal, leaves the load at the negative terminal and returns back flowing through
arm DA. Flow of current has been shown by dotted arrows in the figure. Thus the direction
of flow of current through the load resistance RL remains the same during both half cycles
of the input supply voltage.
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Advantages-
1. Low cost, highly reliable and small sized silicon diodes.
2. No centre tap is required in the transformer secondary so in case of a bridge rectifier the
transformer required is simpler.
3. The PIV is one half that of centre-tap rectifier. Hence bridge rectifier is highly suited for
high voltage applications.
4. Transformer utilization factor, in case of a bridge rectifier is higher than that of a centre
tap transformer.
Disadvantages-
It needs four diodes, two of which conduct in alternate half cycles. Because of this the
total voltage drop in diodes becomes double of that in case of centre tap rectifier.
Q.106 Draw the functional block diagram of Three-Terminal Voltage Regulator IC and describe its
operation. (5)
Ans :
Fundamental block diagram of a three terminal IC voltage regulator

The latest generation of IC voltage regulators has devices with only three pins- one for the
unregulated input voltage, one for regulated output voltage and one for ground.
The error amplifier is used to maintain a constant voltage through a negative feedback.
The series pass element is driven by the output of the error amplifier. It acts as an
automatically controlled variable resistor. It’s resistance varies as required for maintaining
the output voltage constant. The series pass element is typically a BJT that is rated to pass
maximum load current.
Q.107 Define a Transistor. Draw the circuit diagrams of p-n-p and n-p-n transistors with proper
biasing voltages. Also indicate the reference directions for the currents and the reference
polarities for the voltage. (5)
Ans :
The transistor is a solid state device whose operation depends upon the flow of electric
charge carriers within the solid. The transistor is a current controlled device.
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(a) NPN-transistor (b) PNP-transistor
Q.108 Define Transistor characteristics? Sketch the output characteristics of a transistor in its CB
mode. Explain the Active, cut-off and saturation Regions. (7)
Ans :
The performance of transistors when connected in a circuit may be determined from their
characteristic curves that relate different dc currents and voltage of a transistor. Such curves
are known as static characteristic curves.
There are two important characteristics of transistor
1. Input characteristics, 2.Output characteristics.
Out put characteristics for Common Base NPN transistor
The curve drawn between collector current IC and collector base voltage VCB for a given
value of emitter current IE is known as output characteristics.
In an active region (emitter is forward biased and collector reverse biased) collector current
IC is almost equal to IE and appears to remain constant when VCB is increased. In fact, there
is very small increase in IC with increase in VCB. This is because the increase in VCB
expands the collector base depletion region and thus shortens the distance between the two
depletion regions.
In cut-off region (emitter and collector junctions both are reverse biased) small collector
current IC flows even when emitter current IE =0. This is the collector leakage current ICBO
or ICO.
In saturation region (both emitter and collector junctions are forward biased) collector
current IC flows even when VCB ≈ 0.
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Q.109 What is MOSFET? Why MOSFETs are more widely used than the JFETs? (4)
Ans :
MOSFET – Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect transistor is an important
semiconductor device and is widely used in many circuit applications. MOSFET is a three
terminal device (Source, Gate and Drain) and drain current in it is controlled by gate bias.
These devices are more useful in electro meter applications than the JFETs. For the above
reasons, and also because MOSFETs are easier to manufacture, they are widely used than
JFETs.
Q.110 Draw the structure of an N-channel JFET and explain its principle of operation with neat
diagrams along with V-I characteristics. Define Pinch-off voltage and mark it on the
characteristics. Explain its significance in the operation of JFET. (8)
Ans :
(a) N-Channel JFET Schematic symbol of

N-Channel JFET
(b) JFET- Drain Characteristics with Shorted gate

Operation: When neither any bias is applied to the gate (i.e. When VGS =o) nor any voltage
to the drain w.r.t. source (i.e. when VDS =o) the depletion regions around the P-N junctions
are of equal thickness and symmetrical.
When positive voltage is applied to the drain terminal D w.r.t. source terminal S, without
connecting gate terminal G to supply, the electrons (which are the majority carriers) flow
from terminal S to terminal D, whereas conventional drain current ID flows through the
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channel from D to S .Due to flow of this current, there is a uniform voltage drop across the
channel resistance as we move from terminal D to terminal S. This voltage drop reverse
biases the diode. The gate is more negative w.r.t. to those points in the channel which are
nearer to D to S. Hence, the depletion layers penetrate more deeply into the channel at points
lying closer to D than to S. Hence the device is called the field effect transistor because the
drain current is controlled by the effect of the extension of the field associated with the
depletion region developed by the reverse bias at the gate.
Q.111 What is an SCR? Explain the construction, working and V-I characteristics of an SCR for
different gate currents and indicate there-upon holding current, latching current and break
over voltage. (8)
Ans :
The SCR (Silicon controlled rectifier) is a controlled rectifier constructed of a silicon
semiconductor material with a third terminal for control purposes. Silicon was chosen
because of its high temperature and power capabilities. The third terminal gate, determines
when the rectifier switches from the open circuit to short circuit state.
Schematic Diagram & Symbolic representation of SCR
Construction – SCR is essentially an ordinary rectifier (PN) and a junction transistor

(NPN) combined in one unit to form PNPN device. It consists of a four layer pellet of P
and N type silicon semiconductor materials. The junctions are diffused or alloyed. The
material which may be used for P- diffusion is aluminium and for N diffusion is
phosphorous. The contact with anode can be made with an aluminium foil through cathode
and gate by metal sheet.
Working - SCR is a switch .Ideally it remains off or appears to have an infinite impedance
until both the anode and gate terminals have suitable positive voltages with respect to the
cathode terminal.
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VI Characteristics of SCR
When anode is made positive w.r.t. the cathode, junction J1 and J3 are forward biased and
junction J2 is reverse biased and only the leakage current will flow through the device. The
SCR is then said to be in the forward blocking state or in the forward mode or OFF state.
But when cathode is made positive w.r.t. the anode, junctions J1 and J3 are reverse biased a
small reverse leakage current will flow through the SCR and the SCR is said to be in the
reverse blocking or reverse mode.
When the SCR is in forward mode the SCR conducts when the forward voltage exceeds
certain value called the forward breakover voltage VFBO.
If a positive gate current is supplied, the SCR can become conducting at a voltage less than
forward break over voltage. The larger the gate current, lower the break over voltage. With
sufficiently large gate current the SCR behaves identical to PN rectifier.
Once the SCR has been switched ON, it has no control on the amount of current flowing
through it. The current through the SCR is entirely controlled by the external impedance
connected in the circuit and the supplied voltage. There is a very small about 1v, potential
drop across the SCR. The forward current through the SCR can be reduced by reducing the
applied voltage or by increasing circuit impedance. There is, however, a minimum forward
current that must be maintained to keep the SCR in conducting state. This is called the
holding current rating of SCR. If the current through the SCR is reduced below the level
of holding current, the device returns to OFF state or blocking state.
Q.112 What is an integrated circuit? Explain how a capacitor can be constructed in a monolithic
IC. (4)
Ans :
An integrated circuit (IC) consists of several interconnected transistors, resistors, capacitors,
etc. all contained in one small package with external connecting terminals.
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IC-Diffused capacitor
All P-N junctions have capacitance, so capacitors may be produced by fabricating suitable
junctions. As shown in the above figure P and N regions form the capacitor plates and
depletion region between them is the dielectric.
IC capacitors may also be fabricated by utilising the Sio2 surface layer as a dielectric. A
heavily doped N- region is diffused to form one plate of capacitor. The other plate is
formed by depositing a film of aluminium on the Sio2 formed on the wafer surface
.
Q.113 What is photo-electric emission? Explain how is this emission affected if the frequency and
the intensity of the incident radiations are increased. (4)
Ans :
When the surface of certain alkaline material such as sodium, potassium, cesium or
rubidium is illuminated by a beam of light or ultraviolet radiations, the electrons are
emitted. The phenomenon is called photoelectric emission.
The work function of the alkaline materials is very low and therefore when energy of the
ultraviolet radiations (called quanta) fall on the alkaline material, it gives sufficient energy
to the free electrons of the material to speed up sufficiently to overcome the surface
retaining forces of the metal and hence emission takes place. The electrons emitted in this
way are called photo electrons. The number of electrons emitted depends upon the intensity
(brightness) of light beam falling upon the emitter surface and the frequency of radiations.
The energy per bundle, is related to the frequency of light by W=hf = quantum energy,
where h is the Planck’s constant and is equal to 6.626 X 10-34 Joules and f is the frequency
in hertz. The energy required to liberate an electron = eΦ where e electronic charge = 1.602
x 10-19 and Φ = work function in electron volt.Hence for a photon to cause emission
hf ≥ eΦ ;
f ≥ eΦ / h
The minimum frequency which can cause photoemission is called the threshold frequency
and is given by fo = eΦ / h and fo =C/λo;
λo= C/ fo = Ch / eΦ
Q.114 Draw the circuit of an OP-AMP Differential Amplifier and derive an expression for its
output voltage. (5)
92
Ans :
Sometimes it is necessary to amplify the voltage difference between two input lines neither
of which is grounded. In this case the amplifier is called a differential amplifier.
Since circuit has two inputs Vin1 and Vin2 superposition theorem will be used for
determination of voltage gain of the amplifier.
−R f
When Vin1 = 0, then Vout = × Vin 2
R1
…………………………..(1)
R3
When Vin2 = 0, then V1= × Vin 2
R 2 + R3
And output due to Vin1 then is
 Rf   R  R3 
Vout 1= 1 + V1 = 1 + f   Vin1
 R1   R1  R2 + R1 
If R1 = R2 and Rf = R3
∴ Vout 1 = Rf /R3 Vin1 …………………….. 2
The net o/p voltage, Vout = Vout 1+ Vout 2
−R f
Vout = (Vin 2 - Vin 1 )
R1
Q.115 Explain the operation of an OPAMP current-to-voltage converter with the help of circuit
diagram. (5)
Ans :
Current to voltage convert
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A device that produces a voltage proportional to input signal current is called a current to
voltage converter. In this circuit a photocell or photo multiplier tube that provides output
current is connected to the inverting terminal of the op-amp .Rs is the shunt source
resistance.
Vout = - IS RL
Above equation indicating that the output voltage is directly proportional to the input
current IS. The capacitor is connected in parallel with resistor RL for reducing the high
frequency noise.
Q.116 Why are resistors, capacitors and inductors called passive components? Write a note on
moulded-carbon composition resistor. How are active components are broadly classified?
(6)
Ans :
Passive components are those components which by themselves are not capable of
amplifying or processing an electrical signal. This is the reason R, L and C is called passive
components.
Carbon composition resistors- This is the most common type of low voltage resistor. The
resistive material is of carbon clay composition and the leads are made of tinned copper.
The resistor is enclosed in a plastic case to prevent the entry of moisture and other harmful
elements from outside. These resistors have advantages of being cheap and reliable and
their stability is high during their lifetimes, but are highly sensitive to temperature
variations. The power-dissipating capacity of such units ranges from about 0.1 to 2 watts
and the physical size is of the larger units have diameters less than 10mm.
Active components – are devices capable of amplifying or processing with the help of
passive components. These active components can be broadly classified into two categories.
1) Tube Type – Vacuum tubes, Gas tubes
2) Semiconductor Devices – BJT, UJT, FET, SCR, Diode, etc.
Q.117 What do you mean by a constant current source? Write its symbolic representation. What
is the symbol for a practical current source? Given an a.c. current source of strength 0.2A
and impedance 100 ohms, write an equivalent voltage-source representation for this source.
(8)
Ans :
Constant current source – A source that supplies a constant current to a load even if its
impedance varies.
Symbolic representation of an Ideal-current source
94
Symbol for a practical current source
Open circuit voltage across terminals A and B is given as VOC = ISRin=0.2 x 100 = 20 V
Equivalent-voltage source
Q.118 State Thevenin’s theorem. (2)
Ans :
Thevenin’s theorem – provides a mathematical technique for replacing a two terminal
network by a voltage source VT and resistance RT connected in series. The voltage source VT
is open circuit voltage that appears across the load terminals when the load is removed or
disconnected and resistance RT called the Thevenin’s equivalent resistance is equal to the
resistance of the network looking back into the loading terminals.
Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit
95
VT VT
Where I = for dc network and I = for ac machines.
RT + RL ZT + Z L
Q.119 What type of material can conduct electricity in it? Write the energy band diagrams for
metals and insulators and briefly explain. (8)
Ans :
Conducting materials (such as silver, copper, aluminium etc.) are good conductors of
electricity and are characterised by a large electrical conductivity and small electrical
resistivity.
Within any given material there are two distinct energy bands in which electrons may exist.
These two energy bands are valence band and conduction band and are separated by an
energy gap in which no electrons normally exist. This energy gap is termed the Forbidden
gap EG.
For Insulator For Semiconductor For Conductor
The energy band of interest is the highest energy band or valence band. If a sufficient
amount of energy is given to an electron in the valence band the electrons is freed of the
atomic structure, such an electron is said to possess enough energy to be in conduction
band , where it can take part in electric current flow. Free electrons can move readily under
the influence of an external field.
Q.120 Briefly describe the effect of temperature on the conductivity of instrinsic semiconductors.
(3)
Ans :
At absolute zero temperature, all the electrons of intrinsic semiconductors are tightly held by
their atoms. The inner orbit electrons are bound to nucleus whereas, the valence electrons are
bound by the forces of covalent bonds. Thus, at absolute zero temperature no free electron is
available in the intrinsic semiconductor so it behaves like a perfect insulator.
When the material is heated, electrons break away from their atoms and move from the
valence band to conduction band. Thus produces holes in the valence band and free electrons
in the conduction band. Conduction can then occur by electron movement and hole transfer.
With the increase in temperature, the rate of generation of electron hole pairs is increased.
This intrim increases the rate of recombination. Thus with the increase in temperature, the
concentration of charge carriers increases. As more charge carriers are made available, the
conductivity of a pure semiconductor increases with the increase in temperature.
96
Q.121 Explain the operation of a PN-junction under forward bias condition. (5)
Ans :
Forward Biasing
When an external field, with P-region connected to positive terminal and N-region connected
to negative terminal of the battery, is applied across the junction, as shown in the figure, the
junction is said to be forward biased.
After forward biased, barrier is reduced and it is eliminated altogether .The junction offers a
low resistance called the forward resistance, rf, to the flow of current and current flows in the
circuit due to establishment of low resistance path and magnitude of current depends upon the
magnitude of applied forward voltage.
Q.122 Explain the operation of a Voltage Tripler with a suitable diagram. (6)
Ans :
Voltage Tripler
In operation capacitor C1 is charged through diode D1 to a peak value of transformer

secondary voltage VSmax during first positive half cycle of the ac input voltage. During the
negative half cycle capacitor C2 is charged to twice the peak voltage 2 VSmax developed by
the sum of voltage across capacitor C1 and transformer secondary winding. The voltage
across capacitors C1 and C3 is 3 VSmax.
Q.123 Mention the effects of increasing the capacitance of a shunt capacitor filter on the
performance of a rectifier. (3)
97
Ans :
Larger the filter capacitor the more charge it can hold and less it will discharge. Hence the
peak to peak value of the ripple will be less and the average dc level will increase.
But larger the capacitance value, greater is the current required to charge the capacitor to a
given voltage.
Q.124 Why do the regulated supplies include current limiting? Name the building block of the
first generation IC voltage regulators like the µA723 . What is the disadvantage of these
early IC regulators? (4)
Ans :
If the load resistance RL is reduced or load terminals are shorted accidently, a very large
load current will flow in the circuit. It may destroy the pass transistor, diode or possible
some other component. To avoid this situation a current limiting circuit is added.
Fundamental Block-Diagram of IC-Regulator
Series regulators are very popular of our needs. The main drawback of these regulators is
the power dissipation in the pass transistor. Other drawbacks are regulated power supplies
using these regulators require a step-down transformer and alarge sized filter capacitor to
reduce the ripple.
Q.125 What is a transistor? Define a common-emitter configuration. Show that for a CE

configuration I C = β dc ⋅ I B + I CEO with usual notations. (9)
Ans :
The transistor is a solid state device, whose operation depends upon the flow of electric
charge carriers within the solid.
In common emitter configuration input is connected between base and emitter while the
output is taken between collector and emitter.
98
Common emitter is commonly used because it’s current, voltage and power gains are quite
high and output to input impedance ratio is moderate.
The ratio of change in collector current and change in base current is called the base current
amplification factor.ie. β = ∆IC/∆IB
I IC I /I α dc
β dc = C = = C E =
I B I E − I C 1 − I C / I E 1 − α dc
I E = I B + I C and I C = αI E + I CBO = α (I B + I C ) + I CBO
I C (1 − α ) = αI B + I CBO
or I C = β dc I B + I CBO
α dc 1
β dc = and I CBO = I CBO
1 − α dc 1 − α dc
1
I C = β dc I B + I CBO
1 − α dc
I C = β dc I B + (β dc + 1)I CBO
1
Q = β +1
1−α
Q.126 Write the input characteristics of a PNP transistor connected in common-emitter

configuration. (3)
Ans :
CE-configuration: pnp transistor CE-configuration: Input characteristics
Q.127 What are the advantages of FETs over BJTs? Write the structure of an N-channel JFET.
What do you mean by PINCH-OFF voltage of a JFET? (9)
Ans :
Advantages
1. FET’s operation depends upon the flow of majority carriers only. It is therefore a
unipolar device.
2. FET’s are simpler to fabricate, smaller in size and has higher efficiency.
99
3. FET’s have high input impedance(≅100 MΩ)

4. FET’s are relatively immune to noise.
5. FET’s have very high power gain and therefore the necessity of employing driver stage
is eliminated.
6. FET’s have negative temperature coefficient of resistance and therefore has better
thermal stability.
N-Channel JFET Schematic Symbol for N-Channel JFET
If the negative voltage at the gate is increased, depletion layers meet at the centre and the
drain current ID is cut-off completely. The gate to source voltage VGS at which drain current
ID is cut-off completely, is called the PINCH-OFF voltage VP.
Q.128 Write a brief note on UJT. (7)
Ans :
Unijunction transistor is also called double base diode. It is a two layer, three terminal solid
state switching device. This device has unique characteristic that when it is triggered its
emitter current increases regeneratively until it is restricted by emitter power supply.
It can be used in a wide variety of applications including oscillators, pulse generators, saw
tooth generators, triggering circuits, phase control timing circuits and voltage or current
regulated supplies.
The device has only one junction ie. one P-N junction, which is quite similar to a diode but
it differs from an ordinary diode that it has three terminals.
Base Structure (UJT) Schematic Symbol (UJT)
100
Q.129 Write the circuit of the most general form of a differential amplifier using BJTs and briefly
explain. (6)
Ans :
Differential Amplifier circuit

An amplifier which is designed to give the difference between the two input signals is
called differential amplifier.
There are two inputs and two output as shown. When the input signal drives Q1 there will
be more voltage drop across RC1 and therefore, the collector of Q1 will be less positive and
when the input signal is negative it will turnoff the transistor and so voltage drop across
RC1 will be negligible and collector of Q1 will be more positive.
The amplifier can also be driven differentially by taking output between the collectors of Q1
& Q2. The advantage of the differential amplifier is that, hum and noise signal called
common mode signal which is common to both inputs, is cancelled out in the output.
Q.130 Write the circuit of an OPAMP non-inverting voltage feedback amplifier and deduce the
equation for its closed-loop gain. (6)
Ans :
The closed loop gain
V
A f = out
Vi n
Vout = A(V1 − V2 );
R1
V1 = Vi n , V2 = × Vout = V f
R1 + R f
Vout A( R1 + R f )
Af = =
Vi n R1 + R f + AR1
So AR1 >>( R1 + R f ) and R1 + R f + AR1 ≈ AR1

Rf
Then A f = 1 +
R1
101
Q.131 Write the circuit of a current-to-voltage converter using an OPAMP and explain its
operation. (4)
Ans :
A device that produces a voltage proportional to input signal current is called a current to
voltage converter. There is a virtual ground at the inverting input terminal, current flowing
through RS is zero, and, therefore, the entire input current IS flows through the load resistor
RL resulting in the output voltage given as Vout = - IS. RL
The above equation clearly indicates that the output voltage is directly proportional to the
input current IS.
Q.132 Define the following terms as used in IC fabrication:

(i) Chip (ii) Diffusion (iii) Etching. (4)
Ans :
(i) Chip - An integrated circuit IC is one in which all active and passive components are
automatically part of a small semiconductor chip.
(ii) Diffusion - is the process of introduction of controlled amount of dopant atoms into the
semiconductor .Diffusion alters the type of conductivity of the semiconductor. In silicon
integrated circuit processing diffusion is used to form bases, emitters and resistors in bipolar
technology and source and drain regions of MOSFET’s in MOS technology. Commonly
used diffusion methods are diffusion from a chemical source, diffusion from a doped oxide
source.
(iii) Etching – Selective removal of material in silicon IC process is known etching. The
process may be chemical or physical. By physical means etching can be done by the kinetic
energy associated with the bombarding ions in the ion stream or plasma. Etching can be
classified as dry and wet etching. In case of dry-etching the wafer is bombarded by ions
radicals or atoms in the vapour phase. In wet etching liquid chemicals are used.
Q.133 Briefly explain a Schottky diode. (4)
102
Ans :
The reverse recovery time is short in small signal diodes that its effect cannot be noticed at
frequencies below 10MHZ or so. It becomes very important well above 10 MHZ.
The solution is a special purpose device called a Schottky diode. Such a diode has no
depletion layer eliminating the stored charges at the junction. Due to the lack of charge
storage, the Schottky diode can switch off faster than ordinary diode. It’s construction is
very different from the normal PN junction in that a metal semiconductor junction is
developed.
Q.134 What is an inductor? Explain briefly various types of fixed inductors employed in electronic
industry. What is the role of variable inductors in radio receiver? (6)
Ans :
An inductor has been defined as a physical device which is capable of storing energy by
virtue of a current flowing through it.
In case of an inductor current does not change instantaneously. It offers high impedance to
ac but very low impedance to dc. It blocks ac signal but passes dc signal.
Inductors can be classified into filter chokes audio frequency chokes and radio frequency
chokes.
103
Filter choke has many turns of fine wire wound on an iron core made of laminated sheets of
E and I shapes and is used in smoothing the pulsating current produced by rectifying ac into
dc.
Audio frequency chokes are used to provide high impedance to audio frequencies.
Radio frequency chokes are employed to block the radio frequency.
Variable inductors – Tuning circuits, phase shifting and switching of bands in amplifier
sometimes require a variable inductance.
Q.135 Differentiate between a current source and a voltage source. Give their graphical
representations. How can they be converted from one another? Determine the current
flowing through 7Ω resistor in the circuit shown in Fig. 2 by using source transformation
technique. (10)
7Ω
7A 6Ω 9Ω VO 11A
Fig 2
Ans :
Any device that produces voltage output continuously is known as voltage source. It’s basic
purpose is to supply power to load connected across it.
Dc voltage source ac voltage source
IS
IS
Ideal current source

Constant current source, a source that supplies a constant current to a load even if its
impedance varies.
It should be noted that a voltage source series resistance combination is equivalent to a
current source parallel resistance combination if, and only if their respective open circuit
voltages are equal to respective short circuit currents are equal.
104
Source Equivalence
A A
RIN
⇒ RIN
IS
+ VS
-
B B
V
I S = S = VS = I S R I N
RI N
Q.136 “As regards conduction of current in concerned, a semiconductor is bipolar in nature

whereas a metal is unipolar”-Justify (or) nullify the above statement. (7)
Ans :
In semiconductors both holes and electrons take part in conduction. This is the reason that
these are bipolar in nature.
In conducting materials there is no forbidden gap. The orbits in the conduction band are
very large. An electron in the conduction band experiences almost negligible nuclear
attraction. In fact an electron in the conduction band does not belong to any particular atom
but it moves randomly through out the solid.
Q.137 Explain what do you understand by intrinsic, N-type and P-type semiconductors. Discuss
the position of Fermi level in each case. (9)
Ans :
When a small amount of pentavalent impurity such as arsenic, antimony or phosphorous is
added to a pure semiconductor crystal during crystal growth the resulting crystal is called
the N-type extrinsic semiconductor.
When a small amount of trivalent impurity such as boron, gallium, indium or aluminium is
added to a pure semiconductor crystal during the crystal growth, the resulting crystal is
called the P-type extrinsic semiconductor.
105
Q.138 Discuss the reasons for the existence of a depletion layer in a P-N junction. Relate it to the
rectifying properties of a P-N junction. (10)
Ans :
On the formation of P-N junction some of the holes from P-type material tend to diffuse
across the boundary into N-type material and some of the free electrons similarly diffuse into
the P-type material. This happens due to density gradient (as concentration of holes is higher
on P-side than that on N-side and concentration of electrons is higher on N-side than that on
P-side.) This process is known as diffusion.
As a result of the displacement of the chargers, an electric field appears across the junction.
Equilibrium is established when the field becomes large enough to restrain the process of
diffusion. The electric charges are confined to the neighbourhood of the junction, and
consists of immobile ions. The initial diffusion of charge carriers creates a barrier potential
at the junction. The region around the junction is completely ionised. As a result there are no
free electrons on the N-sides nor the holes on the P-side. Since the region around the
junction is depleted of mobile charges it is called the depletion region, the space charge
region or transition region.
Q.139 What is a Zener diode? Explain, with the help of a circuit diagram. How Zener diode can be
used as a voltage regulator? (6)
Ans :
Zener diode also sometimes called the breakdown diode is a P-N junction diode specially
designed for operation in the breakdown region in reverse bias condition.
106
Zener diode symbol Zener diode used as a Voltage regulator
Voltage regulation is a measure of a circuit‘s ability to maintain a constant output voltage

even when either input voltage or load current varies.
A resistor RS is necessary to limit the reverse current through the diode to a safer value. The
voltage source VS and resistor RS are selected that the diode operates in the breakdown
region. The diode voltage in this region which is also the voltage across the load RL is
called Zener Voltage VZ and the diode current is called the Zener current IZ.
As long as voltage across the load resistor RL is less than the breakdown voltage VZ the
zener diode does conduct. The resistors RS and RL constitute a potential divider across VS.
At an increased supply voltage VS the voltage drop across load resistor becomes greater
than the zener breakdown voltage. It then operates in the breakdown region. The series
resistor RS limits the zener current IZ from exceeding its rated maximum value because
V − VZ
zener current is given as IZ = S , so IS = IZ +IL
RS
When zener diode operates in its breakdown region the voltage across it VZ remains fairly
constant even though the current IZ flowing through it may vary considerably.
Q.140 Explain the operation of JFET as an analog switch. (7)
Ans :
JFET as am Analog Switch
107
When no gate voltage is applied to the FET ie. VGS =0, FET becomes saturated and it
behaves like a small resistance usually of the value of less than 100Ω and, therefore, output
RDS
voltage becomes equal to VOUT = VI
RD + RDS (ON ) N
Since RD>>RDS(ON) so VOUT can be taken equal to zero.. When a negative voltage equal to
VGS(OFF) is applied to the gate , the FET operates in the cut-off region and it acts like a
very high resistance usually of some mega ohms. Hence output voltage becomes nearly
equal to input voltage.
Q.141 Compare the characteristics of CB, CE and CC configurations of a transistor. Draw the
circuit of a common collector transistor configuration and explain its operation. Also derive
the relation between γ and α current amplification factors. (9)
Ans :
Characteristics Common Base Common Emitter Common Collector

Input impedance Low (≅100Ω) Medium (≅800Ω) Very high (≅750kΩ)
Output impedance Very high (≅500kΩ) High (≅50kΩ) Low (≅50Ω)
Current gain Less than unity High(≅80) High(≅100)
Voltage gain About 150 ≅500 Less than unity
Leakage current ≅5µA Very large ≅500µA Very large
Common collector configuration
CC-NPN Transistor
In this arrangement base current IB flows in the input circuit and emitter current IE flows in
the output circuit. So, change in emitter current ∆ IE to change in base current ∆ IB gives the
current amplification factor γ
IC= α IE+ ICBO and IE= IB + IC
∴ IE= IB+ α IE+ ICBO
IE(1- α ) = IB+ ICBO
108
IB I
IE = + CBO = (β + 1)I B + (β + 1) I CBO
1−α 1−α
1
Q = β +1
1−α
∆ IE ∆ IE
Current gain γ = =
∆ I B ∆ I E − ∆ IC
∆ IE 1
∆ IC
= α =
1
γ = = β +1
∆ IE 1 1−α
−1 − 1
∆ IC α
This configuration primarily is used for impedance matching.
Q.142 Why are MOSFETs available in both enhancement and depletion modes, while JFETs
operate almost invariably in the depletion modes. (4)
Ans :
In a JFET, if the gate is forward biased, excess carrier junction occurs and gate current is
substantial. Thus channel conductance is enhanced to some degree due to excess carriers
but device is never operated with gate forward biased because gate current is undesirable.
Q.143 Sketch the output characteristics for N-channel JFET with gate-source voltage shorted (i.e.
VGS=0). How Ohmic, Pinch-off and Breakdown regions are created? (8)
Ans :
JFET-Drain characteristic with Short-gate

Initially when VDS is zero, there is no attracting potential at the drain, so no current flows in
spite of the fact that the channel is fully open. Thus ID = 0.
For small supply applied voltage VDS, the N-type bar acts as a simple semiconductor
resistor, and the drain current ID increases linearly with the increase in VDS, up to the knee
point. This region of the curve is called the Channel Ohmic Region.
With the increase in drain current ID, the ohmic voltage drop between the source and
channel region reverse biases the gate junction. The reverse biasing of the gate junction is
not uniform throughout. The reverse bias is more at the drain end than that at the source end
of the channel, the conducting portion of the channel begins to constrict more at the drain
109
end. Eventually a voltage VDS is reached at which channel is pinched off, (ie. All the free
charges from the channel gets removed), is called the Pinch-off voltage (VP)
If VDS is continuously increased, a stage comes when the gate channel junction breaks
down. At this point the drain current increases very rapidly and the JFET may be destroyed.
This is known as Avalanche Effect.
Q.144 Describe the structure, symbol and operation of SCR with the help of suitable diagrams.
(8)
Ans :
Schematic Diagram Symbolic Diagram
The SCR (Silicon controlled rectifier) is a controlled rectifier constructed of a silicon

semiconductor material with a third terminal for control purposes. The basic operation of
SCR is different from that of an ordinary two layer semiconductor diode in that, the third
terminal gate determines when the rectifier switches from the open circuit to short circuit
state. SCR deice is a switch .Ideally it remains off or appears to have infinite impedance
until both the anode and gate terminals have suitable positive voltages with respect to the
cathode terminal. The thyristor then switches ON and current flows and continues to conduct
without further gate signals.
Q.145 Explain the following terms as referred to an operational amplifier

(i) Input offset Voltage
(ii) Input offset Current
(iii) Slew Rate
(vii) CMRR (12)
Ans :
(i) Input offset Voltage
(a) Output offset voltage (b) Elimination of Output

off-set voltage
When the inputs of the op-amp are grounded, there is almost always an output offset voltage
as shown in fig(a) because the input transistors have different VBE values.
110
(ii) Input offset current
(a) Output offset voltage (b) Reduced offset voltage

due to Return-path resistance by equal return resistors
Input offset current Iin offset – is defined as the difference between the two currents
entering the input terminals of a balanced amplifier for VOUT = 0
ie. Iin(offset) = IB1-IB2 for VOUT = 0
(iii) Slew Rate – The slew rate of an op-amp is defined as the maximum rate at which the
output voltage can change, no matter how large an input signal applied.
SR = d VOUT /dt
Max
This is usually measured in V / µs
(iv) CMRR- It is defined as the ratio of differential voltage gain to common mode voltage
gain and it is given as CMRR= Ad / ACM
If the differential amplifier is perfect, CMRR would be infinite because in that case
common mode voltage gain ACM would be zero.
 1 VCM 
CMRR(log) = 20 log(Ad / ACM) and VOUT= AdVd 1 + 
 CMRR Vd 
111
PART – III
NUMERICALS
Q.1 A, power supply is having the following loads:-
Type of load Max. demand (kW) Diversity of group Demand factor
Domestic 1500 1.2 0.8
Commercial 2000 1.1 0.9
Industrial 10,000 1.25 1
If the overall system diversity factor is 1.35, determine the maximum demand and
connected load of each type. (8)
Ans:
The sum of maximum demands of three types of loads is = 1500 + 10,000+ 2000 = 13,500kW.
As the system diversity factor is 1.35,
Therefore, max. demand on the supply = 13,500 / 1.35 = 10,000 kW.
Each type of load has its own diversity factor among its consumers.
∴ connected domestic load = 1500 X 1.2 / 0.8 = 2250 kW.
∴ connected commercial load = 2000 X 1.1 / 0.9 = 2444 kW.
∴ connected domestic load = 10,000 X 1.25 / 1 = 12, 500 kW.
Q.2 A two-pole alternator runs at 3000 rpm and supplies power to a 10 –pole single – phase
induction motor, which has full load slip of 5 %. Find the full load speed of the induction
motor and the frequency of its rotor emf due to forward field. (8)
Ans:
120 × f
NS = where NS = Synchronous speed and f = frequency of the supply voltage
p
generated by the alternator, then
120 × f 3000 × 2
3000 = = f = = 50 Hz.
2 120
120 × 50
NS = = 600rpm.
10
N −N 600 − N
S= S so, 0.05 = = N = 570 rpm.
NS 600
If fr is the rotor emf frequency, then fr = 50 X 0.05 =2.5 Hz.
Q.3 The voltage applied to a dc shunt motor is 220V. The armature current is 20A. The
armature resistance is 0.5 Ω. The speed is 80 radians per second. Determine the induced
emf, the electromagnetic torque and speed in rpm. (8)
Ans:
Given V= 220V, Ia = 20A where Ia = the armature current. Ra = Armature resistance = 0.5 Ω
and ω = 8o rad. /s.
The back emf of the motor Eb = V - Ia Ra = 220 – 20 X 0.5 = 210 V.
112
The electromagnetic torque Te = Eb Ia / ω = 210 X 20 / 80 = 52.5 N- m.

If N is the speed in rpm, then total angular distance covered in one minute = 2 π N radians.
Or angular distance covered in one second = 2 π N / 60 rad. / s
80 × 60
Hence 80 = 2 π N / 60 or N = = 764 rpm.
2 × 3.14
Q.4 For the circuit shown in Fig.1, find the value of R L for maximum power transfer. What
will be the value of maximum power? (8)
Ans:
Reduce the given circuit to Thevenin’s circuit
12 Ω 2Ω 12 Ω 2Ω
Ω Ω
72V
RL=load 24 Ω
24Ω
Fig. a Fig. b
Remove the load resistance and replace battery by its internal resistance as shown in Fig d.
12 X 24
Rth = + 2 Ω = 10 Ω
12 + 24
Calculate Eth = (72 X 24) / (24+12) = 48 V as shown in Fig c.
12 Ω 2Ω 10 Ω
72V
24Ω 48V
Fig.c. Fig.d.
For maximum power transfer the internal resistance of the source and load resistance should
be equal. Hence load resistance of circuit is 10 Ω. Maximum power = Eth2/4RL = 482/ 4 X! 0
= 57.6W.
113
Q.5 A series circuit of resistance 250 Ω and inductance 0.25 H is excited from a pulse voltage
of strength 10 V of duration 1 ms. Find the value of the current at 0.5 ms and 2 ms.
(8)
Ans:
e= Em sinω t ; Em = 250V and 2 π f = 2 x 3.14 x 50. e = 250 sin314t
When e =125V then sin314t= 125/250 =0.5 ; 314t = sin-10.5= 100 π t =300
t = (30) /100 x 1800= 1/600 = 1.667ms.
Q.6 Find the average value of a full wave rectified sine wave shown in Fig.2. (4)
Ans:
τ = L / R = 0.25 / 250 = 10-3 s
Consider step voltage of strength 10 V . Reponse is given by
i(t) = 10 / 250 (1 – e –100t) u(t)
10 P (t, 10-3) = 10 u(t) – 10u( t- 10-3)
Pulse response is given by
i(t) = 0.04 (1 – e –100t) u(t) - 0.04 u(t – 10-3)

t = 0.5 ms
i (0.5 x 10-3) = 0.04 - 0.04 (1 – e –0.5) = 0.0157 A

t = 0.5 ms
i (2 x 10-3) = 0.04 - 0.04
= 0.04 (1 – e –2) - 0.04 ( 1- e –1 ) = 0.0093 A
Q.7 The electric mains in a house is marked as 230 V, 50 Hz. Write down the equation for
instantaneous voltage in sinusoidal form. (4)
Ans:
Vrms =230V; f = 50Hz Vmax =√2 x Vrms = 325.22 V0lts. ω =2 π f = 2x 3.14 x 50
Hence e = 325.22 sin 314 t
114
Q.8 The secondary of a 750 KVA, 11000/ 400 V, 50 Hz transformer has 160 turns. Determine
the primary number of turns, primary and secondary full load current neglecting losses. If
the area of cross section of the core is 100 cm2, what will be flux density in the core?
(8)
Ans:
N 2 V2
= where N2 and N1 are the number of turns on the secondary and primary windings.
N 1 V1
V1 N 2 11000 ×160
N1 = = = 4400 turns. N1=4400 turns.
V2 400
750 × 1000
I 1V1 = 750 ×1000 = ∴ I 1 = = 68.182 A.
11000
750 ×1000
I 2V 2 = 750 × 1000 = ∴ I 2 = = 1875 A.
400
11000
E1 = 4.44 ϕmax f N1 volts = ϕmax = = 0.01126 Wb.
4.44 × 50 × 4400
0.01126
∴ Bmax = = 1.126Wb / m 2
100 × 10 − 4
2
∴ Bmax = 1.126 Wb/ m .
Q.9 A 3 – phase transformer consisting of three 1 – phase transformers each with turn ratio of
10:1 (primary : secondary) is used to supply a 3 – phase load of 120 kVA at 400 V on the
secondary side. Calculate the primary line current and voltage if the transformer is
connected (i) ∆ Y (ii) Y ∆ . What is the line-line transformation ratio in each case?
(8)
Ans:
∆/Y connection – I = (120 X 1000) /√ 3 X 400 = 173.2 A
Primary line-to line voltage = a V /√3 = 10 X 400/√3 = 2309 V; where a = turns ratio
Primary line current = √3 X I / a = 1.732 X 173.2 x 1/10 = 30 A;
Line to line transformation ratio = a V / √3 / V = a / √3 = 10 /√3
Y/∆ = Primary line-to line voltage = √3 a V = √3 X 10 X 400 = 6928 V;
Primary line current = 173.2 / √3 = = 10 X 1.732 = 10 A;
Line to line transformation ratio =10 √3
Q.10 A separately excited dc motor is operating at an armature voltage of 300 V. It’s no-load
speed is 1200 rpm. When fully loaded it delivers a motor torque of 350 N-m and its speed
drops to 1100 rpm. What is the full load current and power? What is the armature
resistance of the motor? The motor is now fed with an armature voltage of 600 V, while its
excitation is held fixed as before. If it is once again fully loaded, find the motor torque,
power and speed. (8)
Ans:
Given Ea = V = 300V, 300 = (Ka x Φ x 2 π x 1200) / 60 or Ka x Φ =2.39
Ea = (300 x 1100)/1200 =275 V.
Ka = Z P/ 2 π x A is a constant.
115
Ia = 350/2.39 = 146.4 A where Ia = the armature current.

Mechanical power developed = Ea Ia = 275 x 146.7 = 40.3 KW.
Ra = (300 – 275) / 146.4 = 0.171Ω
Armature voltage = 600V
Ia = 350/2.39 = 146.4 A; T = 350 N-m
The back emf of the motor Eb = V - Ia Ra = 600 – 146.4 X 0.171 = 575 V.
575 = 2.39 x 2 π n / 60; n = 2297 rpm.
Power = Ea Ra = 575 x 146.4 = 84.2 kW
Q.11 A coil, which has 10Ω resistance and 50mH inductance is connected to 230V, 50Hz supply.
Calculate the current in the coil. (5)
Ans:
-3
XL = 2 X 3.14 X 50 X 50 X10 = 15.7 Ω
∴ Z = (10) 2 + (15.7) 2 = (100) + (246.5) = 18.6Ω.
230
∴I = = 12.37 A.
18.6
I = 12.37A.
Q.12 A 3-phase induction motor which is wound for 4-poles, when running on full load, develops
a useful torque of 100 Nm; also the rotor emf is observed to make 120-cycles/ min. It is
known that the torque lost on account of friction and core loss is 7 Nm. Calculate the shaft
power output, rotor copper loss, motor input and motor efficiency. (8)
Ans:
f2= sf ; 120 / 60 = 2 Hz where f2 = rotor frequency
s(slip) = 2.5/ 50 =0.04
n s (synchronous speed) = 1500 rpm
n = (1 – 0.04) x 1500 = 1440 rpm
ω = 2 π X1440 / 60= 150.7 rad/s
Shaft power output = 100 x 150.7 = 15.07 KW.
Pm = (100+7) x 150.7 = 16.12 kW.
Rotor copper loss = 3 I22R2 = Pm (s /1-s) = 16.12 X 0.04/ (1- 0.04) = 0.67 kW
Motor input = 16.12 + 0.67 + 0.7 = 17.49 kW.
η = 15.07 / 17.49 = 86.16 %
Q.13 When a coil is connected to a 230V, 50Hz supply, it takes a current of 2A and the power
consumption is 150W. Calculate the resistance and inductance of the coil. (5)
Ans:
V
Z= Where Z is the impedance, V is the voltage and I the current.
I
230 P 150
∴Z = = 115Ω. And P = I2 R; ∴ R = 2
= 2 = 37.5 Ω.
2 I 2
∴ X L = (115) 2 − (37.5) 2
X L = (13225) − (1406.25) = X L = 11818.75 = 108.71Ω.
116
108.71
Or L = = 0.346 H.
2 X 3.14 X 50
Q.14 Three non- inductive resistances of 5Ω, 20Ω, and 25Ω are connected in delta. Obtain its
equivalent star connected system maintaining the same phase sequence. (8)
Ans:
Star equivalent of delta connection can be calculated by using the following expressions
R ABR CA
RA =
R AB + RBC + R CA
RBCR AB
RB =
R AB + RBC + R CA
R CA R BC
RC =
R AB + R BC + R CA
RA = 5 X 25 = 125 = 2.5 Ω
5 + 20 + 25 50
RB = 5 X 20 = 100 = 2Ω
5 + 20 + 25 50
RC = 2 5 X 20 = 500 = 10Ω
5 + 20 + 25 50
A A
RCA
RAB RA
RB
RC
C C B
RBC B
Q.15 A power station has a load cycle as under: 260 MW for 6 hr: 200MW for 8 hr; 160 MW for
4hr; 100MW for 6hr. If the power station is equipped with 4 sets of 75 MW each. Calculate
the load factor and capacity factor from the above data. (8)
Ans:
Daily load factor = Units actually supplied in a day
Max. Demand X 24
MWh supplied per day = (260 X 6) + (200 X 8) + (160 X 4) + (100 X 6) =4,400
∴ Station daily load factor = 4,400 = 0.704 or 70.4 %
260 X 24
117
Capacity factor = Average demand on station

Installed capacity of the station
No. of MWh supplied per day = 4,400 ∴Average power / day = 4,400/24 MW.
Total installed capacity of the station = 75 X 4 = 300 MW.
Capacity factor = 4,400/24 = 0.611 or 61.1 %
300
Q.16 A generating station has a maximum demand of 25 MW, a load factor of 60%, a plant
capacity factor of 50% and a plant use factor of 72%. Find
(i) the daily energy produced (ii) reserve capacity of the plant,
(iii) the maximum energy that could be produced daily, if the plant, while running as per
schedule, were fully loaded. (8)
Ans:
Load factor = Average demand / Max. demand = 0.6 = Average demand / 25
Average demand = 15 MW.
Plant capacity factor = average demand / installed capacity = 0.50 = 15 / installed capacity
Installed capacity = 15 / 0.5 = 30 MW
Therefore reserve capacity of the plant = installed capacity – Maximum demand
= 30 - 25 = 5 MW.
Daily energy produced = average demand x 24 = 15 x 24= 360 MWh
Energy corresponding to installed capacity per day = 24 x 30 = 720 MWh
Maximum energy that could be produced = actual energy produced in a day/ plant use factor =
360 / 0.72 = 500 MWh / day.
Q.17 A 3-phase induction motor is wound for 4-poles and is supplied from a 50 Hz system.
Calculate
(i) synchronous speed.

(ii) actual speed of the motor when running at 4 % slip.
(iii) frequency of emf induced in rotor. (6)
Ans:
Synchronous speed, NS = 120 X f = 120 X 50 = 1500 r.p.m. Where f is the supply frequency.
P 4 and P is the No. of poles.
Actual Speed of motor = N = NS (1-S) Where S is the slip = 0.04
∴ N = 1500 (1 – 0.04) = 1440 r.p.m.
Frequency of the rotor emf = fr = S f = 0.04 X 50 = 2 Hz.
118
Q.18 Calculate the maximum power by a solar cell at an intensity of 200 W m 2 . Given
Vmax = 0.14 V and I max = −6mA . Also calculate the cell efficiency if the area is 4 cm 2 .
(8)
Ans:
For solar cell maximum power Pmax = Imax V max
Pmax(output) = -- 6 x 10-3 x0.14 = - 0.84 mW
= - 0.84x 10-3 W
Pinput = intensity X area = 200x 4 x 10-4
Cell ή = (0.84 x 10-3) / (200 x 4 x10-4 ) = 1.05 %
Q.19 A 6- pole lap wound shunt motor has 500 conductors in the armature. The resistance of the
armature path is 0.05. The resistance of shunt field is 25Ω. Find the speed of the motor
-
when it takes 120 A from the dc mains of 100 V supply. Flux per pole is 2 X 10 2 wb.
(8)
Ans:
Ish = Vsh / Rsh = 100 / 25 = 4 A. Where Ish is the shunt field current, Vsh is the shunt field
voltage and Rsh is the resistance of the shunt field.
Ia = IL - Ish = 120 – 4 = 116 A. Where IL the line current and Ia is the armature current.
Eb = V - Ia Ra where V is the applied voltage and Eb is back emf developed.
= 100 – 116 X 0.05 = 94.2 V.
Eb = P ϕ Z N / 60 A = 94.2 = 6 X 2 X 10(-2) X 500 X N where Z = No. of conductors
60 X 6 P = No.of poles : ϕ = flux per pole.
∴ N = Speed of the motor is 565.2 r.p.m.
Q.20 Using Thevenin’s theorem, find the current through 2.5 ohms resistance in the circuit shown
in the FIG-1 (10)
Ans:
According to Thevenin’s theorem
(i) Remove the load resistance (2.5 ohm) from the circuit as shown in the fig 2b.
(ii) In fig 2b, the total resistance across the emf source is given as
(6 + 4) × 10
R1 = + 5 = 10Ω
(6 + 4) + 10
119
5Ω 6Ω A
4Ω 2.5Ω
50 V 10Ω
B
Fig 2(b)
Current drawn from battery I = 50/10 = 5A

Current flowing through 4Ω resistance = 5 x {10/10+(6+4)} = 2.5A
Voltage across open circuited point AB Vth = 4x2.5 = 10V
(iii) Now replace the emf source by its zero internal resistance as shown in fig 2c and
calculating equivalent resistance between point AB
5Ω 6Ω A
10Ω 4Ω
Rth
Fig 2(c)
Rth = {(5x10)/(5+10)}+6 || 4
= (50/15) + 6 || 4
= (9.33x4)/(9.33+4) = 2.8Ω
(iv) Now the Thevenins equivalent circuit may be drawn as shown in fig 2d connecting
2.5Ω resistance across AB and calculating current flowing through 2.5Ω resistance
as IL = 10/(2.8+2.5) = 1.886A
2.8Ω A
Rth IL
Vth 10V 2.5Ω
B
Fig 2(d)
Q.21 In a 25 kVA, 2000 / 200V transformer the iron and full load copper losses are 350W and
400W respectively. Calculate the efficiency at unity power factor at
(i) full load and (ii) half load. (10)
120
Ans:
ηx = x kVA X 1000 X cos ϕ
x kVA X 1000 X cos ϕ + Pi + x2 Pc
Where cos ϕ = 1 and Pi = iron loss = 350 W; Pc = copper loss = 400 W.
(i) At full load x =1

∴η = 1 X 25 X 1000 X 1 X 100 = 97.087 %
1 X 25X 1000 X 1+ 350 + 1 X 1 X 400
(ii) At half load x =0.5
∴η = 0.5 X 25 X 1000 X 1 X 100 = 96.525 %

0.5 X 25X 1000 X 1+ 350 + 0.5 X 0.5 X 400
Q.22 An a.c circuit consists of a pure resistance of 10 ohms and is connected across an a.c supply
of 230V, 50 Hz.
Determine (i) current flowing through the circuit.
(ii) Power consumed by the circuit.
(iii) Write down the equation for voltage and current. (8)
Ans:
i) Current in the circuit, I = V/R = 230/10 = 23A
ii) Power consumed by the circuit P = VI
= 230x23 = 5290 W
iii) Maximum value of applied voltage Vm = 2Vrms = 2 × 230 = 325.27V
Maximum valued of current I m = 2 I rms = 2 × 23 = 32.53 A
Angular velocity ω = 2πf = 314 rad / s
Equation for applied voltage v = Vm Sin ωt = 325.27 Sin 314t
As in pure resistive circuit, current and voltage are in phase with each other,
therefore equation for current is
i = I m Sin ωt = 32.53Sin 314t
Q.23 Find the impedance, current and power factor of the following series circuits and draw the
corresponding phasor diagrams i) R and L ii) R and C iii) R, L and C. In each case the
applied voltage is 200volts and the frequency is 50Hz. R = 10 Ω, L =50 mH, C= 100 µF.
(16)
Ans:
Inductive reactance, XL = 2π f L = 2 π X 50 X 50 X 10-3 = 15.7 Ω
Capacitive reactance XC = 1/2π f C = 1/ 2π X 50 X 100 X 10-6 = 31.83 Ω
(i) When R and L are in series as shown in fig. (a)
121
Impedance Z = √R2 + XL2 = √ (10)2 + (15.7)2 = 18.61 Ω

Current, I = V / Z = 200 / 18.61 = 10.74 A
Power factor cos ϕ = R / Z = 10 / 18.61 = 0.5373 lag.
The phasor diagram is shown in fig. (b)
(ii) When R and C are in series as shown in fig. (a)

Impedance Z = √R2 + XC2 = √ (10)2 + (31.83)2 = 33.36 Ω
Current, I = V / Z = 200 / 33.36 = 6 A
Power factor cos ϕ = R / Z = 10 /33.36 = 0.2997 leading.
The phasor diagram is shown in fig. (b).
(iii) When R, L and C are in series as shown in fig. (a)

Impedance Z = √R2 + (XC - XL) 2 = √ (10)2 + (31.83 – 15.7)2 = 18.98 Ω
Current, I = V / Z = 200 / 18.98 = 10.54 A
Power factor cos ϕ = R / Z = 10 /18.98 = 0.5259 leading.
The phasor diagram is shown in fig. (b).
122
Q.24 The armature of a 4-pole, d.c shunt motor has a lap-connected armature winding with 740
conductors. The no load flux per pole is 30 mwb. If the armature current is 40A, determine
the torque developed? (8)
Ans:
Torque developed in a DC motor is given by
Ta = 0.159ΦZ I a ( P / A) N .m
Here Z = 740
P=4
I a = 40 A
A = 4(for lap connected winding A = P)
Φ = 30mwb = 30 × 10 −3 wb
Ta = 0.159 × 30 ×10 −3 × 740 × 40 × (4 / 4) N .m
= 141.14 Nm
Q.25 For the circuit shown find the current in various branches by nodal analysis. (8)
Ans:
The independent nodes are B, C and E. Let E be, the reference node and VB and VC be the
voltages at nodes B and C respectively. The current flowing through various branches are as
shown in fig.(b). At node B, I1 = I2 + I4
100 - VB = VB – VC + VB
20 10 5
Or VB {1/20 + 1/10 +1/5} – 100/20 – VC /10 = 0 ----------------------------------(1)
Or 7 VB - 2 VC – 100 = 0
At node C, I2 = I3 + I5
VB – VC = VC + 50 + VC
10 20 5
Or VC {1/10 + 1/20 +1/5} + 50/20 – VB /10 = 0 ----------------------------------------(2)
Or 7 VC - 2 VB + 50 = 0
Solving equations (1) and (2) VB = 40/3 V = 13.33 V and VC = - 10/3 V = - 3.33V
∴ I1 = 100 - VB = 4.33 A from A to B
20
I2 = VB – VC = 1.67 A from B to C
10
I3 = VC + 50 = 4.67 A from C to D
10
I4 = VB = 2.67A from B to E
5
I5 = VC = - 0.67A from E to C
123
Fig.(a) Fig.(b)
Q.26 A power station has a maximum demand of 15000kW. The annual load factor is 50% and
capacity factor is 40%. Determine the reserve capacity of the plant. (6)
Ans:
Energy generated / annum = Max. Demand X Load factor X Hours in a year.
= 15000 X 0.5 X 8760 = 65.7 X 106 kWh.
Capacity factor = Units generated/ annum = 65.7 X 106 = 18,750 kW.
Plant capacity/ Hours in a year 0.4 X 8760
Reserve capacity = Plant capacity – Max. Demand. = 18,750 – 15,000 = 3750 kW.
Q.27 A 100 MW power station delivers 100MW for 2 hours, 50 MW for 6 hours and is shut
down for rest of each day. It is also shut down for maintenance for 45 days each year.
Calculate its annual load factor. (8)
Ans:
Energy supplied for each working day = (100 x 2) + (50 x 6) = 500 MWh.
Station operates for 365 – 45 = 320 days in a year.
Energy supplied / year = 500 x 320 = 160,000 MWh.
MWh sup plied per annum
Annual load factor = × 100
Max. demand in MW × working hours
160,000
= × 100 = 20.8%
100 × 320 × 24
Q.28 A 3-phase induction motor has 6-poles and runs at 960 rpm on full load. It is supplied from
an alternator having 4 poles and running at 1500 rpm. Calculate the full load slip of the
motor. (6)
Ans:
No. of poles of the alternator = 4
Speed of the alternator = 1500 rpm.
Therefore frequency f = N X P = 1500 X 4 = 50 Hz
120 120
124
Therefore frequency generated by the alternator = 50 Hz.

Induction motor has 6 poles (P).
Speed N of the motor = 960 rpm.
Supply frequency of the alternator is 50 Hz.
Synchronous speed of the motor Ns = 120 X 50 =120 X 50 = 1000 rpm.
P 6
% Slip S = Ns – N X 100 = 1000 – 960 X 100 = 4 %.
Ns 1000
Q.29 A 3-Phase induction motor is wound for 4-poles and is supplied from a 50 Hz system.
Calculate
(i) Synchronous speed
(ii) The speed of the rotor when the slip is 4%
(iii) The rotor frequency when the rotor runs at 1200 rpm. (6)
Ans:
(i)
N s = 120f / p = 120 × 50 / 4
= 1500 r.p.m
(ii)
%age slips =
(N s − N )×100
Ns
(1500 − N)
4= × 100
1500
N = 1400 rpm
(iii)
The slip, when N = 1200 rpm
1500 − 1200
s=
1500
= 0.2
Therefore, rotor frequency f’ = s.f = 0.2 x 50 = 10 Hz.
Q.30 A 25 KVA transformer has 500 turns on the primary and 40 turns on the secondary. If the
primary is connected to a 3000V, 50 Hz mains, calculate (i) the primary and secondary
currents at full load, (ii) the secondary e.m.f. and (iii) maximum flux in the core. (8)
Ans:
At full load the current in the primary winding I1 = 25 X 103 = 8.33 A.
3000
I1 = E2 = N2
I2 E1 N1
I2 = N2 X I2 = 500 X 8.33 = 104.15 A is the current in the secondary winding.
N1 40
N1 and N2 are the number of turns in the primary and secondary windings.
E1 and E2 are the emfs of the primary and secondary windings.
125
E2 = N2 X E1 = 40 X 3000 = 240 V.
N1 500
Using the relation
E1 = 4.44N1 f ϕm = 3000 = 4.44 X 500 X 50 X ϕm; where ϕm is the maximum flux and f is the
frequency.
ϕm = 0.027 wb.
Q.31 If a generating station has a maximum load for the year of 18,000 kW and a load factor of
30.5% and the maximum loads on the substations were 7500 kW, 5000 kW, 3400 kW, 4600
kW and 2800 kW. Calculate the units generated for the year and diversity factor of the
generating station. (8)
Ans:
Average power
Load factor =
Maximum demand
Average power
0.305 =
18000
Average power = 18000 x .305 = 5490 kW
No. of hr/year = 36 x 24 = 8760 hr
No. of units generated/yr = 5490 x 8760 = 48,092,400 kWh
Sum of the individual max . demand
Diversity factor = Diversity factor =
Max. demand of the whole yr.
Sum of the individual max. demand = 7500 + 5000 + 5400 + 4600 + 2800
= 23,300 kW
Max. load = 18000 kW
23,300
Therefore, Diversity factor =
18000
= 1.3 approx.
Q.32 A 230 V, 1150RPM, 4-pole, DC shunt motor has a total of 620 conductors arranged in two
parallel paths, and yielding an armature circuit resistance of 0.2 Ω . When it delivers rated
power at rated speed, it draws a line current of 74.8 A, and a field current of 3A. Calculate
the flux per pole, torque developed, armature and field copper losses. (8)
Ans:
Ia (armature current) = IL (load current) – Ish (shunt field current).
Ia = 74.8 – 3 = 71.8 A.
Eb (back emf) = V (supply voltage) – Ia Ra. Where Ra is the armature resistance.
Eb = 230 – 71.8 X 0.2 = 215.64 V.
Eb = ϕ Z N P where Z is the number of conductors, N is the speed in rpm, P the no. of poles.
60 A where A is the number of parallel paths.
ϕ = 60 X 2 X 215.64 = 9.073 mwb.

620 x 1150 X 4
126
Ta(torque) = 0.159 X P X Ia X ϕ X Z = 0.159 X 4 X 71.8 X 9.073 X 10-3 X 620 = 133.8 N-m.
A 2
2 2
Armature copper losses = Ia Ra = (71.8) X 0.2 = 1031 W.
Field copper losses = Ish 2 Rsh = Ish Vsh = 3 X 230 = 690 W.
Q.33 For the circuit shown in Fig.1, find the current in the load resistance RL=18Ω and the
voltage across it by Norton’s theorem and verify the result by applying Thevenin’s
Theorem. (8)
Ans:
10Ω
A 10Ω
A
100 V 15Ω RL=18Ω 15Ω
B B
Fig. a Fig. b
Remove the load resistance and replace 100V battery by its internal resistance as shown in
fig.b.
10 × 15
R Nort or R th = = 6Ω
10 + 15
For calculation of the value of current, remove load from A and B and short these terminals.
New circuit will be as shown in fig.c.
127
Fig. c Fig. d
100
I= = 10A
10
Now final circuit will be as shown in fig.d
So VAB = 10 x Total resistance of 6Ω and 18Ω
6 × 18
= 10 × = 10 × 4.5 = 45Volts .
6 + 18
45
IL = = 2 .5A
18
10 × 15 150
By applying Thevenin’s theorem, R th = = = 6Ω .
10 + 15 25
For calculating Eth (Thevenin’s voltage), remove load and redraw the circuit as shown in
fig.e.
Eth = 60V
Eth
Fig. e Fig. f
100 100
I= = = 4A
10 + 15 25
Voltage drop across 15Ω resistance = 15 x 4 = 60 Volts.
Eth = 60 Volts. The new circuit will be as shown in fig. f.
60 60
I= = = 2.5A and VAB = 2.5 x 18 = 45 Volts.
6 + 18 24
So, the current flowing through the load is 2.5A and the voltage across load is 45 Volts.
Q.34 A series AC circuit connected to 230V, 50Hz mains consists of a non- inductive resistance
of 100 Ω and inductance of 100mH and a capacitance of 20µF. Calculate – impedance,
current, power factor and power. (8)
128
Ans:
Inductive reactance, X L = 2π f L = 2π × 50 × 100 × 10 −3 = 31.4Ω
Capacitive reactance, X C = 1 / 2π × 50 × 20 × 10 −6 = 159.24Ω
Impendance, Z = R 2 + (X L − X C ) = (100) + (31.4 − 159.24) = 162.31Ω
2 2 2
Current, I = V/Z = 230/162.31 = 1.42A

Power factor cosφ = R/Z = 100/162.31 = 0.616
Power = 230 x 1.42 x 0.616 = 201.2W.
Q.35 A balanced star connected load is supplied from a symmetrical three- phase, 400V (line-
to-line) supply. The current in each phase is 50A and lags behind the phase voltage by
30°. Find phase voltage, phase impedance and active and reactive power drawn by the
load.
(8)
Ans:
VL (line voltage) = 400V; VP (phase voltage) = 400 / 3 = 231V .

IL (line current) = IP (phase current) = 50∠ − 300
Zp = 231∠0 0 / 50∠ − 300 = 4.62∠300 Ω = 4 + j2.31
P(active power) = 3VL I L cos ϕ = 3 × 400 × 50 × cos 300 = 30KW .
Q(reactive power) = 3VL I L sin ϕ = 3 × 400 × 50 × sin 300 = 17.32KVAR .
Q.36 A series R-L-C circuit consists of a 100 Ω resistor, an inductor of 0.318H and a capacitor of
unknown value. When the circuit is energised by 230 ∠0o V , 50 Hz sinusoidal a.c. supply,
the current is found to be 2.3 ∠0o A . Find
(i) value of capacitor in microfarad.
(ii) voltage across the inductor.
(iii) total power consumed. (14)
Ans:
Supply voltage, V= 230∠00 volts.
Current, I = 2.3∠00 amperes.
129
Impedance = Z = V/I = 230/2.3 = 100 Ω

For R-L-C circuit = Z= √ 1002+ (XL- XC) 2
100 = √ 1002+ (XL- XC) 2
XL= XC
1/2πfC = 2πfL
1/ 2π X 50 X C = 99.9
or , C = 1/ 2π X 50 X 99.9 = 31.85 µF
XL = 2 X π X 50 X 0.318 = 99.9 Ω
Voltage across the inductor = VL = I X XL = 2.3 X 99.9 = 229.77 V
Power consumed P = V I Cos φ = 230 X 2.3 X 1 = 529 W
Or P = I2 R = (2.3) 2 X 100 = 529 W
Q.37 The emf per turn of 3300 /395, 50Hz single- phase core type transformer is 7.5V, if the
maximum flux density is 1 tesla, then find a suitable number of primary and secondary
turns and the net cross- sectional area of the core.
(8)
Ans:
Given V1 (primary voltage) = 3300 volts V2 (secondary voltage) = 395 volts.
Voltage per turn = 7.5 V, Bmax (max. flux density) = 1 tesla,
N1 (number of primary turns) = 3300 / 7.5 = 440 turns
N2 (number of primary turns) = 395 / 7.5 = 52.66 turns, N2 = 53 turns.
3300 × 53
Therefore, primary number of turns may be taken = N1 = = 443 turns .
395
V2 = E 2 = 4.44ϕ max f N 2 = 4.44 Bmax A f N 2
395
A= = 335.7 lcm 2 where A = area of cross section of the core, f=frequency,
4.44 × 1× 50 × 53
ϕ max = max . flux.
Q.38 A 6- pole lap wound series motor has 60 slots; each slot consists of 12 conductors. If the
armature current is 50 A, calculate the total torque in Nw -m. Flux per pole is 20 X 10-3 wb.
(4)
Ans:
Where Z = No. of conductors = 60 x 12 = 720; P = No. of poles = A (parallel paths) = 6:
φ = flux per pole = 20 mWb, Ia (armature current) = 50 A.
1 l 1 50
Torque = × ϕZP a = × 20 × 10 −3 × 720 × 6 × = 114.65 Nw − m .
2π A 2 × 3.14 6
Q.39 Two coils when connected in series have a resistance of 18 Ω and when connected in
parallel have a resistance of 4 Ω . Find the resistance of each coil. (8)
Ans:Let the resistances of the coils be R1and R2.

Equivalent resistance when connected in series = R1+ R2 = 18Ω. ---------(1)
Equivalent resistance when connected in parallel = 1/R1+ 1/ R2 = 1/4Ω
Or 4 = R1 R2 ---------------------------(2)
R1+ R2
130
Multiplying (1) and (2)

R1 R2 = 72 Ω ----------------------------(3)
R1 - R2 = √ (R1+ R2)2 – 4 R1 R2 = √ (18)2 – 4 X 72 = ± 6 Ω. ---------------(4)
Adding (1) and (4),
2R1 = 24 or 12 Ω , or
R1 = 12 or 6 Ω. , and
R2 = 6Ω or 12Ω.
Q.40 a) A Wheatstone bridge consists of AB = 4 Ω , BC = 3 Ω , CD = 6 Ω and DA = 5 Ω .
A 2 volt cell is connected between B and D and a galvanometer of 10 Ω between A and C.
Find the current through the galvanometer. (8)
Ans:
The circuit is shown in fig. Applying Kirchoff’s first law at junction B, A C, the current in
various branches is marked. Applying Kirchoff’s second law to various closed loops;
Considering loop BACB, we get,
-4I1- 10I3 + 3I2 = 0
4I1-3I2 +10I3 = 0 ----------(1) Considering loop ADCA, we get
-5(I1-I3)+6 (I2 + I3) +10 I3 = 0
Or -5I1+5I3+ 6I2 +6 I3 +10 I3 = 0
Or 5I1- 6I2 -21I3 = 0 ----------(2)
Considering loop BADEB, we get
-4I1-5(I1- I3) +2 = 0
Or -4I1-5I1+ I3 = -2
9I1 –5I3 =2 ------------------(3)
Multiplying equation (1) by (2) and subtracting from equation (2) we get
5I1- 6I2 -21I3 = 0
8I1- 6I2 -20I3 = 0
- + -
-3I1 - 41I3 = 0
I 1 = - 41 I3
3
Substituting the value of I 1 in equation (3)
We get, 9(- 41 I3) - 5 I3 = 2
3
-123I3 – 5I3 = 2
I3 = - 1/64 A
Current flowing through galvanometer is 1/64 ampere from C to A.
b) State the laws that are used to calculate the current in the above problem. (6)
Ans:
Kirchoff’s laws were used in solving the above problem. Kirchoff’s first law states that the
algebraic sum of all currents meeting at a point is zero. ΣI = 0.
131
Kirchoff’s second law states that, in a closed circuit, the algebraic sum of all the emf’s plus
the algebraic sum of all the voltage drops (i.e. product of current and resistances) is zero.
Q.41 A 12 pole, 50 Hz induction motor is running at 450 rpm. Calculate the % slip of the motor
on account of forward field. (4)
Ans:
120 × f 120 × 50
Synchronous speed, N s = = = 500r.p.m. Where f is the supply frequency.
P 12
Where P is the no. of poles.
N −N 500 − 450
%S = s ×100 = × 100 = 10%
Ns 500
Q.42 A 50 kVA , 5000/500V, 50Hz, 1-phase transformer has the high voltage winding with a
resistance of 8 ohms and low voltage winding with a resistance of 0.06 ohms. The no load
losses of the transformer amount to 1000W. Calculate the efficiency of the transformer,
when delivering its full rated output at a power factor of 0.8? (10)
Ans: The no load loss in transformers is practically equal to the iron loss.
Hence Iron loss = 1000W
2
Full load loss = I 2 R 02
Now, K = 500/5000 = 1/10
R 02 = R 2 + k 2 R 1
= 0.06 + (1/10)2 x 8
= 0.14Ω
Full load current I2 = 50,000/500 = 100A
Full load Cu loss = 1002 x 0.14 = 1400W
Total Loss = 1000 + 1400
= 2400W
= 2.4kW
Full load output at 0.8pf = 50 x 0.8 = 40kW
Efficiency η = 40/(40 + 2.4) = 0.9434 = 94.34%
Q.43 A squirrel-cage induction motor has a full-load slip of 4%. Its starting current is 5 times its
full load current. Calculate the starting torque in pu of the full load torque. Neglect the
stator impedance and the magnetizing current. Also give a suitable remarks for the answer
obtained. (8)
Ans: Example 12.14 , p 467 of textbook
Q.44 Convert 4A source with its parallel resistance of 15 Ω into its equivalent voltage source
(3)
132
Ans:
4A
15Ω
Voc = I S . R IN = 4 × 15 = 60v
15Ω
Q.45 Determine current flowing through 5 Ω resistor in the circuit shown in Fig.1. Use
transformation technique. (4)
Ans:
Apply KVL, then 8 – I(4+5+6) – 60 = 0
52
I =− = −3.46 A
15
(Negative direction shows current-flow in
the opposite direction).
Q.46 Determine the range of unregulated supply for which the load current 0 ≤ I L ≤ 200mA
remains regulated.
133
Assume I z min = 1mA

I z max = 300mA
and Vz = 5.6V . (7)
Ans:
Vout = VZ = 5.6v
V V
I L = out ⇒ RL = out ⇒
RL IL
5 .6
When I L = 200mA , Then RL =
200m
RL = 28Ω .
I Z min = I Smin − I L
When I L = 0, I Z min = I Smin = 1mA .
When I L = 200mA ,
I Z max = I S max − I L
I Smax = I Z max + I L = 300m + 200m
I Smax = 500mA .
Q.47 A 4:1 transformer supplies a bridge rectifier that is driving a load of 200 ohms. If the
transformer input is 230 V/ 50 Hz supply, calculate the dc output voltage, PIV, and the
output frequency. Assume the rectifier diodes to be ideal. (4)
Ans:
N1 V2
= = 4 and V1= 230 V
N 2 V1
Therefore V2 = 57.5
RL=200Ω, VSmax=57.5
VSmax V 57.5
Imax= = Smax = = 0.287A
2R F + R L RL 200
2I
Idc= max = 0.182A
π
Vdc=Idc.RL = 0.182 X 200 = 36.4 Volts
PIV = VSmax = 57.5
I
Irms = max = 0.202
2
Fundamental frequency of ripple = 2.f = 100 Hz
134
Q.48 For a Zener shunt regulator, if VZ = 10V, R S = 1KΩ , R L = 2KΩ and the input voltage
varies from 22 V to 40 V, find the minimum and maximum values of Zener current.
(4)
Ans:
Input voltage
Vout = VZ = 10V,
R S = 1KΩ, R L = 2KΩ
VS max = 40V and VSmin = 22V
V 10V
Load current, I L = out = = 5mA
RL 2K
V − Vout
I S max = S max
RS
(40 − 10)V
=
1K
30V
=
1K
= 30mA
I Z max = I S max − I L
= 30mA − 5mA
= 25mA
VS min − Vout
I S min =
RS
22 − 10
=
1K
= 12mA
I Z min = I S min − I L
= 12mA − 5mA
= 7 mA
Q.49 A transistor has β = 150 . Calculate the approximate collector and base currents if the
emitter current is 10 mA. (3)
Ans:
β = 150, IE = 10mA.
135
β 150
α= = = 0.99
β +1 151
IC
α= = I c = αI E = 0.99 × 10mA
IE
I C = 9.99mA
IC 9.9m
IB = = = 66µA.
β 150
Q.50 The data sheet for an N-channel JFET provides the following:
I DSS = 20mA, VP = −8V, g mo = 5000 µv
Determine the values of the drain current and transconductance for the device at
VGS = −4volts . (3)
Ans:
I DSS = 20mA, VP = −8V, g mo = 5000 µmho
VGS = −4volts
2
 V GS  −3  − 4
2
I D = I DSS 1 − ×

VP 
 = 20 10  − 8  = 5mA
1 −
  
 V   − 4
g m = g mo 1 − GS  = 50001 − = 2500µmho or 2.5 mv
 VP   − 8 
Q.51 In the circuit shown in Fig.2, if vi = 1V , calculate I1 , v 0 , I L and I o . (4)
136
Ans:
Vi 1
I1 = = = 0.05mA
R1 20 K
Vi − Vo
=
R1 300 K
1 − Vo − 300 K
= ⇒ VO = = −15V
20 K 300 K 20 K
Vo − 15
IL = = = −0.75mA
RL 20 K
Vo − 15
IL = = = −0.05mA
R2 300 K
Q.52 Determine Thevenin’s equivalent circuit which may be used to represent the given network
at the terminals A-B. (8)
Ans:
The open-circuit-voltage VOC or VT, which appears across terminals A and B when they are
open, is given as
12
VT = ⋅6
1+1+ 6
VT = 9V
And the internal-resistance of the network RIN (or RT) when viewed from the output-terminals
A and B is given as
Q.53 In an N-type semi conductor, the Fermi-level lies 0.3 eV below the conduction band at
27 o C . If the temperature is increased to 55o C , find the new position of the Fermi-level.
(8)
Ans:
At temperature T= 3000K = 273+ 27,
EC-EF =0.3eV
137
W.K.T
EC-EF = KT loge nc/ND
So, 0.3 = 300K loge nc/ND;
K loge nc/ND= 0.3/300=0.001
At temperature T ′ = 328 K= (273+ 55),
Let the new position of the Fermi level be EF,
so EC-EF = KT loge nc/ND
EC-EF = 328 x 0.001 = 0.328V.
Q.54 In a transistor circuit load resistance is 5kΩ and quiescent current is 1.2 mA. Determine
the operating point when the battery voltage VCC = 12 V . How will the Q-point change
when the load resistance is changed from 5kΩ to 7.5kΩ ? (8)
Ans:
Zero signal collector current IC =1.2mA, load resistance in collector circuit, RL= 5KΩ
collector supply voltage VCC = 12V
Zero signal collector- emitter voltage
VCE = VCC – ICRC
=12- (1.2x 10-3x5x103) = 6V
Hence the operating point is (6V, 1.2mA)
When load resistance is changed from 5kΩ to 7.5kΩ
Zero signal collector- emitter voltage, VCE = VCC – ICRC
=12 – (1.2x 10-3x7.5x103) = 3V
Here the operating point is (3V, 1.2mA)
Q.55 A half-wave rectifier having a diode of resistance 1,000 Ω and a load of 1,000 Ω rectifies
an ac voltage of 310 V peak value. Calculate
(i) peak, average and rms values of current.
(ii) dc power output.
(iii) ac power input.
(iv) efficiency. (8)
138
Ans:
VSmax =310 V
310
VSrms = = 220V
2
R F = 1000Ω, R L = 1000Ω,
Vmax 310
I ma x = = = 165mA
R L + R F 2K
I max
I dc = = 52.51mA
π
I 165
I rms = max = = 82.5mA
2 2
PIV = VS max = 310 V
Vdc = I dc R L = 52.51m × 1K = 52.51 V
DC output power, Pdc = I dc RL = (52.51m ) × 1K = 2.757 W

2 2
2 2
I max (165m)
AC input power, Pac = ( R L + RF ) = × (2 K ) = 13.61W
4 4
Pdc 2.757
η= × 100 = × 100 = 20.257 %
Pac 13.61
Q.56 Implement the following equation using two operational amplifiers

V0 = −5V1 + 2V2 − 10V3 . Use minimum value of resistance as 10kΩ . (8)
Ans:
Rf 10k
= =5
R1 2K
Rf Rf  Rf 10k
Vout1 = −  V1 − V2  = =2
 R1 R1  R2 5K
Rf Rf  Rf 10k
Vout = −  V3 − Vout1  = = 10
 R3 R4  R3 1K
Rf 10k
= =1
R4 10 K
139
Q.57 A dc source of strength 6 volts is driving a load whose resistance varies from two to twenty
ohms. Compute the variation in terminal voltage for the source as a percentage. Take the
source resistance as two ohms. (2)
Ans:
VFL
RL min = ; where RL = 2
I FL
At fullload condition : whenRL = 2
V 6
I FL = FL = I FL = = 1.5
RL min 4
∴VFL = I FL × RL min = 2 ×1.5 = 3
Similarly, when RL = 20Ω,
No load conditions
VNL
I NL =
RL max
6
Then I NL = = 0.272
2 + 20
∴VNL = 0.272 × 20 = 5.44
VNL − VFL 5.44 − 3
% LR = ×100 = ×100 = 81.33%
VFL 3
Q.58 A centre-tap full-wave rectifier is supplying to a load of one kilo-ohm. If the voltage across
half the secondary winding of the input transformer is 220 sin ωt , calculate the following:
(i) the peak value of current (ii) the average value of the current
(iii) the r.m.s. value of current (iv) the ripple factor
(v) the efficiency of rectification
For the diodes used assume each having their forward resistance is 10 ohms. (10)
140
Ans:
RL = 1kΩ.,VS max = 220., RF = 10Ω
At fullload conditions
VS max 220
(i ) I max = = = 0.2178 A
RL + RF 1K + 10
2 I max 2 × 0.2178
(ii) I dc = = = 0.1386 A
π π
I max 0.2178
(iii) I rms = = = 0.154 A
2 2
2 2
 I rms   0.154 

(iv) Ripple factor γ =  
 − 1 =  0.1386  − 1 = 0.234
 I dc 
0.812 0.812
(v)η = = = 80.39%
1 + RF / RL 1 + 10 / 1000
Q.59 A half-wave rectifier has a peak output voltage of 12.2V at 50 hertz and feeds a resistive
load of 100 ohms. Determine the value of the shunt capacitor to give one percent ripple
factor and the dc voltage output. (6)
Ans:
R L = 100Ω., f = 50Hz, rf = 1% = 0.01
1
ripple factor(rf ) =
2 3fcR L
1
C= = 5.77mf
2 3 × 50 × 100 × 0.01
VLmax = 12.2v
 I 
I dc R L + dc  = VLmax
 2fc 
VLmax 12.2
I dc = = = 0.1199A
R L + 1 / 2fc 100 + 1 / 2 × 50 × 5.77 × 10 -3
I 0.1199
Vdc = VLmax − dc = 12.2 − = 11.99v.
2fc 2 × 50 × 5.77 × 10 -3
Q.60 A transistor has an alpha dc of 0.98 and a collector leakage current of one microampere. If
the emitter current is one milli-ampere, find the magnitude of the collector and the base
currents. (4)
141
Ans :
α dc = 0.98, I CBO = 1µA, I E = 1mA
I C = α dc I E + I CBO = 0.98 × 1m + 1µ = 0.981mA
IE = IC + IB
∴ I B = I E − Ic = 1m − 0.981m = 0.019mA
.
Q.61 For the circuit shown calculate the following:

(i) the closed loop voltage gain.
(ii) the feedback fraction and
(viii) the closed-loop input impedance seen by the a.c. source. (3)
Ans :
R1 = 1 kΩ, Rf = 2 kΩ, Vin =0.1V
− Rf − 2k
Af = = = −2
R1 1k
Rin = R1 = 1kΩ
Vout = A f .Vin = −2 × 5m = −10mv
Vin 5m
Iin = = = 5A
R1 1k
Q.62 Determine the current flowing through the load resistor (R L ) when R L = 6KΩ for the
network shown below in Fig.1 by using Thevenin’s theorem. (5)
142
Ans :
Equivalent resistance of the network with reference to load terminals A &B (with voltage
source short-circuited)
RT = 4k + 6k parallel with 3K
18k
RT = 4k + = 6k
9k
When terminals A & B are open the current flowing through the mesh is found by voltage
source and 6kΩ & 3kΩ resistors.
72
I= = 8mA
9k
open - circuit voltageV AB = I × 3kΩ = 8m × 3k = 24v
The current through 6kΩ = RL is I L
V AB 24
IL = = = 2mA
RT + R 6 k + 6k
∴ I L = 2mA
Q.63 Calculate the Intrinsic conductivity of silicon at room temperature if n = 1.41 × 1016 m −3 ,
µ e = 0.145 m 2 Vs , µ n = 0.05 m 2 Vs and e = 1.6 × 10 −19 C . What are the individual
contributions made by electrons and holes? (4)
Ans :
Conductivity of silicon (intrinsic) ,
σI = nie ( µ e + µ n )
σI= 1.41×1016 x 1.6 ×10 −19 ( 0.145 + 0.05 )
σI = 4.39 x 10-4s/m
Q.64 Find the static and the dynamic resistance of a p-n junction Germanium diode, if the
temperature is 27 o C and IS = 1µA for an applied forward bias of 0.2V. (4)
Ans :
V 0 .2
R= = = 200kΩ
I 1 × 10 −6
ηVT 0.026
Static resistance ac resis tan ce (dynamic) = = forη = 1
ISe
V / ηVT 1 × 10 −6 e 0.2 / 0.026
= 11.86Ω
Q.65 A half-wave rectifier using silicon diode has a secondary e.m.f of 14.14V (r.m.s.) with a
resistance of 0.2Ω . The diode has a forward resistance of 0.05 Ω and a threshold voltage
of 0.7V. If the load resistance is 10 Ω . Determine
(i) d.c. load current. (ii) d.c. load voltage.
(iii) Voltage regulation. (iv) Efficiency. (5)
143
Ans :
VSrms =14.14V,
Peak value of supply voltage = VSmax = 14.14 2V
RF = 0.05 Ω, RL= 10 Ω
V 14.14 2
I max = S max = = 1.989 ≈ 2 A.
RL + RF 10 + 0.05
I 2
I dc = max = = 0.636 A
π π
I max 2
I rms = = = 1A
2 2
PIV = VS max = 2 V
Vdc = I dc RL = 0.636×10 = 6.36 V
DC output power = Pdc = I dc R L = (0 .636 ) × 10 = 4 .04 W
2 2
2 2
I max 2
AC input power = Pac = ( RL + RF ) = × ( 0.05 + 10 ) = 10 .05W
4 4
P 4 .04
η = dc × 100 = × 100 = 40 .19 %
Pac 10 .05
Q.66 The current gain α of an n-p-n transistor is 0.98. It is connected in the CB mode and gives
a reverse saturation current I co = 12µA . Find the Base and the collector currents for an
Emitter current of 2mA. (4)
Ans :
IE = 2mA, α=0.98, ICO = 12µA
I C = αI E + I CO
I C = 0.98 × 2 × 10 −3 + 12 × 10 −6 = 1.972mA
I B = I E − I C = 2 − 1.972 = 28µA
Q.67 A half-wave rectifier having a diode of resistance 1,000 Ω and a load of 1,000 Ω rectifies
an ac voltage of 310 V peak value. Calculate
(i) peak, average and rms values of current.
(ii) dc power output.
(iii) ac power input.
(iv) efficiency. (8)
Ans:
VSmax =310 V
144
310
VSrms = = 220V
2
R F = 1000Ω, R L = 1000Ω,
Vmax 310
I ma x = = = 165mA
R L + R F 2K
I max
I dc = = 52.51mA
π
I 165
I rms = max = = 82.5mA
2 2
PIV = VS max = 310 V
Vdc = I dc R L = 52.51m × 1K = 52.51 V
DC output power, Pdc = I dc R L = (52.51m ) × 1K = 2.757 W
2 2
2 2
I (165m)
AC input power, Pac = max ( R L + R F ) = × (2 K ) = 13.61W
4 4
P 2.757
η = dc × 100 = × 100 = 20.257 %
Pac 13.61
Q.68 In the circuit shown below in Fig.2, calculate

(i) Vo (ii) A CL (iii) The Load Current I L
(iv) The output current I o indicating proper direction of flow. (6)
I’
IL
Ans :
 Rf 
Vout= 1 + V1
 R 1 
 Rf 
ACL= Vout/ Vin = 1 +  = 1+ 20k/5k= 5
 R1 
145
0 − Vo - Vo
At node A, I’= IL = = = IL
Rf Rf
 Rf 
Assume Vin= 1 then, Vout = 1 +  = 1+ 20k/5k= 5v
 R1 
- Vo -5
Then IL= = = 0.25mA and
Rf 20k
Io = IL
Q.69 A bridge rectifier is driven by a transformer of turns ratio n1 : n 2 = 12 : 1 . If the primary of

the transformer is connected to the 220V, 50Hz, 1 φ power mains, evaluate the following
for the rectifier:
(i) the dc load voltage (ii) the PIV of each diode
(iii) the dc load current
Assume the diodes to be ideal. (7)
Ans :
VSmax = 220V
N2 1 V2 V V 220
= = ⇒ V2 = 1 = S max = = 18.33V
N 1 12 V1 12 12 12
PIV = VS max = 220V
VS max 2I
I max = and I dc = max
2 RF + RL π
Q.70 Define VSmax the term percentage regulation of a power supply. An unregulated voltage
source of resistance 600 ohms is connected across a zener diode to form a shunt regulator.
Zener diode used has the following parameters:
Breakdown voltage = 5.1 volts,
Zener resistance (r2 ) =10 ohms;
Minimum and maximum values of current through zener = 1 mA and 15 mA
respectively. Determine the minimum and maximum values of the input voltage which
can be regulated by the zener. (12)
Ans :
The percentage of source regulation is given as
V H L − V LL
× 100
% SR = No min al Load Voltage
Where VH L →output voltage with high input ac line voltage.

Where V L L →output voltage with low input ac line voltage.
VZ= VOUT = 5.1 Volts.
146
V S max − Vout
I S max = ⇒ I S max RS = VS max − Vout
RS
VS max = Vout + I S max RS = 5.1 + 15m × 600 = 14.1V
I S min RS = VS min − Vout
VS min = Vout + I S min R S
VS min = 5.1 + 1m × 600 = 5.7volts
Q.71 When the emitter current of a transistor is changed by 1mA, its collector changes by 0.995
mA. Evaluate the common-base short circuit current gain and the common-emitter short
circuit current gain for the transistor. (4)
Ans :
IE=1mA and IC= 0.995mA
I 0.995
α= C = = 0.995
IE 1
α 0.995
β= = = 199
1−α 1 − 0.995
Q.72 What are photoelectrons? Light of wavelength 4000 × 10 −10 m , falls on a metal having
work function of 1.5eV. Determine
(i) the energy of incident photon and
(ii) the kinetic energy of photoelectrons.
Take Planck’s constant as 6.62 × 10 −34 Js . (8)
Ans :
When the surface of certain alkaline material such as sodium, potassium, cesium or
rubidium is illuminated by a beam of light or ultra violet radiations, the electrons are
emitted. The phenomenon is called photo electrons.
λ=4000x10-10m; h= 6.62x10-32J/s
12.4 × 10 −7
Energy of incident photon = = 3.1ev
4000x10 -10
φ = 1.5eV
∴λo= C/ fo = Ch / eΦ
3 × 10 8 × 6.62 × 10 -32
= 1.602 × 10 -19 × 1.5
λo = 0.185 × 10 −3
Q.73 In a centre-tap full-wave rectifier, the load resistance RL=1KΩ. Each diode has a forward-
bias dynamic resistance rd of 10Ω. The voltage across half the secondary winding is
220 sin 314t. Find
(i) the Peak value of current
(ii) the dc or average value of current
147
(iii) the rms value of current

(iv) the ripple factor and
(v) the rectification efficiency (7)
Ans :
VSmax=220, Forward Resistance RF=10 Ω , RL=1K Ω
VS max 220
i) Peak of current, I max = = = 0.2 A
RL + RF 1k + 10
2I 2 × 0.2
ii) Average current, I dc = max = = 0.127 A
π π
I max 0 .2
iii) RMS value of current, I r ms = = = 0.141A
2 2
2 2
 I rms 
 − 1 = 
0.141 
iv) The ripple factor, γ =   − 1 = 0.3320
 I dc   0.127 
0.812 0.812
v) Efficiency, η = = = 80.39%
R 10
1+ F 1+
RL 1000
Q.74 For an N-channel JFET, IDSS = 8.7mA, VP = –3V and VGS = –1V, then find the value of
drain current (ID). (4)
Ans :
2
 V GS 
I D = I DSS 1 − 
 VP 
2
 −1
I D = 8.7 × 10 1 −
3
 = 3.86mA
 − 3
Q.75 An operational amplifier shown in Fig.3 has feedback resistor Rf = 12 KΩ and the
resistances in the input sides are RS1=12KΩ, RS2=2KΩ and RS3=3KΩ. The corresponding
inputs are Vi1 = +9V, Vi2 = –3V and
Vi3 = –1V. Non-inverting terminal is grounded. Calculate the output voltage. (4)
12KΩ
Vi1=+9V Rf=12KΩ
2KΩ
Vi2=–3V -
VOut
+
3KΩ
Vi3=–1V
Fig 3
148
Ans :
Rf Rf Rf 
VOUT = −  V1 + V2 + V 3
 R1 R2 R3 
12k 12k 12k 
− ×9+ × −3 + × −1
12k 2k 3k 
VOUT = −[9 − 18 − 4] = 13V
Q.76 A bridge rectifier is driven by a transformer of turns ratio n1:n2=12:1. If the primary of the
transformer is connected to the 220V, 50Hz, 10 power mains, evaluate the following for the
rectifier.
(i) The dc-load voltage
(ii) The PIV of each diode
(iii) The dc-load current
Assume the diodes to be ideal
Ans:
VS max = 220V,
N2 1 V2
= = ⇒
N 1 12 V1
V1 VS max 220
V2 = = = = 18.33V
12 12 12
PIV = VS max = 220V
VS max
I max = and
2R F + R L
2I max
Idc =
π
149
DE04 ENGINEERING MATERIALS

PART – I
OBJECTIVE TYPES QUESTIONS
Each Question carries 2 marks.
Q.1 Materials which can store electrical energy are called

(A) magnetic materials. (B) semi conductors.
(C) dielectric materials. (D) super conductors.
Ans: C
Q.2 ACSR (Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced) are used as

(A) over head transmission lines. (B) super conductors.
(C) fuse (D) underground cables.
Ans: A
Q.3 Brass is an alloy of

(A) copper and zinc. (B) copper and iron.
(C) copper and Aluminium. (D) copper and tin.
Ans: A
Q.4 Property of material which allows it to be drawn out into wires is

(A) Ductility. (B) Solder ability.
(C) Super conductivity. (D) Malleability.
Ans: A
Q.5 In n type semi conductor added impurity is

(A) pentavalent. (B) divalent.
(C) tetravalent. (D) trivalent.
Ans: A
Q.6 The covers of electrical machines are made of

(A) soft magnetic materials. (B) hard magnetic materials.
(C) super conductors. (D) semiconductors.
Ans: A
Q.7 The dielectric constant of air is practically taken as

(A) more than unity. (B) unity.
1
(C) less than unity. (D) zero.
Ans: B
Q.8 n-type semiconductor is an example of

(A) extrinsic semiconductor. (B) intrinsic semiconductor.
(C) super conductor. (D) insulators..
Ans: A
Q.9 Atomic weight of an atom is

(A) sum of the number of protons and neutrons.
(B) sum of the number of protons and electrons.
(C) sum of the number of electrons and neutrons.
(D) sum of the number of electrons, protons and neutrons.
Ans: A
Q.10 Gold and silver are

(A) dielectric materials
(B) low resistivity conducting materials.
(C) magnetic materials.
(D) insulating materials.
Ans: B
Q.11 Phenol and Formaldehyde are polymerised to a resultant product known as

(A) PVC. (B) bakelite.
(C) polyester. (D) teflon.
Ans: B
Q.12 Dielectric materials are

(A) Insulating materials. (B) Semiconducting materials.
(C) Magnetic materials. (D) Ferroelectric materials.
Ans: A
Q.13 Thermocouples are used for the measurement of

(A) humidity. (B) pressure.
(C) temperature. (D) density.
Ans: C
Q.14 Large scale integration chips have between

(A) Less than 10 components. (B) 10 and 100 components.
(C) 100 and 1000 components. (D) More than 1000 components.
Ans: C
2
Q.15 All semiconductors in their last orbit have

(A) 8 electrons. (B) 2 electrons.
(C) 4 electrons. (D) 6 electrons.
Ans: C
Q.16 The material with lowest resistivity is

(A) constantan. (B) silver.
(C) manganin. (D) nichrome.
Ans: B
Q.17 The property due to which the resistance of some metal or compound vanishes under certain
conditions is
(A) Semi conductivity. (B) Super conductivity.
(C) Curie point. (D) Magnetostriction.
Ans: B
Q.18 Bronze is an alloy of

(A) copper. (B) aluminium.
(C) silver. (D) carbon.
Ans: A
Q.19 Ceramics are good

(A) insulators. (B) conductors.
(C) superconductors. (D) semiconductors.
Ans: A
Q.20 The critical temperature above which the ferromagnetic materials loose their magnetic
property is known as
(A) hysterisis. (B) Curie point.
(C) transition temperature. (D) standard temperature.
Ans: B
Q.21 Permanent magnets are made of

(A) soft magnetic materials. (B) hard magnetic materials.
(C) semi conductors. (D) super conductors.
Ans: B
Q.22 Holes are majority carriers in

(A) P-type semiconductors. (B) N-type semiconductors.
(C) Insulators. (D) Superconductors.
3
Ans: A
Q.23 Materials, which provide a path to the magnetic flux, are classified as
(A) insulating materials. (B) semi conducting materials.
(C) magnetic materials. (D) dielectric materials.
Ans: C
Q.24 Germanium possesses

(A) one valence electrons. (B) two valence electrons.
(C) three valence electrons. (D) four valence electrons.
Ans: D
Q.25 Dielectric constant of vacuum is

(A) infinity. (B) 100.
(C) one. (D) zero.
Ans: C
Q.26 Ferrites are

(A) ferromagnetic material. (B) ferrimagnetic materials.
(C) anti ferromagnetic material. (D) diamagnetic materials.
Ans: A
Q.27 The relative permeability of a paramagnetic substance is

(A) unity. (B) slightly more than unity.
(C) zero. (D) less than unity.
Ans: B
Q.28 Hall effect may be used for which of the following?

(A) determining whether the semiconductor is p or n type.
(B) determining the carrier concentration.
(C) calculating the mobility.
(D) All the above.
Ans: D Determining whether the semiconductor is p or n type, determining the carrier

concentration, calculating the mobility.
Q.29 Manganin is an alloy of

(A) copper, manganese and nickel. (B) copper and manganese.
(C) manganese and nickel. (D) manganese, aluminium and nickel.
Ans: A
Q.30 Eddy current loss is proportional to the

4
(A) frequency. (B) square of the frequency.
(C) cube of the frequency. (D) square-root of the frequency.
Ans: B
Q.31 A pure semiconductor under ordinary conditions behaves like

(A) a conductor. (B) an insulator.
(C) a magnetic material. (D) a ferro-electric material.
Ans: B
Q.32 In p-type semiconductor the majority carriers are

(A) holes. (B) electrons.
(C) positive ions. (D) negative ions.
Ans: A
Q.33 Copper is completely miscible with

(A) nickel. (B) gold.
(C) hydrogen. (D) lead.
Ans: B
Q.34 For germanium the forbidden gap is

(A) 0.15ev. (B) 0.25ev.
(C) 0.5ev. (D) 0.7ev.
Ans: D
Q.35 The dielectric strength of transformer oil should be

(A) 100 V. (B) 5 KV.
(C) 30 KV. (D) 132 KV.
Ans: C
Q.36 Resistivity of conductors is most affected by

(A) composition. (B) temperature.
(C) pressure. (D) current.
Ans: B
Q.37 Copper constantan is used for measuring temperature upto

(A) 1400 o C . (B) 1100 o C .
(C) 800o C . (D) 400o C .
Ans: D
Q.38 Mica is a
5
(A) Dielectric material. (B) Insulating material.
(C) Magnetic material. (D) Both insulating and dielectric
material.
Ans: D
Q.39 The conductivity of copper is less than that of silver by

(A) 5 – 10 %. (B) 50 – 60 %.
(C) 80 – 90 %. (D) 20 – 30 %.
Ans: A
Q.40 A ferrite core has less eddy current loss than an iron core because ferrites have
(A) High resistance. (B) Low resistance.
(C) Low permeability. (D) High hysteresis.
Ans: A
Q.41 Transformer cores are laminated with

(A) Low carbon steel. (B) Silicon sheet steel.
(C) Nickel alloy steel. (D) Chromium sheet steel.
Ans: B
Q.42 For silicon the forbidden gap is

(A) 1.1ev. (B) 0.25ev.
(C) 0.5ev. (D) 0.7ev.
Ans: A
Q.43 Plastics are

(A) Good conductors of heat. (B) Good conductors of electricity.
(C) Bad conductors of electricity. (D) High density.
Ans: C
Q.44 In order to obtain p-type germanium it should be doped with a

(A) Trivalent impurity. (B) Tetravalent impurity.
(C) Pentavalent impurity. (D) Any of the above will do.
Ans: A
Q.45 Barrier potential in a P-N junction is caused by

(A) Thermally generated electrons and holes.
(B) Diffusion of majority carriers across the junction.
(C) Migration of minority carriers across the junction.
(D) Flow of drift current.
Ans: B
6
Q.46 The heating elements of electric irons are made of
(A) Copper. (B) Nichrome.
(C) Constantan. (D) Aluminium.
Ans: B
Q.47 The most malleable, ductile low resistivity material is

(A) Copper. (B) Aluminium.
(C) Silver. (D) Iron.
Ans: C
Q.48 The percentage of carbon in mild steel is

(A) 0.08 to 0.3 % (B) 0.5 to 1.4 %
(D) 2.35 % (D) 0.5 %
Ans: A
Q.49 Aluminium is
(A) Silvery white in colour. (B) Yellow in colour.
(C) Reddish in colour. (D) Pale yellow in colour.
Ans: A
Q.50 Hard ferrites are used for making

(A) Transformer cores. (B) Electrical machinery.
(C) High frequency equipment. (D) Light weight permanent magnets.
Ans: D
Q.51 The main constituents of glass is

(A) SiO2 (B) B2O3
(C) Al2O3 (D) Cr2O3
Ans: A
Q.52 Micanite is a form of

(A) Built up mica.
(B) Hydrated potassium aluminium silicate.
(C) Magnesium mica.
(D) Calcium mica.
Ans: A
Q.53 What is the type of bonding in silicon?

(A) Ionic. (B) Covalent.
(C) Metallic. (D) Ionic + Metallic
Ans: B
7
Q.54 P-N junction is
(A) a rectifier. (B) an amplifier.
(C) an Oscillator. (D) a Coupler.
Ans: A
Q.55 The conductivity of an extrinsic semiconductor

(A) decreases with temperature.
(B) increases with temperature.
(C) remains constant with temperature.
(D) decreases and then increases with temperature.
Ans: B
Q.56 When a semiconductor is doped with a P-type impurity, each impurity atom will
(A) acquire negative charge. (B) acquire positive charge.
(C) remain electrically neutral. (D) give away one electron.
Ans: A
Q.57 Number of Terminals in a MOSFET are

(A) Two (B) Three
(C) Four (D) Five
Ans: B
Q.58 Which of the following material has the highest melting point
(A) Copper. (B) Aluminium.
(C) Tungsten. (D) Gold.
Ans: C
Q.59 Bronze is an alloy of

(A) Copper and Tin. (B) Copper and Steel.
(C) Copper and Mercury. (D) Copper and Aluminium.
Ans: A
Q.60 A transistor has

(A) One p-n junction. (B) Two p-n junction.
(C) Four p-n junction. (D) Five p-n junction.
Ans: B
Q.61 Example of high resistivity material is

(A) Nichrome (B) Silver
(C) Gold (D) Copper
Ans: A
8
Q.62 Hard magnetic materials are used for making
(A) Permanent magnets. (B) Temporary magnets.
(C) Conductors. (D) Insulator.
Ans: A
Q.63 Hall effect is associated with

(A) Conductors. (B) Semiconductors.
(C) Thermistors. (D) Solders.
Ans: B
Q.64 Addition of trivalent impurity to a semiconductor creates many

(A) holes. (B) free electrons.
(C) valance electrons. (D) bound electrons.
Ans: B
Q.65 Magnetic materials

(A) provide path to magnetic flux. (B) are good insulators.
(C) are semiconductors. (D) None.
Ans: A
Q.66 In a ferromagnetic material the state of flux density is as follows when external magnetic
field is applied to it.
(A) Increased (B) Decreased
(C) Remains unchanged (D) Becomes zero
Ans: C
Q.67 Paper is hygroscopic and absorbent.

(A) True (B) False
Ans: A
Q.68 Insulators have

(A) A full valence band. (B) An empty conduction band.
(C) A large energy gap. (D) All the above.
Ans: C
Q.69 Hysteresis loss least depends on

(A) Frequency. (B) Magnetic field intensity.
(C) Volume of the material. (D) Grain orientation of material.
Ans: D
Q.70 Atoms with four valence electrons are good conductors.

9
(A) True (B) False
Ans: B
Q.71 Semi-conductors have ________ temperature coefficient of resistance.

(A) Negative (B) Positive
(C) Both positive and negative (D) None of the above
Ans: A
Q.72 Tick off the material, which is different from the group
(A) Constantan. (B) Manganin.
(C) Nichrome. (D) Brass.
Ans: D
Q.73 Tick of the property, which is different from the group

(A) Ductility. (B) Resistivity.
(C) Tensile strength. (D) Hardness.
Ans: B
Q.74 Ferroelectric materials are characterised by

(A) Very high degree of polarisation.
(B) A sharp dependence of polarisation on temperature.
(C) Non-linear dependence of the charge Q on the applied voltage.
(D) All the above.
Ans: D
10
PART – II
DESCRIPTIVES
Q.1 Classify plastic materials into two categories, describe their important properties and give
two examples of each. (10)
Ans:
Plastic materials can be classified into thermoplastic and thermosetting plastics.
Thermoplastic materials:- The properties of these plastic materials do not change
considerably if they are melted and then cooled and solidify. They can be repeatedly melted
or dissolved in various solvents. They are more elastic, less brittle and do not lose elasticity
when subjected to prolonged heating. They are less apt to age thermally. They can be
remoulded again and again in any shape after heating. Many of them possess extraordinary
high insulating properties and are water repellent. They are polymers of linear structure, i.e.
their molecules are elongated and are thread like. This, type of structure is fusible, soluble,
highly plastic, capable of forming thin flexible threads and films. Examples are Polytetra
Flouroethylene (P.T.F.E. or Teflon), Polyvinyl Chloride (P.V.C.).
Thermosetting Plastic Materials:- They undergo great changes when subjected to high
temperatures for quite sometimes. They are said to be baked and no longer can melt or be
dissolved. They are less elastic, more brittle and lose their elasticity when subjected to
prolonged heating. So they cannot be remoulded in different shapes once they are set and
hardened. They are used, when an insulation is to withstand high temperatures without
melting or losing its shape and mechanical strength. Thermosetting plastic substances are
space-polymers and the molecules branch off in various directions during polymerisation.
This structure makes them very rigid, poorly soluble, fusible and incapable of forming elastic
threads and films. Examples are Phenol formaldehyde (Bakelite), Epoxy resins.
Q.2 Give four examples of natural insulating materials. (4)
Ans:
Examples of the natural insulating materials are cotton, rubber, wood, mica.
Q.3 State the functions of a fuse. Mention the desirable properties of fuse materials. (8)
Ans:
Fuse is a protective device, which consists of a thin wire or strip. This wire or strip is placed
with the circuit it has to protect, so that the circuit-current flows through it. When this current
is too large, and heat produced due to I2Rt exceeds the melting point of the fuse,
consequently fuse wire or strip melts thus breaking the circuit and interrupting the power
supply.
A fuse material should possess the following properties;-
Low resistivity – This means, thin wires can be used, which will give less metal vapour after
melting of the wire. Less metal vapour in the arc gives lower conductivity and thus makes
quenching of arc easier.
Low conductivity of the metal vapours itself.
11
Low melting point- This means that the temperature of the fuse material for normal currents
stays at a low value. Previously lead was used as fuse material because of its low melting
point but thick wires of lead are required due to higher resistivity. For rewireable fuses alloys
of tin and lead or tinned copper wires are commonly used. In caridge fuses silver and silver
alloys are used of lower ratings. Copper alloys are used in fuses of higher ratings.
Q.4 Differentiate between n and p type semiconductors. (6)
Ans:
n – type semiconductor:- p - type semiconductor:-
(i) When small amount of trivalent

(i) When small amount of pentavalent
impurity is added to a pure
impurity is added to a pure
semiconductor providing a large
semiconductor providing a large
number of holes in it, the extrinsic
number of free electrons in it, the
semiconductor thus formed is known
extrinsic semiconductor thus formed
as p- type semiconductor. The
is known as n- type semiconductor.
addition of trivalent impurities such
The addition of pentavalent
as gallium and indium provide a
impurities such as arsenic and
large number of holes in the
antimony provide a large number of
semiconductor crystal. Such
free electrons in the semiconductor
impurities, which produce p- type
crystal. Such impurities, which
semiconductors, are known as
produce n- type semiconductors, are
acceptor impurities because each
known as donor impurities because
atom of them creates one hole,
each atom of them donates one free
which can accept one electron.
electron to the semiconductor crystal.
(ii) The majority and minority
(ii) The majority and minority carriers
charge carriers are holes and
are electrons and holes respectively.
electrons respectively.
(iii) The impurity level is just below the (iii) The impurity level is just above
bottom of conduction band. the valence band.
Q.5 Explain how materials can be classified into three groups on the basis of atomic structure.
(8)
Ans:
An atom consists of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by a group of negatively
charged electrons. The nucleus is at the centre of the atom and electrons are established in
definite states, orbits, energy- levels. The electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom are
called valence electrons. It is these electrons that are responsible for determining the
physical, chemical and electrical properties of the material.
On the basis of atomic structure the materials are classified as

1) When the No. of valence electrons of an atom is less than 4 i.e. half of maximum
permissible 8 electrons, the material is a metal or conductor. Example Cu, Mg and Al
have 1, 2 and 3 valence electrons respectively.
12
2) When the No. of valence electrons of an atom is more than 4 , the material is a
insulator. Example As, Se and Bromine have 5,6 and 7 valence electrons respectively.
3) When the No. of valence electrons of an atom is 4 i.e. exactly half of maximum
permissible 8 electrons, the material is a semiconductor. Example Carbon, Silicon and
Germanium have 4 valence electrons each.
Q.6 Discuss briefly:

(i) Lithography (ii) Superconductivity (3+3)
Ans:
i) Lithography- It is one of the processes which is carried out during manufacture of
integrated circuits. SiO2 layer is thermally grown on the wafer surface. The pattern is
transferred from mask to the oxide layer as follows - A photo resist liquid is uniformly
applied over the oxide layer and dried. Photo resist is a material, which changes its solubility
in certain organic solvents, when exposed to ultra violet light. Non-polymerised parts are
then dissolved using organic solvents. The oxide layer below these parts is now etched using
net chemical etchant. By, this process, the pattern is transferred from the mask to the oxide.
During next diffusion, the layer of SiO2 serves as a mask.
ii) Superconductivity- The resistivity of most metals increases with increase in temperature
and vice-versa. There are some metals and chemical compounds whose resistivity becomes
zero when their temperature is brought near 00 Kelvin (-2730C). At this stage such metals or
compounds are said to have attained superconductivity. Example – mercury becomes
superconducting at approximately 4.5 Kelvin (-268.50C). Superconductivity, was discovered
by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes. The transition from normal conductivity to superconductivity
takes place almost suddenly; it occurs over a very narrow range of temperature about 0.050K.
The temperature at which the transition takes place from the state of normal conductivity to
that of superconductivity is called transition temperature. Zero resistivity and Diamegnatic
are two essential and independent properties of super conducting materials. The super
conducting properties can be destroyed by applying magnetic field.
Q.7 Describe the physical properties and uses of the following:

(i) Soft and hard magnetic materials. (10)
(ii) Brasses
Ans:
i) Soft magnetic materials –They have small enclosed area of hysteresis loop, high
permeability, high saturation value, low eddy current losses which is achieved by using
laminated cores, less residual magnetism. Soft magnetic materials retain their magnetism as
long as they are energised by an external magnetic field; Example: Alpha iron, super
permalloy (Ni-Fe-Mo), silicon ferrite. Soft magnetic materials are used for the construction
of cores for electrical machines, transformers, electromagnets reactors and cores of audio
frequency couplings and matching transformers in telecommunication.
Hard Magnetic materials-have a gradually rising magnetization curve with large hysteresis
loop area and hence large energy losses. They have high value of retentivity and high value
of coercivity and low permeability. To saturate the hard magnetic materials, a high
magnetizing force is required. Hard magnetic materials have the property of retaining their
magnetism even after the magnetising field is removed. Example: Alnico (Al-Ni-Co), Cobalt
13
steel and retaining the same for a long time. Due to this property they are used in the
manufacture of permanent magnets.
B-H curves for soft and hard magnetic materials

(ii) Brass- Is an alloy of copper and zinc with 60% copper and 40% zinc. Its properties
are-
1. Its electrical resistivity is 7.0X 10-8 ohm-m, which is higher than the copper resistivity.
2. It is ductile and can be drawn into different shapes.
3. It melts at 8900C.
4. Its specific gravity is 3.3.
5. It has got an excellent corrosion resistance.
6. It has got good mechanical properties.
Uses:- Brass is used as a structural and current carrying material in power switches,
plugs, sockets, lamp holders, fuse holders, knife switches, sliding contacts for starters and
rheostats, wave guide components.
Q.8 Discuss electrical properties of insulating materials. (14)
Ans:
Electrical properties of an insulating material are:
Insulation resistance-is the property, by the virtue of which, a material resists flow of
electrical current. It should be high as possible. Insulation resistance is of two types:
(i) Volume resistance; (ii) Surface resistance.
The resistance offered to the current, which flows through the material is called volume
resistance. The resistance offered to the current, which flows over the surface of the
insulating material is called surface resistance. Factors that affect the insulation resistance
are-temperature variations, exposure to moisture, voltage applied, aging.
Dielectric Strength- is therefore the minimum voltage which when applied to an insulating
material will result in the destruction of its insulating properties. It can also be defined as the
maximum potential gradient that the material can withstand without rupture, or without
loosing dielectric properties. This value is expressed in volts or kilovolts per unit thickness of
the insulating material. This value is greatly affected by the conditions under which the
material is operated. Factors affecting the dielectric strength are temperature and humidity.
Dielectric Constant- Every insulating material has got the basic property of storing charge
(Q), when a voltage (V) is applied across it. The charge is proportional to the voltage applied
i.e. Q α V, or Q = CV. Where C is called the capacity or capacitance of the material across
which the voltage is applied. Every insulating material behaves as a capacitor. Capacitance is
different for different insulating material. The property of insulating materials that causes the
difference in the value of capacitance, with the physical dimensions remaining the same is
14
called dielectric constant or permittivity (∈) and ∈ = C/Co, where C is capacity in presence
of Dielectric and Co is the capacity in air or vacuum or in the absence of dielectric.
Dielectric loss and Loss angle: When a perfect insulation is subjected to alternating voltage,
it is like applying alternate voltage to a perfect capacitor. In a perfect capacitor the charging
current would lead the applied voltage by 900 exactly. This means that there is no power loss
in the insulation. In most insulating materials this is not the case. There is a definite amount
of dissipation of energy when an insulator is subjected to alternating voltage. This dissipation
of energy is called dielectric loss. Factors affecting dielectric loss are – Frequency of applied
voltage, humidity, temperature rise and voltage.
The dielectric phase angle is θ and δ = 900 - θ is the dielectric loss angle as shown in the fig.
below.
Also I is the phasor sum of Id and Ic , where Ic is the conduction current which is in phase
with the applied voltage and Id is the displacement current which is in quadrature phase with
applied voltage.
Q.9 Discuss important properties and uses of

(i) Rubber. (ii) Mica and Mica products.
(iii) Glass and glass products. (iv) Ceramics (3.5 x 4)
Ans:
(i) Rubber: Rubber is polymeric material with high elastic yield strain. The different
types of rubber materials are- Natural rubber, Hard rubber and Synthetic rubber.
Natural Rubber – Natural rubber is extracted from milky sap collected from special
trees. Water is then evaporated. Additives like sulphur, oxidation inhibitors like aromatic
amino compounds, softeners like vegetable oil and fillers like carbon black and zinc oxide
are added to it. It is vulcanized by adding sulphur and heating it. Vulcanization improves
heat and frost resistance of rubber, making it mechanically stronger. The permittivity and
power factor varies depending on the sulphur content and temperature change.
Properties – This rubber is moisture repellent and has good insulating properties. It has
good abrasion resistance.
Applications – It is used for the manufacturing of protective clothing such gloves, boots.
It is used as an insulation covering for wires and cables.
Hard Rubber – Hard rubber is obtained by addition of more sulphur and by extended
vulcanization.
15
Properties – It has good electrical properties. Water absorption is less. Maximum
permissible operating temperature is 600 C. It can not be continuously exposed to Sun as it
is harmful. It has high tensile strength.
Applications – Hard rubber is used for construction of storage battery housing, panel
boards, bushings of various types. It is also used as jacketing material for cables.
Synthetic Rubber – The different types of synthetic rubber are
(a) Butadiene rubber – its properties are greater resistance to ageing and oxidation, lower
tensile and tear strength, lower water absorption, higher heat conductivity.
(b) Butyl rubber – its properties are excellent resistance to vegetable oils and alcoholic
solvents, but it is easily attacked by petroleum oils and greases. It has high resistance to
ozone, high thermal and oxidation stability but poor tensile strength. It is used as
insulation for wires and cables.
(c) Chloroprene Rubber (Neoprene Rubber) – It has better resistance to thermal ageing,
oxidation, sunlight and gas diffusion. These rubbers have better thermal conductivity and
more flame resistance. They exhibit better adhesion to metals. They possess better
resistance to attack by solvents like mineral and vegetable oils but poor resistance to
aromatic hydrocarbon liquids. They are inferior in mechanical properties like tear and
tensile strength and abrasion resistance. Neoprene rubber is used as insulating material for
wires and cables. It is also used as jacketing material for cables.
(d) Chlorosulphonated Polyethylene (Hypalon) – It has better electrical properties, high
resistance to degradation when exposed to high temperature and oxidation. It can be
operated at temperatures as high as 1500 C. It has poor solvent resistance to hydrocarbons.
It is mechanically less tough. It is used as insulating material for wires and cables and also
as jacketing material for cables.
(e) Silicon Rubber – It has high thermal conductivity. Its tensile strength is low, has good
flexibility at low temperatures and resistant to ozone, oxidation and severe atmospheric
conditions. It can be used over a wide range of temperatures from –1000 to 1500 C. Silicon
rubber is used as insulating material for wires and cables, in the manufacture of moulded
parts, as an insulating tape and coating material.
(ii) Mica and Mica Products – Mica is an inorganic material. It is one of the best
insulating materials available. From the electrical point of view, mica is of two types –
Muscovite mica and Phologopite mica.
Muscovite mica – Chemical composition is KH2Al3(SiO4)3. The properties are
i) Strong, tough and less flexible
ii) Colourless, yellow, silver or green in colour
iii) Insulating properties are very good
iv) Abrasion resistance is high
v) Alkalies do not affect it
Uses – Muscovite mica is used where electrical requirements are severe. Because of high
dielectric strength, it is used in capacitors. It is also used in commutators due to high
abrasion resistance.
Phologopite mica – Chemical composition is KH(MgF)8MgAl(SiO4)3. The properties are
i) Amber, yellow, green or grey in colour
ii) Greater structural stability, being tougher and harder than muscovite mica, less rigid
iii) Resistant to alkalies, but less to acids
iv) Greater thermal stability than that of muscovite mica
Uses – It is used when there is greater need of thermal stability as in domestic appliances
like irons, hotplates, toasters.
16
Mica products
(i) Glass bonded mica – Ground mica flakes and powdered glass when moulded makes
glass bonded mica. This material is impervious to water and chemically stable. This is used
in high humidity and high ambient temperatures.
(ii) Mica paper and Mica sheet– Mica is broken into small particles in aqueous solution.
Out of this sheets of mica paper are produced which are used as insulation for armature and
field coils of rotating machines. Also used as washers, spacers, sleeves, tubes etc.
(iii) Manufactured mica – Mica flakes held together with adhesives is called manufactured
mica. It is used in commutators, electrical heating devices, motor slot insulation,
transformers, etc.
(iii) Glass and glass products – Glass is an inorganic material made by the fusion of
different metallic oxides. The properties of glass are –
i) It is transparent, brittle and hard
ii) Glass is insoluble in water and usual organic solvents
iii) It has low dielectric loss, slow ageing and good mechanical strength
iv) It is susceptible to destruction when sudden and high temperature cycles are applied
Uses – Glass is used in moulded insulating devices such as electrical bushings, fuse
bodies, insulators. Glass is used as a dielectric in capacitors. Radio and television tubes,
electrical laminated boards also make use of glass
Glass Products
a) Silica glass or fused quartz – Silica when heated to a temperature of fusion and then
cooled is known as silica glass. This material has good electrical properties, low
coefficient of expansion and high resistivity.
b) Borosilicate glass or Pyrex – This glass requires 28 per cent of boron oxide along with
other oxides. They resist the effect of chemicals and moisture better than other glasses.
c) Fibre glass insulation – This is capable of withstanding high temperature. For most
applications fibre glass is impregnated with materials like synthetic resins or with mineral
oil. They possess good electrical and mechanical properties and sufficient flexibility to be
moulded into required shapes.
d) Epoxy glass – It is made by joining glass fibre layer with a thermosetting compound. It
is immune to alkalies and acids and is used in PCB making, terminal holders and
instrument cases.
(iv) Ceramics – Ceramics are materials made by high temperature firing treatment of
natural clay and certain inorganic matters. The properties of ceramics are –
i) Ceramics are hard, strong and dense.
ii) Ceramics are not affected by chemical action except by strong acids and alkalies.
iii) Stronger in compression than in tension.
iv) Excellent dielectric properties.
v) Stable at high temperatures.
Uses – The capacity to withstand high temperature, immunity to moisture, good electrical
properties make ceramics valuable for the use in different types of insulators, transformer
bushing pins, fuse holders, plugs and sockets.
Main ceramic materials are
(a) Porcelain – It is used in low frequency applications due to high dielectric loss factor.
It has low electrical resistivity.
17
(b) Steatite – These are low dielectric loss porcelains, used for variable capacitor coils,
switches, resistor shafts and bushings. It is also used for low voltage and high frequency
applications.
(c) Alumina – It has high mechanical and dielectric strength. It also has high electrical
resistivity and low dielectric losses. It is chemically stable and retains its properties over a
wide range of temperature and frequencies. It is used for circuit breakers, spark plugs,
resistor cores, integrated circuits and power transistors.
(d) Zirconia – It has poor thermal conductivity and shock resistance. It is available with
calcium or yttrium. It is used for high temperature heating elements.
Q.10 State the advantages and disadvantages of alloying steel with silicon for use as magnetic
materials in transformer and electric machines. (10)
Ans:
Extensive use, is made of iron-silicon alloy called silicon steel for relatively strong
alternating magnetic fields generally used in transformers, electrical rotating machines,
reactors, electromagnets and relays. Silicon sharply increases the electrical resistivity of iron
thus decreasing the iron losses due to eddy currents. It increases the permeability at low and
moderate flux densities but decreases it at high densities. Addition of silicon to iron reduces
the hysteresis loss. The magnetostriction effect is also reduced. A, steel with more than 5%
silicon may be too hard and brittle to be easily workable. The introduction of silicon in steel
was an important development. In the past, iron was used as the core material in the form of
sheets, the material gradually deteriorated due to repeated heating and cooling. This difficult
overcome by using silicon sheet steel as core material. High silicon sheet steel with silicon of
about 4% is used in magnetic circuits of power transformers, which operate at flux densities
of about 1 Wb/m2. The cores of rotating electrical machines are slotted with the teeth having
small cross sectional areas. The flux density in the teeth is much higher, of the order of
1Wb/m2. To obtain high flux density in the case of high silicon steel, the magnetising current
necessary is very large. Also punching slots in high silicon steel would be difficult because it
is harder and more brittle.
Q.11 Describe soldering materials and their uses. (4)
Ans:
The process of joining two or more metals is known as soldering. An alloy of two or more
metals of low melting point used for joining two or more base metals is known as soldering
material or called solder. The most common solder is composed of 50% tin. Its melting point
is about 1850C. Many commercial solders, contain larger percentage of lead and some
antimony with less tin, as the electrical conductivity of lead is only about half that of tin. For
soldering flux is to be used. Solders are of two types- Soft solders and Hard solders. Soft
solders are composed of lead and tin in various proportions. Hard solders may be any solder
with a melting point above that of lead-tin solders. Soft solders are used in electronic devices
and hard solders in power apparatus for making permanent connections. Examples: Tin –
lead solders, Tin-Antimony- lead solders, Tin-Zinc solders, Lead-silver solders, Cadmium-
silver solders etc.
Q.12 Write short notes on

(i) Soft ferrites and their applications. (7)
(ii) PVC and its applications. (7)
18
Ans:
(i) Soft ferrites and their applications: These are non- metallic compounds consisting of
ferric oxide and one or two bivalent metal oxides such as Nickel oxide, Manganese oxide or
Zinc oxide. These have resistivity of the order of 109 ohm-cm, which reduces eddy current
losses at high frequency. The magnets made out of it have high coercive force and square
hysteresis loop. Magnetic permeability of these materials is as high as 10,000 to 30,000.
These materials are fabricated into shape such as E, U, I, beads and self shielding pot cores.
Applications – High frequency power transformers operating at 10 to 100 kHz, pulse
transformers up to 100’ MHz, adjustable air gap inductors, recording heads make use of
cores made of soft ferrites.
(ii) PVC and its applications – This is obtained from polymerisation of vinyl chloride in the
presence of a catalyst like peroxides at about 500 C. The properties like mechanical strength,
porosity, flexibility, moisture absorption and electrical properties can be changed by adding
certain materials. PVC has good mechanical and electrical properties. It is hard and brittle. It
resists flame, most solvents and sunlight. It is non-hygroscopic. PVC is widely used as
insulation and jacketing material for wires, cables. PVC films, tapes and sheets are used as
insulation for dry batteries and conduit pipes.
Q.13 What are the desirable properties of an insulation material? (8)
Ans:
The desirable properties of an insulation material are:
1. Very good dielectric strength as that of mica (upto 80 kV/mm at 250C).
2. Volume and surface resistivity equal to that of sulphur.
3. Good mechanical strength like that of steel.
4. Very high crushing resistance (as that of granite).
5. Easy of machining.
6. Good fire proofing qualities (as that of silica).
7. It should have very high chemical inertness.
8. It should have good water proofing qualities similar to that of paraffin wax.
Q.14 Explain dielectric loss and loss angle. (6)
Ans:
Dielectric loss and Loss angle: When a perfect insulation is subjected to alternating voltage,
it is like applying alternate voltage to a perfect capacitor. In a perfect capacitor the charging
current would lead the applied voltage by 900 exactly. This means that there is no power loss
in the insulation. In most insulating materials this is not the case. There is a definite amount
of dissipation of energy when an insulator is subjected to alternating voltage. This dissipation
of energy is called dielectric loss. Factors affecting dielectric loss are – Frequency of applied
voltage, humidity, temperature rise and voltage.
The dielectric phase angle is θ and δ = 900 - θ is the dielectric loss angle as shown in the fig.
below.
19
applied voltage.
Q.15 Explain the following:

(i) Permeability. (ii) Dielectric constant.
(iii) Corrosion. (iv) Contact resistance. (3.5 x 4)
Ans:
(i) Permeability: It is defined as the capability of the material to conduct flux. It is defined
as the ratio of magnetic flux ‘B’ in a medium to the magnetic flux intensity ‘H’ at the same
location in the medium, i.e. µ = B/H, where B is plotted against H, a curve is obtained, called
magnetization curve or B-H curve. The permeability of any material is not a constant. The
permeability at low value of H is called initial permeability. The common core materials such
as low carbon steel, silicon steel have low initial permeability.
(ii) Dielectric constant: It is also known as ‘Permittivity’. Every insulating material
possesses an electrical capacitance. The capacitance of such unit depends upon dimensions
and kind of dielectric placed between the capacitor plates. The capacitance of a parallel plate
capacitor may be calculated from the formula C = ∈ A/t where ∈ is the permittivity of the
material in F/m, A = Area of the plates and t = thickness of dielectric. Thus permittivity ∈ of
a material is a measurement of its ability to form an electrical capacitance of the insulating
material, the dimensions of the capacitor being taken equal. Dielectric constant or
permittivity is not a constant but varies with temperature and frequency and ∈ = C/Co, where
C is capacity in presence of Dielectric and Co is the capacity in air or vacuum or in the
absence of dielectric.
(iii) Corrosion: The process of constant eating (destruction) up of metals (from the surface)
by the surrounding is called as corrosion. The metals are corroded when exposed to the
atmosphere. The metals are generally converted into their oxides. This oxide covers the
surface of the metal, which results in the destruction of the metal. Rusting of iron is the most
common example of corrosion in which iron makes iron oxide with reaction with the oxygen
of the atmosphere. The iron oxide covers the surface in the form of brownish powder.
Therefore the conducting material should be corrosion resistant.
(iv) Contact resistance: This is measured as the voltage drop from tail to tail of the mated
contacts with specified current flowing through the contact and is specified in milliohms. The
total resistance offered by a contact depends upon the bulk resistivity of the contact material,
actual surface area and mechanical wear of the contacts and environmental effects. To obtain
low contact resistance it is necessary that the contact must be a good conductor of electricity.
The contacts should have good mechanical resistance against wear due number of
mechanical operations. The contacts are made using alloys, which have combination of
mechanical properties, very good electrical and thermal conductivity and resistance to
corrosion. Commonly used alloys are Beryllium copper, phosphor bronze, spring brass and
low leaded brass. Plating of the contact metal is done to prevent deterioration of contacts
mechanically and chemically and to obtain good surface conductivity. Commonly used
plating materials are silver, gold, copper, nickel and tin.
20
Q.16 With the help of energy bands explain how conduction takes place in conductors,
semiconductors and insulators. (9)
Ans:
On the basis of energy band materials are classified as insulators, conductors, and
semiconductors.
Insulators: Substance like wood, glass, which do not allow the passage of current through
them are known as insulators. The valence band of these substances is full whereas the
conduction band is completely empty. The forbidden energy gap between valence band and
conduction band is very large (8ev) as shown in the fig (a). Therefore a large amount of
energy, i.e. a very high electric field is required to push the valence electrons to the
conduction band. This is the reason, why such materials under ordinary conditions do not
conduct at all and are designated as insulators.
Conductors: Substances like copper, aluminium, silver which allow the passage of current
through them are conductors. The valence band of these substances overlaps the conduction
band as shown in fig (b). Due to this overlapping, a large number of free electrons are
available for conduction. This is the reason, why a slight potential difference applied across
them causes a heavy flow of current through them.
Semiconductors: Substances like carbon, silicon, germanium whose electrical conductivity
lies in between the conductors and insulators are known as semiconductors. The valence
band of these substances is almost filled, but the conduction band is almost empty. The
forbidden energy gap between valence and conduction band is very small (1ev) as shown in
fig ( c ). Therefore comparatively a smaller electric field is required to push the valence
electrons to the conduction band. This is the reason, why such materials under ordinary
conditions do not conduct current and behaves as an insulator. Even at room temperature,
when some heat energy is imparted to the valence electrons, a few of them cross over to the
conduction band imparting minor conductivity to the semiconductors. As the temperature is
increased, more valence electrons cross over to the conduction band and the conductivity of
the material increases. Thus these materials have negative temperature co-efficient of
resistance.
Energy Band Diagrams
Q.17 Write a note on superconductors. (5)
21
Ans:
Superconductors - The resistivity of most metals increases with increase in temperature and
vice-versa. There are some metals and chemical compounds whose resistivity becomes zero
when their temperature is brought near 00Kelvin (-2730C). At this stage such metals or
superconducting at approximately 4.5 Kelvin (-268.50C). Superconductivity was discovered
that of superconductivity is called transition temperature. Superconductors are used for
producing very magnetic fields of about 50 Tesla. Magnetic energy can be stored in large
superconductors and drawn as required to counter the voltage fluctuations during peak
loading. Superconductors can be used to perform logic and storage functions in computers.
As there is no, I2R losses in a superconductor, so power can be transmitted through the
superconducting cables without any losses. Superconducting property can be destroyed by
applying external magnetic field as in fig (b). In fig (b) HC is the critical magnetic field and
TC critical temperature.
Q.18 Classify the conducting materials. Describe their properties. (10)
Ans:
Conducting materials are classified as low resistivity materials and high resistivity materials.
Low resistivity materials: The conducting materials having resistivity between 10-8 to 10-6
ohm-m come under this category and are used in transmission and distribution lines,
transformers and motor windings.
Properties:
a) Low temperature coefficient: For minimum variations in voltage drop and power loss
with the change in temperature, these materials should have low temperature coefficient.
b) Sufficient mechanical strength: These materials must withstand the mechanical stresses
developed during its use for particular applications.
c) Ductility: The material to be used for conductors must be ductile so that it can be drawn
and moulded into different sizes and shapes.
d) Solderability: The conducting materials are required to be joined and the joint must have
minimum contact resistance. These materials must have a good solderability.
e) Resistance to corrosion: The material should have a high resistance to corrosion so that it
should not be corroded when used in different environmental conditions.
22
High resistivity materials: The conducting materials having resistivity between 10-6 to 10-3
ohm-m come under this category and are used for making resistance elements for heating
devices, precision instruments, rheostats etc. Properties:
a) Low temperature coefficient: For minimum variations in voltage drop and power loss
with the change in temperature, these materials should have low temperature coefficient.
b) High melting point: These materials, which are used as heating elements should have
high melting point.
c) Ductility: The material to be used for conductors must be ductile so that it can be drawn
d) Oxidation resistance: The material should have a high oxidation resistance so that it
should get oxidised when used in different environmental conditions.
e) High mechanical strength: These materials must withstand the mechanical stresses
Q.19 Classify the different types of insulating materials with reference to their limiting safe
temperatures for use. (8)
Ans:
Classification of insulating materials on the basis of their limiting safe temperatures for use
Maximum working
Class Materials or Combination of materials
temperature
Cotton, silk, paper, press board, wood,
Y 900C PVC with or without plasticiser,
vulcanised natural rubber etc.
Cotton, silk and paper when
0
A 105 C impregnated or immersed in a liquid
dielectric such as oil.
Materials possessing a degree of
thermal stability allowing them to be
E 1200C
operated at temperature 150C higher
than class A materials.
Mica, glass fibre, asbestos, etc. with
B 1300C
suitable bonding substances.
Mica, glass fibre, asbestos, etc. with
0
F 155 C suitable bonding substances as well as
other materials, not necessarily
23
inorganic, which by experience or
accepted test can be shown to be
capable of operation at 1550C.
Materials such as silicon elastomer and
combinations of materials, such as
0
H 180 C mica, glass fibre, asbestos etc, with
suitable bonding substances such as
appropriate silicon resins.
Mica, porcelain, glass and quartz with
C above 1800C
or without an inorganic binder.
Q.20 Explain the chemical properties of insulating materials. (6)
Ans:
Chemical properties-
Chemical resistance: Presence of gases, water, acids, alkalies and salts affects different
insulators differently. Chemically a material is a better insulator if it resists chemical action.
Hygroscopicity: Many insulators come in contact with the atmosphere during manufacture
or operation or both. Moisture affects the electrical properties of the insulator.
Effect of contact with other materials: Insulation remains in contact with different types of
materials like air, gases, moisture, conducting materials and structural materials. This can
adversely affect the insulating properties.
Ageing: Ageing is the long time effect of heat, chemical action, and voltage application.
These factors decide the natural life of an insulator.
Q.21 What are plastics? Give their classification and also the differences between them. (2+2+4)
Ans:
Plastics are materials (having carbon as common element) which, consists of organic
substances of high molecular weight and are capable of being formed into desired shape
during or after their manufacture. The organic substances are called resins polymers and are
derived from natural gas, petroleum etc. The polymers are mixed with other materials to
modify their properties. There are two types of plastics: thermoplastics, thermosettings.
Thermosetting Plastic Materials:-

Thermoplastic materials:-
They are either originally soft or
The properties of these plastic materials
soften upon heating but harden
do not change considerably if they are
permanently on further heating and
melted and then cooled and solidify. They
they cannot be resoftened once they
are deformable at higher temperature.
have set and hardened. They undergo
24
Thermoplastics are weaker, softer, less great changes when subjected to high
brittle and can be resoftened again on temperatures for quite sometime.
heating. They can be repeatedly melted or They are said to be baked and no
dissolved in various solvents. They are longer can melt or be dissolved. They
more elastic, less brittle and do not lose are less elastic, more brittle and lose
elasticity when subjected to prolonged their elasticity when subjected to
heating. They are less apt to age prolonged heating. They are used,
thermally. Many of them possess when an insulation is to withstand
extraordinary high insulating properties high temperatures without melting or
and are water repellent. They are losing its shape and mechanical
polymers of linear structure, i.e. their strength. Thermosetting plastic
molecules are elongated and are thread substances are space-polymers and
like. This, type of structure is fusible, the molecules branch off in various
soluble, highly plastic, capable of forming directions during polymerisation. This
thin flexible threads and films. Examples structure makes them very rigid,
are Polytetra Flouroethylene (P.T.F.E. or poorly soluble, fusible and incapable
Teflon), Polyvinyl Chloride (P.V.C.), of forming elastic threads and films.
Nylon, Polyesters (saturated) Examples are Phenol formaldehyde
(Bakelite), Epoxy resins, Rubbers,
polyesters(unsaturated)
Q.22 Give the properties and applications of

(i) Teflon
(ii) Bakelite (3+3)
Ans:
(i) Teflon: It is obtained by the polymerisation of tetrafloourethylene.
Properties:
1.It has good electrical, mechanical and thermal properties.
2.It can tolerate very, high temperature, without damage.
3.Dielectric constant does not change with time, frequency and temperature.
4.Its insulation resistance is very high.
5.It is highly resistant to water absorption.
6.It melts at 3270C.
7.Its maximum useable temperature is 3000C.
Applications: Teflon is used as dielectric material in capacitors. It is used as covering for
conductors and cables, which are required to operate at high temperature. It is used as a
base material for PCB’s.
25
(ii) Bakelite: It is most common type of phenol formaldehyde. It is hard, thermosetting, dark
coloured material.
Its main properties are:
1. Its dielectric constant is 4.1.
2. Its dissipation factor is 0.001.
3. Its dielectric strength is 400 V/mil.
4. Volume resistivity is 1013 ohm-cm.
5. Maximum useable temperature is 3000F.
6. Its water absorption is 0.13%in 24 hours.
Applications: It is widely used for moulded parts such as lamp holders, terminal blocks,
instrument cases and small panels and also used as electrical parts or appliances eg. plug
holders, sockets etc.
Q.23 Distinguish between ferromagnetic, paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials, mentioning at

least one example of each. (9)
Ans:
Ferromagnetic Materials:- These are materials in which magnetic dipoles interact in such a
manner that they tend to line up in parallel. A ferromagnetic substance consists of a number
of regions or domains, which are spontaneously magnetized. The direction of magnetization
varies from domain to domain. The resultant magnetization is zero or nearly zero. The
relative permeability is very high. In presence of external magnetic field, the ferromagnetic
materials get strongly magnetised and exhibit hysterisis loop. The susceptibility of these is
given by χ = C / T − TC , where C is curie constant, TC is the curie temperature above which
the ferromagnetic material exhibits paramagnetic behaviour. The ferromagnetic materials are
widely used in industries. Ex. Iron, nickel, cobalt.
Paramagnetic Materials:- The atoms of these materials contain permanent magnetic
dipoles. Individual dipoles are oriented in random fashion such that resultant magnetic field
is zero or negligible. For these materials relative permeability is slightly greater than unity
and it is independent of magnetizing force. In presence of external magnetic field,
paramagnetic materials get weakly magnetised in the field direction and the susceptibility is
given by χ = C / T , where C is a curie constant and T is the temperature. Ex. Chromium
chloride, chromium oxide, manganese sulphate, air.
Diamagnetic Materials:- These are the materials whose atoms do not carry permanent
magnetic dipoles. If an external magnetic field is applied to a diamagnetic material, it induces
a magnetization in the direction opposite to the applied field intensity. For these materials the
relative permeability is negative. These are hardly used as magnetic material in electrical/
electronic engineering applications. Ex. Aluminium oxide, copper, gold, barium chloride.
Q.24 What are hard magnetic materials? Name the various magnetically hard alloys. (5)
Ans:
Hard Magnetic materials-have a gradually rising magnetization curve with large hysteresis
loop area and hence large energy losses. They have high value of retentivity and high value
of coercivity and low permeability. To saturate the hard magnetic materials, a high
magnetizing force is required. Hard magnetic materials have the property of storing a
considerable amount of magnetic energy after magnetization and retaining the same for a
long time. Due to this property they are used in the manufacture of permanent magnets.
26
Some of the magnetically hard materials are rare earth cobalt, carbon steel, tungsten steel,
cobalt steel, alnico and hard ferrites.
Q.25 Give the properties and application of brass and bronze, asbestos and glass. (14)
Ans:
Brass- Is an alloy of copper and zinc with 60% copper and 40% zinc. Its properties are-
1. Its electrical resistivity is 7.0X 10-8 ohm-m, which is higher than the copper
resistivity.
3. It melts at 8900C.
4. Its specific gravity is 3.3.
5. It has got an excellent corrosion resistance.
6. It has got good mechanical properties.
Applications: Brass is used as a structural and current carrying material in power
switches, plugs, sockets, lamp holders, fuse holders, knife switches, sliding contacts
for starters and rheostats, wave- guide components, brazing purpose, jewellery and
utencils etc.
Bronze: alloy of copper and tin.
1. This alloy is very hard and brittle.
2. Its corrosion resistance is better than brass.
4. In bronzes, which are used as electrical conductor, the content of tin and other metal
is usually low as compared to the bronzes, which are used for mechanical applications.
Applications: It is used for making structural elements for equipments. It is also used
for making current carrying springs, sliding contacts, knife switches, bearings, marine
work, turbine blading etc.
Glass – Glass is an inorganic material made by the fusion of different metallic oxides.
The properties of glass are –
Uses – Glass is used in moulded insulating devices such as electrical bushings, fuse
bodies, insulators. Glass is used as a dielectric in capacitors. Radio and television
tubes, electrical laminated boards also make use of glass
Glass Products
a) Silica glass or fused quartz – Silica when heated to a temperature of fusion and
then cooled is known as silica glass. This material has good electrical properties, low
coefficient of expansion and high resistivity.
b) Borosilicate glass or Pyrex – This glass requires 28 per cent of boron oxide along
with other oxides. They resist the effect of chemicals and moisture better than other
glasses.
applications fibre- glass is impregnated with materials like synthetic resins or with
mineral oil. They possess good electrical and mechanical properties and sufficient
flexibility to be moulded into required shapes.
27
d) Epoxy glass – It is made by joining glass fibre layer with a thermosetting
compound. It is immune to alkalies and acids and is used in PCB making, terminal
holders and instrument cases.
Asbestos: It is inorganic fibrous material. Two types of asbestos are available.
Chrysotile asbestos: It is hydrated silicate of magnesium.
1. Its specific gravity varies between 2-2.8.
2. It is highly hygroscopic.
3. It has high dielectric losses and dielectric strength.
4. The melting temperature is 15250C.
Amphibole asbestos:
It is found in Africa and Alaska.
1. Its fibres cannot be woven easily as the fibres are too soft or too hard and brittle.
2. It possesses good tensile strength.
3. It is highly hygroscopic.
4. Its electrical properties are poorer.
Uses: Asbestos is used in low voltage work as insulation in the form of rope, tape, cloth
and board. It is impregnated with liquid or solid resin in all such applications to
improve its mechanical and electrical properties. It is used as insulator in wires and
cables under high temperature conditions, as conductor insulator and layer insulator in
transformer, as arcing barrier in switches and circuit breakers.
Q.26 What is the effect of temperature on conductivity of semiconductor? (6)
Ans:
Electrical conductivity of semiconductor changes appreciably with temperature variations.
At absolute zero, it behaves as an insulator. At room temperature, because of thermal energy,
some of covalent bonds of the semiconductor break. The breaking of bonds sets those
electrons free, which are engaged in the formation of these bonds. This results in few free
electrons. These electrons constitute a small current if potential is applied across the
semiconductor crystal. This shows the conductivity for intrinsic semiconductor increases
with increase in temperature as given by η = Aexp ( − Eg / 2kt ) where η is the carrier
concentration, Eg is the band gap, T is the temperature and A is constant. In case of extrinsic
semiconductors, addition of small amount of impurities produces a large number of charge
carriers. This number is so large that the conductivity of an extrinsic semiconductor is many
times more than that of an intrinsic semiconductor at room temperature. In n - type
semiconductor all the donors have donated their free electrons, at room temperature. The
additional thermal energy only serves to increase the thermally generated carriers. This
increases the minority carrier concentration. A temperature is reached when number of
covalent bonds that are broken is large, so that number of holes is approximately equal to
number of electrons. The extrinsic semiconductor then behaves like intrinsic semiconductor.
Q.27 Name the materials used in the following cases. Give reasons in each case.
(i) Fuses.
(ii) Solder.
(iii) Bimetals. (3+3+3)
28
Ans:
(i) Fuses: For rewirable fuses, lead-tin and copper-tin alloy is used. For cartridge and HRC
fuses silver is used because of their low melting point and low resistivity.
(ii) Solder: For soft solders tin, lead (in fifty fifty ratio) alloy and for hard solders silver and
copper- zinc alloy (in various proportions) are used because of their low melting points, good
electrical conductivity. eg. (i) Soft solders: 40% Pbt 60% Sn (ii) Tinman’s solders: 38% Pbt
+ 62% Sn (iii) Plumber solders : 60% Pbt 37.5% Sn + 2.5% Antimony Similarly lead silver
cadmium silver, tin-zinc solders etc.
(iii) Bimetals: Alloy of iron and nickel with low value of coefficient of thermal expansion
are used as one element and metals like nickel, iron, constantan, brass etc., which, have high
value of coefficient of thermal expansions are used as the other element.
Q.28 Explain the principle of a thermocouple. Give two examples of some common
thermocouples. (5)
Ans:
Thermocouples: Are used for the measurement of temperature. When two wires of different
metals are joined together an emf exits across the the junction which dependent on the types
of metals or alloys used and also directly proportional to the temperature of the junction.
Depending on the range of temperature to be measured, proper materials are to be chosen for
a thermocouple. If one junction called the cold junction is held at a known constant
temperature, the emf produced becomes measure of the temperature of the other junction.
The emf produced by a thermocouple is very small but it can be measured with reasonable
accuracy by a sensitive moving coil millivoltmeter, which can be calibrated in terms of
temperature. Some of the materials used for thermocouples are copper/constantan,
iron/constantan.
Q.29 Write notes on any TWO

(i) pnp transistors.
(ii) Hysteresis loop.
(iii) Factors affecting the resistivity of conducting materials.
(iv) Applications and properties of aluminium and copper. (7+7)
Ans:
(i) pnp transistor: A transistor has three terminals. In a pnp transistor has two blocks of
p- type semiconductors which are separated by a thin layer of n-type semiconductor. A pnp
transistor circuit is shown in the fig below. The emitter base junction is forward biased while
the collector base junction is reverse biased. The forward biased voltage is VEB is quite small,
whereas the reverse biased voltage VCB is considerably high. As the emitter base junction is
forward biased a large number of holes (majority carriers) in the emitter (p- type) are pushed
towards the base. This constitutes the emitter current IE. When these holes enter p- type
material (base), they tend to combine with electrons. Since the base is lightly doped and very
thin, only a few electrons (less than 5%) combine with electrons to constitute the base current
IB. The remaining holes (more than 95%) diffuse across the thin base region and reach the
collector space charge layer. These holes then come under the influence of the negatively
biased p- region and are attracted or collected by the collector. This constitutes collector
current IC. Thus, it is seen that almost the entire emitter current flows into the collector
circuit. The emitter current is the sum of collector current and base current i.e. IE = IC+ IB.
29
pnp transistor circuit

(ii) Hysteresis loop: In a ferromagnetic material, the flux density B increases when external
applied magnetic field H to it is increased. When the saturation arrives, the increase in flux
ceases even though H may be increased. This has be shown by OS in the fig. If the external
field is gradually reduced, the original curve OS is not retraced but follows curve SR. The
external field H is reduced to zero but B does not reduce to zero i.e. the material remains
magnetised. The value of R flux density is called remanent flux density or residual
magnetism. In order to demagnetise the material completely, external magnetic field must be
reversed and when it reaches the value OC in reverse direction, it is seen that B is zero. This
applied reverse magnetising force, which causes B to become zero is called coercive force.
Further increase of H in reverse direction will now increase in B in reverse direction and
again at the point S saturation occurs. The residual magnetism in reverse direction is
represented by OR and to neutralise it H must be increased in positive direction to the value
OC. Further increase in H will again magnetise the material and saturation will occur at S.
The above property is characteristic of magnetic behaviour of the ferromagnetic material.
When the material is taken through one complete cycle of magnetisation, it traces a loop
called hysteresis loop. When a material is subjected to cyclic changes of magnetisation, the
domains change the direction of their orientation in accordance with H. Work is done in
changing the direction of domains, which leads to production of heat within the material. The
energy required to take the material through one complete cycle of magnetisation is
proportional to the area enclosed by the loop.
Hysteresis loop
(iii) Factors, which change the resistivity of conducting materials: -

Temperature- The electrical resistance of most metals increases with increase of
temperature while those of semiconductors and electrolytes decreases with increase of
temperature.
30
Alloying- Alloying is another factor, which affects the resistivity of a material. By the
addition of some impurity to a metal, its resistivity can be changed. Alloys have higher
resistivity than that of pure metal.
Mechanical stressing-When a material undergoes a mechanical treatment, its resistivity
changes due to mechanical distortion of the crystal structure. eg. annealing decreases the
resistivity.
Age Hardening- Age hardening increases the resistivity of an alloy.
(iv) Aluminium:
Properties
1) Pure aluminium is silver white in color.
2) It is a ductile metal and can be put to a shape by rolling, drawing and forging.
3) It melts at 6550C.
4) It is resistant to corrosion.
5) Its tensile strength is 60MN/m2.
6) It can be alloyed with other elements.
7) Annealing can soften it.
8) It has a higher thermal conductivity.
Applications: Aluminium is widely used as conductor for power transmission and
distribution. It is used in overhead transmission lines, busbars, ACSR conductors etc.
Copper:
Properties
1) It is reddish brown in color.
2) It is malleable and ductile and can be cast, forged, rolled, drawn and machined.
4) It easily alloys with other metals.
5) Electrical resistivity of copper is 1.7x10-8 Ω-m.
6) Tensile strength for copper is 210 MN/m2.
7) It is highly resistant to corrosion.
8) It is a non-magnetic material.
Applications: - Copper is used in conductor wires, coil windings of generators and
transformers, cables, bus bars etc.
Q.30 Differentiate between conductors, semiconductors and insulators. Give two examples of
each. (10)
Ans:
Materials, which are commonly used in electrical and electronics engineering, can be
classified as conductors, insulators, semiconductors.
Conductors: These are the material, which allow the current to pass through them. These
have very low electrical resistance and are available in a large variety having different
properties. Also the number of valence electrons is less than four. The, valence- band and the
conduction- band overlap each other. Examples are copper, brass, aluminium, silver, gold,
bronze, etc.
31
Semiconductors: These are the materials, which possess the electrical resistivity in between
that of conductors and insulators. They are used for the manufacture of diodes and
transistors. Also the number of valence electrons is equal to four. There is a small forbidden
energy gap of about 1eV between the conduction and the valence band. Examples:
germanium, silicon, selenium, etc.
Insulators: These are the materials, which do not allow the current to pass through them
without any appreciable loss. They have very high electrical resistance and are also available
in a large variety to cover different applications. Some of the specific insulating materials are
used for the purpose of storing of an electrical energy and are called dielectric materials such
as mica, ceramic, paper etc. These materials are used as a dielectric in capacitors. Also the
number of valence electrons is more than four. The energy gap between valence and
conduction band is very large (more than 5-6 eV). Examples: Mica, rubber, ceramics, glass,
diamond etc.
Q.31 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of aluminium as compared to copper as a

conductor of electricity. (4)
Ans:
Advantages of aluminium as compared copper as a conductor of electricity: The
electrical conductivity of aluminium is next to that of copper. Its resistivity is 2.8X10-8 ohm-
m, i.e. about 1.6 times higher than copper. Its density is 2.68 which means that aluminium is
much lighter than copper. Its melting point is 6550C. Like copper, it can be easily drawn into
thin wires. Aluminium is soft metal but when alloyed with some other materials like
magnesium, silicon or iron, it acquires higher mechanical strength and can be used for
overhead transmission lines. Like copper, aluminium also forms an oxide layer over its
surface when exposed to atmosphere and that layer prevents the material from further
oxidation and acts as a resistance layer to corrosion.
Disadvantages: As aluminium is a soft material, there is always a possibility of loose
contacts. Due, to the insulating property of aluminium oxide formed on the surface, it is
difficult to solder aluminium wires. However for applications like winding of electrical
machines and transformers, it is difficult to substitute aluminium for copper. This is because
aluminium wires have lower tensile strength than that of copper.
Q.32 Explain
(i) Superconductivity. (ii) Resistivity. (6)
Ans:
(i) Superconductivity- The resistivity of most metals increases with increase in temperature
and vice-versa. There are some metals and chemical compounds whose resistivity becomes
zero when their temperature is brought near 00Kelvin (-2730C). At this stage such metals or
superconducting at approximately 4.5 Kelvin (-268.50C). Superconductivity was discovered
that of superconductivity is called transition temperature.
32
(ii) Resistivity: The resistance R of a wire having cross-sectional area A and length L have
the relationship, - R α L and R α 1/A ; resulting Rα L/A or R = ρ L / A ; Where ρ is the
constant of proportionality and is called resistivity of a material and is defined as the
resistance between the two opposite faces of a meter cube of that material. The unit of
resistivity is ohm-m. Factors affecting resistivity are temperature, alloying, mechanical
stressing, ageing.
Q.33 What is the effect of overheating on the life of an electric insulator? (4)
Ans:
An insulator is designed to withstand certain amount of heat. But when an insulator is
overheated, dielectric losses will increase. Also overheating will affect the various important
properties as electrical properties, mechanical strength, hardness, viscosity, solubility etc.
Q.34 Write notes on

(i) Brass and Bronze. (ii) Thermocouples.
(iii) P-N junction. (iv) Fuse materials. (3.5 x 4 = 14)
Ans:
(i)Brass - Is an alloy of copper and zinc with 60% copper and 40% zinc. Its electrical
resistivity is 7.0X 10-8 ohm-m, which is higher than the copper resistivity. It is ductile and
can be drawn into different shapes. It melts at 8900C.Its specific gravity is 3.3.It has got an
excellent corrosion resistance. It has got good mechanical properties. Brass is used as a
structural and current carrying material in power switches, plugs, sockets, lamp holders, fuse
holders, knife switches, sliding contacts for starters and reheostats, wave- guide components.
Bronze - Alloy of copper and tin. This alloy is very hard and brittle. Its corrosion resistance
is better than brass. It is ductile and can be drawn into different shapes. In bronzes, which are
used as electrical conductor, the content of tin and other metal is usually low as compared to
the bronzes, which are used for mechanical applications. It is used for making structural
elements for equipments. It is also used for making current carrying springs, sliding contacts,
knife switches.
(ii) Thermocouples: Are used for the measurement of temperature. Depending on the range
of temperature to be measured, proper materials are to be chosen for a thermocouple. If one
junction called the cold junction is held at a known constant temperature, the emf produced
becomes measure of the temperature of the other junction. The emf produced by a
thermocouple is very small but it can be measured with reasonable accuracy by a sensitive
moving coil millivoltmeter, which can be calibrated in terms of temperature. Some of the
materials used for thermocouples are copper/constantan, iron/constantan, nickel/
nickelchromium.
(iii) P – N junction: When a p- type semiconductor is suitably joined to an n-type

semiconductor the contact surface so formed is called p-n junction. All the semiconductor
devices contain one or more p-n junction. P-N junction is fabricated by special techniques
namely growing, alloying and diffusion methods. The p-type semiconductor is having
negative acceptor ions and positively charged electrons. The n-type semiconductor is having
positive donor ions and negatively charged electrons. When the two pieces are joined
33
together and suitably treated they form a p-n junction. The moment they form a p-n junction,
some of the conduction electrons from n-type material diffuse over to the p- type material
and undergo electron – hole recombination with the holes available in the valence band.
Simultaneously holes from p-type material diffuse over to n- type material and undergo hole-
electron combination with the electrons available in the conduction band. This process is
called diffusion. When a p-n junction is connected across an electric supply, the junction is
said to be under biasing. The potential difference across the p- n junction can be applied in
two ways, namely- forward biasing and reverse biasing. When the positive terminal of a dc
source is connected to p-type, and negative terminal is connected n-type semiconductor of a
p-n junction, the junction is said to be in forward biasing. When the positive terminal of a dc
source is connected to n-type, and negative terminal is connected p-type semiconductor of a
p-n junction, the junction is said to be in reverse biasing. With forward bias, a low resistance
path is set up in the p-n junction, and hence current flows through the circuit. With reverse
bias, a high resistance path is set up and no current flows through the circuit. This property is
best suited for rectification of ac into dc.
p-n Junction
(iv) Fuse materials: Fuse is a protective device, which consists of a thin wire or strip. This
wire or strip is placed with the circuit it has to protect, so that the circuit-current flows
through it. When this current is too large, the temperature of the wire or strip will increase till
the wire or strip melts thus breaking the circuit and interrupting the supply.
A fuse material should possess the following properties;-
Low resistivity – This means, thin wires can be used, which will give less metal vapour after
melting of the wire. Less metal vapour in the arc gives lower conductivity and thus makes
quenching of arc easier.
Low conductivity of the metal vapour itself.
Low melting point- This means that the temperature of the fuse material for normal currents
stays at a low value. Originally lead was used as fuse material because of its low melting
point. But as the resistivity of lead is high, thick wires are required. For rewirable fuses
alloys of tin and lead or tinned copper wires are commonly used. In cartridge fuses silver and
silver alloys are used in fuses of lower ratings and copper alloys are used in fuses of higher
ratings.
Q.35 Discuss classification of insulating materials on the basis of physical and chemical structure.
(14)
34
Ans:
Insulating materials, on the basis of their physical and chemical structure may be classified in
various categories as follows:
1. Fibrous materials: They are derived from animal origin or from cellulose, which is the
major solid constituent of vegetable plants. The majority of materials are from cellulose. This
includes paper, wood, card- board, cotton, jute and silk.
2. Impregnated fibrous material: The fibrous materials are impregnated with suitable
impregnated oil, varnish, and epoxy - resin to improve its thermal, chemical and hygroscopic
properties.
3. Non-resinous materials: Solid or semisolid insulations which are directly available in
nature and are organic based come under this class. These materials are mineral waxes,
asphalts, bitumen and chlorinated naphthalene.
4. Insulating liquids: Apart from working as insulation, they fulfil other important
requirements like they offer good heat dissipation media, they used for extinguishing arcs in
certain applications like circuit breakers. They include vegetable oils, fluorinated liquids,
mineral insulating oils and synthetic liquids.
5. Ceramics: They are materials made by high temperature firing treatment of natural clay
and certain inorganic matters. They are used as dielectric in capacitors, as insulators etc.
6. Mica and mica products: It is an inorganic mineral and one of the best natural insulating
materials available. Mica is used as a dielectric in capacitors, as insulator. Some of the mica
products are glass- bonded mica, synthetic mica, mica paper, manufactured mica.
7. Asbestos and asbestos products: These are strong and flexible fibres. It finds extensive
use in electrical equipment as insulation because of its ability to withstand very high
temperatures. Some of the asbestos products are: asbestos roving, asbestos paper, asbestos
tapes and asbestos cement.
8. Glass: Glass is an inorganic material made by the fusion of different metallic oxides. It is
normally transparent, brittle and hard. Glass finds its use in electrical industry because of its
low dielectric loss, slow ageing and good mechanical strength. Glass is used in electrical-
bushings, fuse bodies, insulators, radio and television tubes.
9. Natural and synthetic rubber: Natural rubber is obtained from the milky sap of rubber
trees. It finds limited applications because it is rigid when solid, sticky when warm and gets
oxidised, when exposed to atmosphere. Synthetic rubber are of various types such as
butadiene rubber, butyl rubber, chloroprene and silicon rubber which are obtained by the
polymerisation. Synthetic rubber, are used as insulating material for wires and cables. It is
also used as jacketing material for cables.
10. Insulating resins and their products: Plastic or resins are of two types – one derived
from plant and animals the other synthetic obtained from chemical reactions. Natural resins
are used as binder material. It is used as thickening agent for manufacture of mineral
insulating oils. Synthetic resins are used as insulation, manufacture of switches and
instrument mountings, electrical bushings, radio and television cabinets etc.
11. Laminates, adhesives, enamels and varnishes: Laminates are multiple, thin layers or
sheets of insulating materials like that of mica, paper, cloth, glass etc, bonded together.
Adhesives, is a class of material compositions required to carry out bonding between two or
more solid surfaces. Adhesives are used in the manufacture of laminated boards, coil winding
cylinders, rods, tubes and special shaped insulators. Enamel is a fusible insulated coating of
some organic base material, which is generally applied on conducting surface. Enamel finds
extensive use in coating wires used for the windings of low rated motors, transformers,
various types of instruments, etc. Varnish is a liquid, which when applied to a surface dries
35
resulting in hard shining coating which is resistant to air and water. Lacquer is used for
protecting wood and metal surface from external weather conditions.
Q.36 Draw the hysteresis loop for a soft magnetic material and compare it with the hysteresis loop
of hard magnetic material. Give two examples of each. (10)
Ans:
Soft and Hard magnetic materials: All ferromagnetic materials are divided into two broad
groups soft and hard magnetic materials.
Materials, which have, a steeply rising magnetization curve, relatively small and narrow
hysteresis loop and consequently small energy losses during cyclic magnetization are called
soft magnetic materials. Soft magnetic materials are therefore employed in building cores for
use in alternating magnetic fields. Examples are nickel-iron alloy and soft ferrites. Fig below
shows a typical narrow hysteresis loop for soft magnetic materials.
Magnetic materials, which have a gradually rising magnetisation curve, large hysteresis loop
area and large energy losses for each cycle of magnetisation, are called hard magnetic
materials. Such materials are used for making permanent magnets. Examples are carbon
steel, tungsten steel alnico. Fig below shows a broad hysteresis loop for hard magnetic
materials.
Hysteresis curves for soft and hard magnetic
Q.37 Write a note on

(i) Corrosion. (ii) Bimetals. (4)
Ans:
(i) Corrosion : The process of constant eating (destruction) up of metals (from the surface)
by the surrounding is called as corrosion. The metals are corroded when exposed to the
atmosphere. The metals are generally converted into their oxides. This oxide covers the
surface of the metal, which results in the destruction of the metal. Rusting of iron is the most
common example of corrosion in which iron makes iron oxide with reaction with the oxygen
of the atmosphere. The iron oxide covers the surface in the form of brownish powder.
Therefore the conducting material should be corrosion resistant.
(ii) Bimetals: A bimetal is made of two metallic strips of unlike metal alloys with different
coefficients of thermal expansion. At a certain temperature the strip will bend and actuate a
36
switch or a lever of a switch. The bimetal can be heatedly directly or indirectly. When heated
the element bends so that the metal with the greater coefficient of expansion is on the outside
of the arc formed while that with smaller coefficient is on the inside. When cooled the
element bends in the other direction. Alloys of iron and nickel with low coefficients of
thermal expansion are used as one element of the bimetallic strip. The other element consists
of materials having high values of thermal expansion. Examples are iron, nickel, constantan,
brass etc. Bimetallic strips are used in electrical apparatus and in devices such as relays and
regulators.
Q.38 Give a short description of soft ferrites. (5)
Ans:
Soft ferrites and their applications: These are non- metallic compounds consisting of ferric
oxide and one or two bivalent metal oxides such as Nickel oxide, Manganese oxide or Zinc
oxide. They have the resistivity of about, 109 ohm-cm, which reduces eddy current losses at
high frequency. The magnets made out of it have high coercive force and square hysteresis
loop. Magnetic permeability of these materials is as high as 10,000 to 30,000. These
materials are fabricated into shape such as- E, U, I, beads and self - shielding pot cores.
Applications – High frequency power transformers operating at 10 to 100 kHz, pulse
transformers up to 1000 MHz, adjustable air gap inductors, recording heads make use of
cores made of soft ferrites.
Q.39 Explain
(i) Eddy currents. (ii) Magnetostriction.
(iii) Permeability. (3 x 3)
Ans:
(i) Eddy currents: Magnetic materials placed in alternating magnetic fields also have eddy
currents induced in them. This is because the material is subjected to rate of change of flux
linkages and in accordance with Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction, emfs are
induced in the material causing currents, called eddy currents, to flow in the material. These
currents cause loss of energy. This results in the heating up of the material. Eddy current loss
is proportional to the square of the frequency and the square of the thickness of the material
and inversely proportional to the resistivity of the material. In order to reduce this eddy
currents loss thin sheets called laminations are used instead of solid core.
(ii) Magnetostriction: When ferromagnetic materials are magnetized a small change of
dimensions of the material takes place. There is a small extension with corresponding
reduction of cross-section of the crystals of which the material is made. When subject to
rapidly alternating magnetic fields there is a rapid and continuous extension and contraction
of the material. This is called magnetostriction. Magnetostriction is the major cause of hum
in transformers and chokes.
(iii) Permeability – It is defined as the capability of the material to conduct flux. It is defined
as the ratio of magnetic flux ‘B’ in a medium to the magnetic flux intensity ‘H’ at the same
location in the medium, i.e. µ = B/H, where B is plotted against H, a curve is obtained, called
magnetization curve or B-H curve. Also µ = µ0µr where µ0 = absolute permeability of air and
µr = relative permeability for air, µr =1.The permeability of any material is not a constant.
The permeability at low value of H is called initial permeability. The common core materials
such as low carbon steel, silicon steel have low initial permeability.
37
Q.40 Discuss the properties and uses of
(i) Cold rolled grain oriented steel. (7)
(ii) ALNICO. (7)
Ans:
(i) Cold rolled grain oriented steel: The grain orientation of silicon steel is obtained by a
special technique called cold rolling. Sheet steel obtained in this process is called Cold
Rolled Grain Oriented Steel. CRGO silicon steel is widely used for making transformer
cores. The magnetising current required by transformers using CRGO steel is low. If CRGO
sheet steel is used as core material for rotating machines, the core will be assembled from a
large number of sections but this still will not result in grain orientations completely parallel
with the flux path because of the circular nature of cores of rotating machines. Also
assembling the core from sections of sheet steel will make the construction difficult and
expensive.
(ii) Alnico: is an alloy of iron, cobalt, nickel and small amount of aluminium and copper.
Properties are -
1. Saturation flux density is 1.2 Wb/m2.
2. More expensive than Alni, but magnetic properties are better than Alni.
3. Available in different grades, each having some different properties.
4. Hard and brittle, so it cannot be machined but has to be cast to shape and finished by
grinding.
5. Magnets made with this alloy are smaller in size and lighter in weight than that made
with tungsten steel.
6. The hysteresis loop is more rectangular.
7. Thermal and mechanical process, modify the crystal size and shape and thereby alter the
shape of the hysteresis curve.
Uses: Alnico magnets find applications in loudspeakers, microwave devices, motors,
generators, separators, vending machines and communication devices.
Q.41 Explain the factors which change the resistivity of a conducting material (8)
Ans:
Factors, which change the resistivity of conducting materials: -
Temperature- The electrical resistance of most metals increases with increase of
temperature while those of semiconductors and electrolytes decreases with increase of
temperature.
Alloying- Alloying is another factor, which affects the resistivity of a material. By the
addition of some impurity to a metal, its resistivity can be changed. Alloys have higher
resistivity than that of pure metal.
Mechanical stressing-When a material undergoes a mechanical treatment, its resistivity
changes due to mechanical distortion of the crystal structure.
Age Hardening- Age hardening increases the resistivity of an alloy.
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Q.42 Explain superconductivity and explain the effect of magnetic field on superconductors. (6)
Ans:
A large number of metals become superconducting below a temperature, which is the
characteristic of the particular metal. They have zero resistivity and the temperature at which
this change takes place is called superconducting transition temperature. Metals, which are
good conductors at room temperature like gold, silver, tin, do not exhibit superconducting
properties. Whereas metals and compounds which have superconducting properties at certain
temperatures are insulators at room temperature.
It is possible to destroy superconductivity by the application of a strong magnetic field.
When, the magnetic field exceeds a certain critical value, the superconducting state
disappears, the magnetic field penetrates the material and electrical resistance is restored.
Q.43 Give the properties and application of copper and aluminium. (8)
Ans:
Copper:
Properties
1) It is reddish brown in colour.
2) It is malleable and ductile and can be cast, forged, rolled, drawn and machined.
4) It easily alloys with other metals.
5) Electrical resistivity of copper is 1.7x10-8 Ω-m.
6) Tensile strength for copper is 210 MN/m2.
7) It is highly resistant to corrosion.
8) It is a non-magnetic material.
Applications: - Copper is used in conductor wires, coil windings of generators and
transformers, cables, busbars etc. Alloys of copper (like Brass, Bronze, Constantan, Manganin
etc) are very useful for different purposes.
Aluminium:
Properties
1) Pure aluminium is silver white in colour.
2) It is a ductile metal and can be put to a shape by rolling, drawing and forging.
4) It is resistant to corrosion.
5) Its tensile strength is 60MN/m2.
6) It can be alloyed with other elements.
7) Annealing can soften it.
8) It has a higher thermal conductivity.
Applications: - Aluminium is widely used as conductor for power transmission and
distribution. It is used in overhead transmission lines, busbars, ACSR conductors etc.
Q.44 What is polarisation? Explain. (6)
39
Ans:
When a dielectric material is subjected to an electric field the dipoles of the material get
oriented into a particular direction under the effect of the electric field. The material is said to
be polarized and the phenomenon as polarization. In case of non polar material the atoms or
molecules get polarized and induce dipole moments at atomic level. The individual dipoles
get oriented towards field direction. The dipole moment (p) per unit volume is called
polarization (P). The dipole moment is proportional to local electric field and the constant of
proportionality is called polarisability. There are there types of polarization/polarisability
(i) Electronic or atomic polarization
(ii) Oriental or dipole polarization
(iii) Ionic polarization
Q.45 Give the properties and application of glass and cotton. (8)
Ans:
Glass: - It is an amorphous substance. It consists of silicates and in some cases borates and
phosphates. Glass is an inorganic material made by the fusion of different metallic oxides.
The properties of glass are –
Uses – Glass is used in moulded insulating devices such as electrical bushings, fuse bodies,
insulators. Glass is used as a dielectric in capacitors. Radio and television tubes, electrical
laminated boards also make use of glass
Glass Products
a) Silica glass or fused quartz – Silica when heated to a temperature of fusion and then
cooled is known as silica glass. This material has good electrical properties, low coefficient
of expansion and high resistivity.
b) Borosilicate glass or Pyrex – This glass requires 28 per cent of boron oxide along with
other oxides. They resist the effect of chemicals and moisture better than other glasses.
applications fibre glass is impregnated with materials like synthetic resins or with mineral oil.
They possess good electrical and mechanical properties and sufficient flexibility to be
moulded into required shapes.
d) Epoxy glass – It is made by joining glass fibre layer with a thermosetting compound. It is
immune to alkalies and acids and is used in PCB making, terminal holders and instrument
cases.
Properties
1) It has high resistivity & dielectric strength at ambient temperature.
2) Temperature coefficient is –ve and very large.
3) Tensile strength is low.
4) Coefficient of thermal expansion considerably varies with composition.
5) It is susceptible to destruction when used in high and low temperature cycle.
6) Surface resistivity falls considerably when exposed to moisture.
Applications:- Moulded glass is used in electrical bushings, fuse bodies, insulators. It is used
as dielectric in capacitors. It is used in the manufacture of radio and television tubes,
40
electrical lamps, and laminated boards. It is used to make optical fibers used in optical
communications.
Cotton:- This is base material for insulating fibres. Properties of cotton can be improved by
impregnating with varnish.
Properties
1) It is hygroscopic. Moisture absorption is 70%.
2) It has low dielectric strength.
3) Its resistivity changes with moisture content.
4) It can be used up to 1100C.
5) Its density is 1.54gm/cm3.
Applications:- It is used as insulating material for armature winding of small and medium
sized machines, small transformers, coils and chokes. Cotton covered wires are used for
winding of small magnet coils.
Q.46 Give the names of four alloys along with their composition, which are used for making heater
and thermocouple elements. (6)
Ans:
Constantan or Eureka { (55-60%) Cu, (45-40%)Ni}
German Silver (an alloy of CU, Zn, Ni)
Manganin (86% Cu, 2% Ni, 12% Mn)
Nichrome (61% Ni, 15% Cr, 24% Fe)
Q.47 Explain ferroelectricity and piezoelectricity. (8)
Ans:
Ferroelectricity: - Ferroelectric materials have a high dielectric constant, which is non-linear
i.e., it depends to a considerable extent on the intensity of the electric field. Such materials
exhibit hysterisis loops, i.e. the polarization is not a linear function of applied electric field. If
the center of gravity of the positive and negative charges in a body does not coincide in the
absence of an applied electric field, the substance has an electric dipole moment. So material
is said to be spontaneously polarized and called ferroelectric material. Such a substance is
called ferroelectric. It contains small regions called ferroelectric domains and all dipoles are
parallely oriented in domain but different domains are randomly oriented in the absence of an
external electric field. When the temperature exceeds a certain value called the Curie point,
the substance loses its ferroelectric properties. Ex. Rochelle salt, Potassium dihydrogen
phosphate, Barium titanate.
Piezoelectricity:- Piezoelectricity provides us a means of converting electrical energy to
mechanical energy and vice versa.
When an electric field is applied to a substance it becomes polarized, the electrons and nuclei
assume new geometric positions and the mechanical dimensions of the substance are altered.
This phenomenon is called electrostriction. The reverse effect i.e. production of polarization
by the application of mechanical stresses can take place only if the lattice has no centre of
symmetry, this phenomenon is known as piezoelectricity. Ex. Rochelle salt, Quartz, Barium
titanate.
Applications: Piezo electric materials serve as a source of ultrasonic waves. At sea they may
be used.
41
Q.48 Explain the electrical contact materials with examples. (7)
Ans:
Electrical contact materials: - A number of elements in their pure form such as copper,
molybdenum, nickel, palladium, platinum, silver and tungsten are mostly acceptable make
and break contact materials. Alloys of the above mentioned elements are also used for
electrical contacts. Silver is an important contact material. Copper added to silver reduces the
cost of the contact material. Whereas a combination of tungsten and silver results in a contact
material having the advantages of the individual metals. A silver tungsten contact material
will have high thermal and electrical conductivity. Copper contacts are used in control relays,
motor starter switches and tap changers. Copper contacts may be used for currents (a.c or d.c)
upto 500A and voltages (a.c or d.c) upto 600V. Contacts made of silver and silver alloys are
widely used. Silver has better resistance to oxidation compared to copper and can be used for
voltages (a.c or d.c) upto 600V and direct currents upto 50A and alternating currents upto
200A. Such contacts are used in all types of industrial applications, relays, generator cut outs,
thermal overload devices and thermostatic control.
Q.49 Explain the terms dielectric constant and dielectric loss. (7)
Ans:
Dielectric Constant or Permittivity: - Every insulating material possesses an electrical
capacitance. The capacitance of such unit depends upon dimensions and kind of dielectric
placed between the capacitor plates. The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor may be
calculated from the formula C =∈ A/t where ∈ is the permittivity of the material in F/m, A =
Area of the plates and t = thickness of dielectric. Also ε = C / C0 , where C is the capacity in
presence of dielectric and Co is the capacity in air or vacuum or in absence of dielectric.Thus
permittivity ∈ of a material is a measurement of its ability to form an electrical capacitance
of the insulating material, the dimensions of the capacitor being taken equal. Dielectric
constant or permittivity is not a constant but varies with temperature and frequency.
Dielectric loss angle: - when an insulating material is subjected to alternating voltage, some
of the electric energy is absorbed by the insulation and is dissipated as heat. Energy absorbed
by the material in unit time is called dielectric loss. A perfect dielectric has a current, which
leads the voltage by 900, but the practical dielectric material has a current, which leads the
voltage by less than 900. The dielectric phase angle is θ and δ = 900 - θ is the dielectric loss
angle.
42
applied voltage.
Q.50 Explain n-type and p-type semiconductors. (6)
Ans:
n – type semiconductor:- When small amount of pentavalent impurity (group V elements) is
added to a pure semiconductor providing a large number of free electrons in it, the extrinsic
semiconductor thus formed is known as n- type semiconductor. The addition of pentavalent
impurities such as arsenic and antimony provide a large number of free electrons in the
semiconductor crystal. Such impurities, which produce n- type semiconductors, are known as
donor impurities because each atom of them donates one free electron to conduction band in
the semiconductor crystal.
p - type semiconductor:- When small amount of trivalent impurity group III elements is
added to a pure semiconductor providing a large number of holes in it, the extrinsic
semiconductor thus formed is known as p- type semiconductor. The addition of trivalent
impurities such as gallium and indium provide a large number of holes in the semiconductor
crystal. Such impurities, which produce p- type semiconductors, are known as acceptor
impurities because each atom of them creates one hole, in valence band, which can accept
one electron.
Q.51 Give the properties and uses of silicon iron alloy and nickel iron alloy. (6)
Ans:
Silicon Iron alloy:- Pure iron has low resistivity, which results in higher eddy current losses.
These losses can be minimized by increasing the resistivity of the material, which is achieved
by adding 1 to 4 % of silicon to iron. Silicon increases the electrical resistivity of iron. It
reduces hysteresis loss. The magnetostriction effect is also reduced. Silicon also improves
resistance to corrosion and oxidation and increases hardenability.
Silicon Iron alloy is used in the form of thin sheets called laminations. These laminations are
used in transformers, small machines and large turbo- generators.
Nickel Iron alloy:- A group of iron alloys containing between 40 to 90 % nickel have much
higher permeabilities at low flux densities and lower losses than ordinary iron. The important
alloys are permalloy and mumetal. Mumetal has lower permeability but higher resistivity.
Addition of small amounts of other elements to nickel iron alloys improves their magnetic
properties. Nickel improves strength, toughness and resistance to fatigue. It also lowers the
critical cooling rate and hence increases hardenability.
Nickel Iron alloy is widely used in transformer cores and loading coils for telephone circuits,
instrument transformers, for magnetic circuits of instruments, for magnetic screens of
electronic equipments.
Q.52 Explain the working of an npn transistor. (8)
Ans:
Working of npn transistor:- An npn transistor is shown in the fig. The emitter base junction
is forward biased while the collector base junction is reversed biased. The forward biased
voltage VEB is quite small, whereas the reverse biased voltage VCB is considerably large.
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As the emitter base junction is forward biased, a large number of electrons (majority carrier)
in the emitter (n-type region) are pushed towards the base. This constitutes the emitter
current IE. When these electrons enter the p-type material (base), they tend to combine with
holes. Since the base is lightly doped and very thin, only a few electrons (less than 5%)
combine with the holes to constitute base current IB. The remaining electrons (more than
95%) diffuse across the thin base region and reach the collector space charge layer. These
electrons then come under the influence of positively biased n- region and are attracted or
collected by the collector. This constitutes the collector current IC. Thus, it is seen that almost
the entire emitter current flows into the collector circuit. The emitter current is the sum of the
collector, and base current. IE =IC + IB.
npn Transistor Circuit
Q.53 What is meant by doping? How does it affect a semiconductor? (6)
Ans:
Doping: - The process by which an impurity is added to semiconductor is known as doping.
A semiconductor to which an impurity at controlled rate is added to make it conductive is
known as an extrinsic semiconductor. The purpose of adding impurity in the semiconductor
crystal is to increase the number of free electrons or holes to make it conductive. If
pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor a large number of electrons will exist
in it. If a trivalent impurity is added a large number of holes will exist in the semiconductor.
Q.54 Explain the factors affecting permeability and hysterisis loss. (8)
Ans:
Factors affecting permeability and hysterisis loss: - If the initial permeability is high, the
hysterisis loss is low and vice versa. The permeability and the hysterisis loss depend upon the
physical condition and chemical purity of the sample. The crystals of a ferromagnetic
material when cold worked experience deformation as a result of which the material has very
poor magnetic properties. Due to the internal strains on the domains, greater magnetic field is
required to give a definite magnetization. Therefore the permeability decreases and the
hysterisis loss is increased. A material, which has suffered magnetic damage due to cold
work, may be heated to a sufficiently high temperature when the magnetic properties will be
restored. The highest magnetic permeability and the lowest hysterisis loss that can be
obtained are limited by the impurity content of the materials. Impurities affect the regular
geometric pattern of the crystal and are harmful to the magnetic properties. The main
impurities in the magnetic materials used for transformer cores and electrical machinery are
44
carbon, sulphur, oxygen and nitrogen. Carbon is most detrimental and the amount of carbon
is kept to a low value of 0.01% in commercial materials.
Q.55 Write notes on

(i) Classification of materials on the basis of energy band. (7)
(ii) Germanium and silicon. (7)
Ans:
(i) Classification of materials:- On the basis of energy band materials are classified as
insulators, conductors, semiconductors.
Insulators:- Substance like wood, glass, which do not allow the passage of current through
them are known as insulators. The valence band of these substances is full whereas the
conduction band is completely empty. The forbidden energy gap between valence band and
conduction band is very large (8ev) as shown in fig. (a). Therefore a large amount of energy,
i.e. a very high electric field is required to push the valence electrons to the conduction band.
This is the reason, why such materials under ordinary conditions do not conduct at all and are
designated as insulators.
Conductors:- Substances like copper, aluminium, silver which allow the passage of current
through them are conductors. The valence band of these substances overlaps the conduction
band as shown in fig. (b). Due to this overlapping, a large number of free electrons are
available for conduction. This is the reason, why a slight potential difference applied across
them causes a heavy flow of current through them.
Semiconductors:- Substances like carbon, silicon , germanium whose electrical
conductivity lies in between the conductors and insulators are known as semiconductors. The
valence band of these substances is almost filled, but the conduction band is almost empty.
The forbidden energy gap between valence and conduction band is very small (1ev) as shown
in fig. ( c). Therefore comparatively a smaller electric field is required to push the valence
electrons to the conduction band. This is the reason, why such materials under ordinary
conditions do not conduct current and behaves as an insulator. Even at room temperature,
when some heat energy is imparted to the valence electrons, a few of them cross over to the
conduction band imparting minor conductivity to the semiconductors. As the temperature is
increased, more valence electrons cross over to the conduction band and the conductivity of
the material increases. Thus these materials have negative temperature co-efficient of
resistance.
Energy Band Diagrams
45
(ii) Germanium:- It is one of the most common semiconductor material used for the
application in electronics. The atomic number is 32. The number of electrons in the first,
second, third and fourth orbit are 2, 8, 18and 4. It is clear that germanium atom has four
valence electrons in the outermost orbit. It is known as tetravalent element. The germanium
atoms are held together through covalent bonds. The forbidden gap in this material is very
small 0.7ev. So small energy is sufficient to lift the electrons from valence to conduction
band.
Atomic structure of Germanium Energy Band Diagram of Germanium
Silicon:- Silicon is another most commonly used semiconductor. Its atomic number is 14.
The number of electrons in first, second and third orbit are 2, 8 and 4. The silicon atoms are
also having four valence electrons and are known as tetravalent element. The various silicon
atoms are held together through covalent bonds. The atoms of silicon are arranged in orderly
pattern and form a crystalline structure. The forbidden energy gap in this material is quite
small i.e. 1.1ev. It also needs small amount of energy to lift the electrons from valence to
conduction band.
Atomic structure of Silicon Energy Band Diagram of Silicon
Q.56 What is resistivity? Explain the effect of temperature on the resistivity of conducting
materials and define temperature coefficient of resistance. (8)
Ans:
Resistivity of a material may be defined as the resistance of the material having unit length
and unit cross sectional area. Unit is ohm-m.
46
The resistance of most metals increases with increase of temperature while those of
semiconductors and electrolytes decreases with increase of temperature. Many metals have
vanishing resistivity at absolute zero of temperature. The phenomenon is known as
superconductivity. The resistance of a conductor changes with temperature according to
the law Rt = RO (1 + α t). Where Rt and RO are the resistances at “t” and zero degrees
centigrade and α the temperature coefficient of resistance.
Temperature coefficient of resistance is defined as the change in resistance of a material per
ohm per degree change in temperature. It is represented by α.
Q.57 Explain the effect of temperature on electrical conductivity of metals. (6)
Ans:
As the temperature is increased, there is a greater thermal motion of atoms which decreases
the regularity in the atom spacing with a consequent decrease in the mobility of the electrons.
The resistivity of most metals therefore increases with an increase in the temperature. Since
the number and the energy of the electrons at top of the Fermi distribution curve vary
insignificantly with temperature, the change in temperature must be associated with a change
in the mean free path. In a perfectly regular lattice, each electron will exist in a particular
energy state and will have a fixed velocity. Practical metals do not have a perfect lattice
because of impurities and because of deviation of atoms about their mean position due lattice
oscillations. Since the lattice oscillations decrease at low temperature the scattering of
electron waves falls and the conductivity therefore increases rapidly. As the temperature,
approaches absolute zero. There is a limiting value beyond which the conductivity will not
increase. In general purer the specimen higher is the limiting conductivity. The conductivity
of many metals decreases linearly as the temperature is increased above the room
temperature but below this temperature the conductivity increases markedly.
Q.58 Give the applications of carbon and steel. (8)
Ans:
Carbon: - Carbon materials used in the field of electrical engineering are manufactured from
graphite and other forms carbon like coal etc. It has very high value of resistivity. It has
negative temperature coefficient of resistance. It is pressure sensitive and has low surface
friction.
Applications: - Carbon is used in applications like brushes for electrical machines and
apparatus, electrodes for electric- arc furnaces, in automatic voltage regulators for making the
pressure sensitive pile resistors, components for telecommunication equipment, battery cell
element, arc lamps etc.
Steel: - Steel contains iron with a small percentage of carbon added to it. Iron itself is not
very strong but when carbon is added it assumes very good properties. Mild steel contains
0.25% of carbon; medium steel contains 0.45% of carbon and high carbon steel about 0.70%
of carbon and above. The resistivity of steel is 8 to 9 times higher than that of copper.
Applications: - Galvanised steel is used in overhead telephone wires and earth-wires. Steel
alloyed with chromium and aluminium is used for making starter rheostats in which lightness
combined robustness and good heat dissipation are important.
Q.59 Explain the phenomenon of breakdown in dielectric materials. (6)
47
Ans:
Breakdown in dielectric materials: - The electric strength at breakdown is defined as the
minimum electric stress usually expressed in kV/cm which cause rupture or breakdown of
the material under specified conditions of temperature, duration, waveform, frequency and
type of electrodes. The electric strength of a material depends on its composition, thickness,
temperature, and moisture content and to some extent on the time of application of the
applied voltage. The shape of the waveform and steepness of the wave front of the applied
voltage also affect it There is no definite relationship between these variables, but in general
for sheet materials, the electric strength is an inverse function of the thickness and time and
decreases with increasing temperature and moisture content. At breakdown the high electric
stress is assumed to cause an inter-atomic displacement of the orbital electrons, which alters
the atomic structure causing heating and a conducting path in the material. The breakdown
mechanisms of gaseous, liquid and solid dielectrics are different in nature.
Q.60 Give the properties and applications of mica and PVC. (8)
Ans:
Mica– Mica is an inorganic material. It is one of the best insulating materials available. From
the electrical point of view, mica is of two types – Muscovite mica and Phologopite mica.
Muscovite mica – Chemical composition is KH2 Al3 (SiO4) 3. The properties are
i) Strong, tough and less flexible
ii) Colourless, yellow, silver or green in colour
iii) Insulating properties are very good
iv) Abrasion resistance is high
v) Alkalies do not affect it
Uses – Muscovite mica is used where electrical requirements are severe. Due to high
dielectric strength, it is used in capacitors. It is also used in commutators due to high abrasion
resistance.
Phologopite mica – Chemical composition is KH (Mg F) 8 Mg Al (Si O4) 3. The properties
are
i) Amber, yellow, green or grey in colour
ii) Greater structural stability, being tougher and harder than muscovite mica, less rigid
iii) Resistant to alkalies, but less to acids
iv) Greater thermal stability than that of muscovite mica
Uses – It is used when there is greater need of thermal stability as in domestic appliances like
irons, hotplates, and toasters.
Mica products
(i) Glass bonded mica – Ground mica flakes and powdered glass when moulded makes glass
bonded mica. This material is impervious to water and chemically stable. This is used in high
humidity and high ambient temperatures.
(ii) Mica paper – Mica is broken into small particles in aqueous solution. Out of this sheets
of mica paper are produced which are used as insulation for armature and field coils of
rotating machines.
(iii) Manufactured mica – Mica flakes held together with adhesives is called manufactured
mica. It is used in commutators, electrical heating devices, motor slot insulation,
transformers, etc.
PVC– This is obtained from polymerisation of hydrogen chloride and acetylene in the
presence of a catalyst like peroxides at about 500 C.
Properties: - 1. It is a white powder.
48
2. This resin is hard, very little flexible and insoluble in many solvents.
3. Properties like mechanical strength; porosity, flexibility, moisture absorption and electrical
properties can be changed by adding certain materials (fillers).
4. PVC has good mechanical and electrical properties.
5. It resists flame, most solvents and sunlight.
6. It is non-hygroscopic.
PVC is widely used as insulation and jacketing material for wires, cables.
PVC films, tapes and sheets are used as insulation for dry batteries and conduit pipes.
Q.61 Give some applications of constantan, German silver, manganin, and nichrome. (1½ x 4)
Ans:
Applications: -
Constantan: - It is an alloy of copper and nickel and is used in precision resistors and
thermocouples, motor starters.
German silver: - It is an alloy of copper, nickel and zinc. It is used in electrical measuring
instruments.
Manganin: - Alloy of manganese, copper and nickel. It is used for making precision
resistances and shunts in measuring instruments and for making their coils.
Nichrome: - It is an alloy of nickel, chromium, iron and manganese. It is used for making
heating elements for electric iron and other heating appliances.
Q.62 Explain ionic and oriental polarisation. (8)
Ans:
Ionic Polarisation: The ionic polarisation takes account of the fact that when some of the
atoms in a molecule have an excess positive or negative charge (resulting from the ionic
character of the bonds), an electric field will tend to shift positive ions relative to negative
ions. This leads to an induced moment of different origin from that induced by electron clouds
shifting relative to nuclei. The ionic polarisability measures the shift of the ions relative to
each other just as the electronic polarisability measures the shift of the electrons relative to the
nucleus.
Orientational Polarisation: If two different atoms form a chemical bond, one of the two is
more likely to part with one or more of its valence electrons than the other. When ZAe and ZBe
represents the nuclear charges of the two atoms where Z represents the atomic numbers nd if
A atom has a tendency to give valence electrons to the atom B, there are more than ZB
electrons around the nucleus of atom B and fewer than ZA electrons around that of atom A. So
atom A is more electropositive than atom B. Consequently, the bond between A and B may be
said to be of an ionic kind and therefore it is clear that the molecule AB carries an electric
dipole moment even in the absence of an electric field. For molecule consisting of more than
two atoms, several bonds may carry a permanent dipole moment and the resulting permanent
dipole moment as a whole is obtained by vector addition of the moments associated with the
various bonds. When an external field ‘E’ is applied to a molecule carrying a permanent
dipole moment, the former will tend to align the permanent dipole along the direction of E.
The contribution of this process of orientation of permanent dipoles to the polarisation P is
called Orientational or Dipolar Polarisation.
Q.63 What are superconductors? Give some applications of superconductors. (6)
49
Ans:
Superconductors - The resistivity of most metals increases with increase in temperature and
vice-versa. There are some metals and chemical compounds whose resistivity becomes zero
when their temperature is brought near 00Kelvin (-2730C). At this stage such metals or
superconducting at approximately 4.5 Kelvin (-268.50C). Heike Kamerlingh Onnes
discovered superconductivity. The transition from normal conductivity to superconductivity
that of superconductivity is called transition temperature.
Superconductors are used for producing magnetic fields of about 50 Tesla. Magnetic energy
can be stored in large superconductors and drawn as required to counter the voltage
fluctuations during peak loading. Superconductors can be used to perform logic and storage
functions in computers. As there is no, I2R losses in a superconductor, so power can be
transmitted through the superconducting cables without any losses. By using
superconducting materials it will be possible to have electric motors etc. in small sizes
having very high efficiency. Superconducting electromagnets will work without producing
any heat.
Q.64 Explain Hall Effect and give some applications of Hall Effect. (8)
Ans:
Hall Effect: When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a voltage is
produced which acts in the perpendicular direction to the current as well as magnetic field.
This voltage is proportional to the current and intensity of the magnetic field. This is called
Hall Effect. If a voltage ‘EL’ is applied across the opposite contacts A and B to a bar of semi-
conductor material as shown in the figure, a current will flow. If the bar is placed at right
angles to the magnetic field ‘B’, an electric potential EH is generated between the other two
contacts C and D. This voltage is a direct measure of the magnetic field strength and can be
detected with a simple voltmeter.
Applications of Hall Effect:
1. It is used for determining whether a semi-conductor is N-type or P-type.
2. It is used in determining the carrier concentration.
3. In calculating the mobility.
4. It is used in flux meters, which measure magnetic fields.
HALL EFFECT
50
Q.65 Explain the effect of impurity on the conductivity of a semiconductor. (8)
Ans:
To make a semi-conductor conductive, a small amount of suitable impurity is added. It is
then called extrinsic semi-conductor. Depending upon the type of impurity added, extrinsic
semi-conductor might be classified as n-type and p-type semi-conductor.
n-type semi-conductor: The addition of pentavalent impurity such as arsenic and antimony
provide a large number of free electrons in the semi-conductor crystal. Such impurities,
which produce n-type semi-conductors, are known as donor impurities, because each atom of
them donates one free electron to the semi-conductor crystal. When an electric field is
applied to a crystal of n-type material having sufficient donor impurity the effect of the donor
electrons is much more predominant than the effect of electron hole pairs achieved by the
breaking of the covalent bonds. The Fermi level of an n-type semi-conductor occurs in the
forbidden energy gap but near to the bottom of the conduction band.
p-type semi-conductor: When a trivalent impurity like indium, gallium are added to a semi-
conductor, a large number of holes are created and the semi-conductor formed is known as p-
type semi-conductor. Such impurities, which produce p-type semi-conductor, are known as
acceptor impurities. Conduction is now by means of positive holes. The Fermi level in this
case occurs near the top of the valence bonds in the forbidden energy gap.
Q.66 Explain a p-n junction. (6)
Ans:
P – N junction: When a p- type semiconductor is suitably joined to an n-type semiconductor
the contact surface so formed is called p-n junction. All the semiconductor devices contain
one or more p-n junction. P-N junction is fabricated by special techniques namely growing,
alloying and diffusion methods. The p-type semiconductor is having negative acceptor ions
and positively charged holes. The n-type semiconductor is having positive donor ions and
negatively charged electrons. When the two pieces are joined together and suitably treated
they form a p-n junction. The moment they form a p-n junction, some of the conduction
electrons from n-type material diffuse over to the p- type material and undergo electron –
hole recombination with the holes available in the valence band. Simultaneously holes from
p-type material diffuse over to n- type material and undergo hole-electron combination with
the electrons available in the conduction band. This process is called diffusion. When a p-n
junction is connected across an electric supply, the junction is said to be under biasing. The
potential difference across the p- n junction can be applied in two ways, namely- forward
biasing and reverse biasing. When the positive terminal of a dc source is connected to p-type,
and negative terminal is connected n-type semiconductor of a p-n junction, the junction is
said to be in forward biasing. When the positive terminal of a dc source is connected to n-
type, and negative terminal is connected p-type semiconductor of a p-n junction, the junction
is said to be in reverse biasing. With forward bias, a low resistance path is set up in the p-n
junction, and hence current flows through the circuit. With reverse bias, a high resistance
path is set up and no current flows through the circuit. This property is best suited for
rectification of ac into dc.
51
The leakage current for reasonable voltages in the reverse direction ranges between 0.01 and 1
µA depending on the semiconductor material and the doping level of the impurities. Several
variations of this simple diode have been developed.
Q.67 Explain the terms: valence band, conduction band, valence electrons, and energy gap with the
help of suitable diagrams. (2 x 4)
Ans:
Valence Electrons: The electrons in the outermost orbit are called valence electrons, since
these electrons are fixed in the outer orbit with the neighbouring atom in a crystal. These
electrons being far away from the nucleus possess the least binding energy and are easily
affected by external influences. A very little energy is required to free them from their parent
atoms. When the valence electrons of an atom are less than four, the material is usually a
metal or a conductor. When the number of electrons in the outermost orbit is more than four,
the material is usually an insulator. When the number of valence electrons in an atom is
exactly four, the material is a semi-conductor.
Conduction Band: It represents a larger group of permissible energy levels. The orbits in the
conduction band are very large and an electron in this band experiences almost negligible
nucleus attraction. In fact an electron in the conduction band does not belong to any
particular atom and it moves randomly throughout the solid. So these electrons in the
conduction band are called free electrons. If any material has empty conduction band, no
conduction band is possible.
Valence Band: It represents the range of energies possessed by the valence electrons, that is
the electrons in the outermost orbit. This band has the electrons having the highest energy
and it can be partially or completely filled. When this band is filled, it means that the
electrons occupy all permissible energy levels in the band and no electrons can move in a
filled band. Thus an electron in a completely filled band cannot contribute to electric current.
The partially filled band can accommodate more electrons.
Energy Gap: The minimum amount of energy that is required to lift an electron from a
valence band to the conduction band is called energy gap, and is represented by the
separation between these two bands, i.e., valence and conduction bands. This gap is also
called forbidden energy gap. It also indicates the bondage of valence electrons to the atom.
This means if the energy gap is more, then the valence electrons are tightly bound to the
nucleus. This energy gap determines the conductivity of a material.
52
Electrons free to
establish conduction
Valence electrons
Conduction Band
Energy
gap +
Valence band
Valence electrons
bound to atomic
structure.
Q.68 Explain ferrites and its uses in high frequency devices. (6)
Ans:
A group of magnetic alloys exhibit the property of magnetisation, which changes, with
percentage of different constituent atoms in the alloy. Example XOFe2O3 with X= Mn, Co,
Ni, Mg, Zn, Cd or Fe++. The alloys are called ferrites. Manganese ferrite is a mixture of
manganese oxide and iron oxide. Ferrites are widely used in computers and in microwave
equipment. Ferrites are advantageous at high frequencies because of low eddy current losses.
The ferrites crystallise in what is known as the spinel lattice. The resistivity of ferrites is
much higher than that of the ferromagnetic metals. Ferrites are hard and brittle materials,
which cannot be shaped by ordinary machining processes. Ferrites are also used in transducer
applications; recording tapes, compact aerials for radio sets, focussing magnets of TV picture
tubes.
Q.69 Explain the hysteresis loop of a magnetic material. (6)
Ans:
Hysterisis loop-Below the Curie temperature all-ferromagnetic materials exhibit the well-
known hysterisis in the B (flux density) versus H (intensity of magnetic field) curves.
Starting with an unmagnetised specimen, B varies reversibly with H for small fields. Since
there is no hysterisis in this region, one defines the initial permeability µr in the same way as
the permeability of a paramagnetic material. As the field H is increased, B begins to increase
rapidly. Ultimately approaches a saturation value Bsat. Upon reducing the value of H from the
saturation region to zero, it is observed that there remains a flux density Br called remanent
flux density. Since H = 0, the material must be permanently magnetised, infact the
magnetisation corresponding to Br is equal to Br/µr. The field Hc required to reduce the flux
density to zero is called coercive force. The energy required to take the material through one
complete cycle of magnetisation is proportional to the area enclosed by the loop.
53
Hysterisis Loop
Q.70 Give the classification of magnetic materials and explain each with examples. (8)
Ans:
Diamagnetic Materials: - These are the materials whose atoms do not carry permanent
magnetic dipoles. If an external magnetic field is applied to a diamagnetic material, it induces
a magnetization in the direction opposite to the applied field intensity. For these materials the
relative permeability is negative. These are hardly used as magnetic material in electrical/
electronic engineering applications. Ex. Aluminium oxide, copper, gold, barium chloride.
Paramagnetic Materials: - The atoms of these materials contain permanent magnetic
dipoles. Individual dipoles are oriented in random fashion such that resultant magnetic field
is zero or negligible. For these materials relative permeability is slightly greater than unity
and it is independent of magnetizing force. Ex. Chromium chloride, chromium oxide,
manganese sulphate, air.
Ferromagnetic Materials: - These are materials in which magnetic dipoles interact in such a
manner that they tend to line up in parallel. A ferromagnetic substance consists of a number
of regions or domains, which are spontaneously magnetized. The direction of magnetization
varies from domain to domain. The resultant magnetization is zero or nearly zero. The
relative permeability is very high. The ferromagnetic materials are widely used in industries.
Ex. Iron, nickel, cobalt.
Antiferromagnetism: - The magnetic dipoles are aligned antiparallel to each other.
Antiferromagnetic materials are not so well known as the common ferromagnetic materials.
Only a few, such as manganese, chromium, ferrous, nickel oxides exist. The phenomenon
occurs below a certain temperature known as the Neel temperature.
Ferrimagnetic Materials: - In these materials unequal magnetic dipoles are lined up
antiparallel to each other. Permeabilities are of the order that of ferromagnetic materials
under ordinary conditions the magnetic characteristics of ferromagnetic materials are similar
to those of ferromagnetic materials, as they show spontaneous magnetization below a certain
temperature, example: magnetite, nickel ferrite. The susceptibility of these is given by
χ = C / T ± θ where C is curie constant, T is temperature
54
Q.71 Explain the construction of a MOSFET. Draw the symbols and diagrams of both P-channel
and N-channel MOSFET. (6)
Ans:
Like JFET, MOSFET also has source, gate and drain. Its gate is insulated from its conducting
channel by an ultra-thin metal oxide insulating film (usually of silicon dioxide SiO2), because
of this insulating property, MOSFET is also called insulated gate field effect transistor
(IGFET or IGT). Here also, gate voltage controls the drain current but the main difference
between JFET and MOSFET is that, in the later case, we can apply both positive and
negative voltages to the gate because it is insulated from the channel. More over the gate,
SiO2 insulator and channel form a parallel plate capacitor. Unlike JFET, a MOSFET has only
one p- region or n-region called substrate as shown in the fig. (a) and fig (b). Normally it is
shorted to the source internally. Symbols of both P- channel and N- channel MOSFET are
shown below.
Symbols of P and N channel MOSFET
Q.72 Write notes on

(i) Piezoelectricity and its applications. (7)
(ii) Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors. (7)
55
Ans:
(i) Piezoelectricity:- Piezoelectricity provides us a means of converting electrical energy to
mechanical energy and vice versa.
When an electric field is applied to a substance it becomes polarized, the electrons and nuclei
assume new geometric positions and the mechanical dimensions of the substance are altered.
This phenomenon is called electrostriction. The reverse effect i.e. production of polarization
by the application of mechanical stresses can take place only if the lattice has no centre of
symmetry, this phenomenon is known as piezoelectricity. Example- Rochelle salt, Quartz,
Barium titante.
Applications: Piezoelectric materials serve as a source of ultrasonic waves. At sea, they may
be used to measure depth, distance of shore, position of icebergs, submarines.
(ii) Intrinsic Semiconductor: An extremely pure semiconductor is called intrinsic
semiconductor. At absolute zero temperature its valence band is completely filled and the
conduction band is completely empty. When the temperature is raised some electrons are
lifted to conduction band leaving behind holes in the valence band. When an electric
potential difference is applied across a pure semiconductor kept at room temperature, the
current conduction takes place by two kinds of charge carriers, namely electrons and holes.
Therefore the total current inside the semiconductor is the sum of currents due to free
electrons and holes.
Extrinsic Semiconductor: An intrinsic semiconductor is capable to conduct a little current
even at room temperature but as it is not useful for the preparations of various electronic
devices. To make it conductive a small amount of impurity is added. This process is called
doping. A semiconductor to which an impurity at controlled rate is added to make it
conductive is known as an extrinsic semiconductor. If a pentavalent impurity is added a large
of free electrons will exist and the semiconductor is known as n-type semiconductor. If a
trivalent impurity is added a large number of holes will exist in the semiconductor and it is
known as p-type semiconductor.
Q.73 Explain the effect of a dielectric on the behaviour of a capacitor. (8)
Ans:
When two parallel plates are separated by a distance ‘d’ (meters) in vacuum and are
maintained at a potential difference V volts, the plates will become charged positively and
negatively with a charge Q0 and a uniform electric field with intensity E = V/d will be
created between the plates. The magnitude of the charge accumulated on each plate is
proportional to the potential difference i.e. Q0αV or Q0 = C0V , where C0 is defined as the
capacitance. Since V = Ed, the capacitance of the system is given by C0 =∈0 A / d where ∈0
is the absolute permittivity of free space. Where A is the area of cross section of the plates. If
the space between the plates is filled with a dielectric and V is kept constant, it is found that
the value of the charge is increased to a value given by Q = CV . The new capacitance is
given by C =∈ A / d where ∈ is the absolute permittivity of the dielectric and the ratio
∈r = C / C0 =∈ / ∈0 is called the relative permittivity or dielectric constant of the material. The
dielectric constant varies between 1 to 10 for solid substances. It is greater than 10 for liquids
and 1 for vacuum. It varies not only from substance to substance, but also with the physical
state of any particular substance.
56
Q.74 Explain the suitability of copper and aluminium that is used as electrical conducting
materials. (8)
Ans:
Copper: Pure annealed is used for the winding of electrical machines. High purity copper is
obtained by electrolytic refining. Traces (0.1%) of iron, silicon or phosphorous seriously
reduce the conductivity of copper. The conductivity of copper is also decreased when it is
hard drawn into wires for use in machines. Annealing is therefore necessary before the
material can be used in machines. Hard drawn copper because of its increased mechanical
strength compared with annealed copper is used for conductors in low voltage overhead
distribution lines. Long span lines of thin cross section require conductors of higher
mechanical strength, which is achieved by adding small percentage of cadmium to copper.
Copper is used in machine windings because it is easily workable without any likelihood of
fracture.
Aluminium: Conductors are suitable for very high, ambient temperature. Use of aluminium
as an electrical material particularly in aircraft industries has a considerable advantages
because of the saving in weight. Aluminium because of its lightness is being used for bus
bars. The current carrying capacity of aluminium is 75% that of copper and its density being
approximately one third that of copper and aluminium bus bar is only about half the weight
of copper bus bar of equal current carrying capacity. The steel reinforced aluminium
conductor is extensively being used for long span transmission lines.
Q.75 What is super conductivity? Explain the effect of magnetic field on superconductors. Also
give a few applications of superconductors. Also give three applications of superconductors.
(8)
Ans:
Super Conductivity
A large number of metals become superconducting below a temperature, which is
characteristic of the particular metal. The metals which are very good conductors at room
temperature e.g. Cu, Ag, and Au do not exhibit superconducting properties, whereas metals
and compounds which superconducting are rather bad conductors at ordinary temperatures.
Monovalent metal and ferromagnetic and anti ferromagnetic metals are not superconducting.
The transition temperature of superconductor varies with the isotopic mass, showing that
super conductivity may be the result of interactions between electrons and lattice vibrations
.The resistivity of a superconductor is zero. At the same time it has been observed that the
magnetic flux density B though such a substance also vanishes.
Effect of magnetic field on superconductors:
It is possible to destroy superconductivity by the application of a strong magnetic field.
When the magnetic field exceeds a certain critical value, the superconducting state
disappears, the magnetic field penetrates the material and the electrical resistance is restored.
The transition from the superconducting to the conducting state is reversible. The critical
magnetic field Hc is a function of temperature T.
The disappearance of superconductivity by means of a strong magnetic field is the principle
on which switching elements like the cryotrons operate. Superconductors are used for
producing a magnetic field of about 50 teals.
Application of superconductors in Electrical and Electronic Engineering
(i) The most important application of superconductor is the exploitation of zero electrical
resistance. By making current carrying conductors superconducting, losses due to the
57
resistance of wire which carry electrical power over a long distance through
transmission lines, would be eliminated.
(ii) In production of very powerful magnets
(iii) With the invent of high temperature superconducting materials, superconducting
magnets find application in many areas like magnetic resonance Imaging (medical
diagnose and spectroscopy) ore refining, magnetic shielding and in magnetic levitation
high speed trains
(iv) In electronic engineering there are two areas in which superconducting properties can
be advantageously used viz in chip interconnections and in electronics gates.
Q.76 What are thermocouples? Give two examples of the most commonly used thermocouples.
(4)
Ans:
Thermocouples: Are used for the measurement of temperature. When two wires of different
metals are joined together an emf exists across the junction which is dependent upon the
types of metals or alloys used and also directly proportional to the temperature of the
junction. Depending on the range of temperature to be measured, proper materials are to be
chosen for a thermocouple. If one junction called the cold junction is held at a known
constant temperature, the e.m.f. produced becomes measure of the temperature of the other
junction. The emf produced by the thermocouple is very small but it can be measured with
reasonable accuracy by a sensitive moving coil mili voltmeter, which can be calibrated in
terms of temperature. Some of the materials used for thermocouples are copper/constantan,
iron/constantan.
Q.77 Give the properties and application of PVC and glass. (8)
Ans:
i. Polyvinylchloride (PVC) : PVC is replacing rubber to a great extent in many
applications. PVC insulated (non-sheathed) or PVC insulated and sheathed cables for general
purpose wiring is now well established and the choice between VIR and PVC is very often
largely a matter of relative price or personal preference on the part of the user. An attractive
feature of PVC is that it can be produced in clear and permanent color simplifying
identifications where large number of single core cable have to be used. Cables with PVC
insulation are not affected by oils and petrol and therefore used in wireraft and factories.
ii. Glass: Ordinary glass is a good insulator but is too brittle to be used for anything but
scientific instrument parts, accumulator container and for certain other special purposes.
Increasing use is being made of toughened glass for insulation in extra H.V lines (above
100k.V)
Q.78 What are ferrites? Why are they used in high frequency devices? (6)
Ans:
Ferrites
A group of magnetic alloys exhibit the property of magnetization which changes with the
percentage of the different constitutes atoms in the alloy. A typical example of this type of
alloy is X0Fe203 with X=Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, Mg, Zn, Cd or Fe++. The alloys are called ferrites.
The manganese ferrite is a 1:1 mixture of manganese oxide and iron oxide.
Suitability of ferrites for high frequency applications:-
58
Ferrites are widely used in computers and in micro wave equipments. Ferrites are
advantageous at high frequencies because of low eddy current losses. Ferromagnetic metals
and alloys cores have to be eliminated in order to reduce the losses. At high frequencies
laminations have to be so thin that both fabrication and assembly become expensive
processes. At these frequencies duet cores which consists of fine particles of ferromagnetic
material insulated form each other may be used. But these have the disadvantage of diluting
the ferromagnetic martial and decreasing the effective relative permeability. a further
disadvantage is that the flux density varies through the core due to non-uniform spacing of the
particle. At points where there is greater concentration of particles; the flux density is likely to
be higher entailing larger hysterises losses.
For this reason, Ferrites are used for high frequency application
Hysterisis Loop Of Magnetic Materials
A magnetic material is composed of magnetic dipoles oriented in random direction is

zero. When a magnetic material is magnetized by applying a magnetizing force (= MI),
the magnetic dipoles start orienting themselves in the direction of applied magnetic force.
As the magnetizing force is increased by increasing the MI, more and more of the
magnetic dipoles get oriented. A stage comes when almost all the magnetic dipoles gets
oriented and as such any increase in magnetizing force does not result in any further
increase in the dipoles getting oriented. The magnetic field is thus established in the
forward direction.
This stage of magnetization is called magnetic saturation as shown in fig.
When the magnetizing force is gradually reduced it is found that the magnetic dipoles
again get de-oriented , the rate of de-orientation now being little less than the rate of
orientation at a particular magnetizing forces. Thus the demagnetizing curve does not
retrace back the magnetization curve as shown in fig (ii)
In fig (ii), OA is the magnetization curve and AB is the demagnetization curve. It may be
seen that even when the magnetization force is reduced to zero, a small magnetization is
left in the magnetic material. In the fig. OB represents the residual magnetization. If now
the magnetizing force is applied in the negative direction, a small amount of magnetizing
force OC will be spent in totally de magnetizing the material. Further increase in
magnetizing force will orient the magnetic dipoles in the opposite direction thus
establishing a magnetic field in the reverse direction.
When the magnetizing force is reduced to zero and then again increased in the forward
direction the magnetization curve will follow the path DEA. The total curve ABCDEA is
called the hysterisis loop.
59
Q.79 Classify the magnetic materials into diamagnetic, paramagnetic, ferromagnetic and
ferrimagnetic materials. Also give examples of each. (12)
Ans:
Classification of magnetic materials:-
Magnetic materials for which linear relationship between M and H exists are divided into
classes depending upon the sign of χ (magnetic susceptibility). Materials, which have
negative value of χ the order of 10-4 to 10-6 are called diamagnetic and those which have a
positive value of χ of about the same order of magnitude are called paramagnetic. When the
relationship between M and H is non-linear and exhibits hysterises effect, this group of
materials in which the resultant magnetization is one to several orders of magnitude. Such
materials are called Ferromagnetic materials.
Another classification of magnetic materials consists in the presence or absence of permanent
magnetic dipolar in them, Materials, which lack permanent magnetic dipoles, are called
diamagnetic. If permanent magnetic dipoles are present in the atoms of a material, it may be
paramagnetic, ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic of ferrimagnetic depending on the
interaction between the individual dipoles. Thus, if the interact between the atomic
permanent dipoles moments is zero or negligible and the individual dipole moments are
oriented at random as shown in fig (i).
The material will be paramagnetic. If the dipole interact in such a manner that they tend to
line up in parallel, as shown in fig (ii), the material will be ferromagnetic. When neighboring
moments are aligned anti parallel as shown in fig (iii), the materials are antiferromagnetic.
In ferromagnetic materials, there is a large resultant magnetization, whereas in anti-
ferromagnetic materials the magnetisation vanishes. When the order of the magnetic
moments is as shown in fig (iv), the phenomena is known as ferrimagnetisms.
Examples of diamagnetic materials are Diamonds, Graphite and copper etc.
Examples of paramagnetic materials are Aluminium , Ebonite & platinum etc.
Examples of Ferromagnetic materials are Iron, cobalt and Nickel etc.
Q.80 Explain the hysteresis loop of a magnetic material. (4)
60
Ans:
Hysterisis Loop Of Magnetic Materials
A magnetic material is composed of magnetic dipoles oriented in random direction is zero.

When a magnetic material is magnetized by applying a magnetizing force (= MI), the
magnetic dipoles start orienting themselves in the direction of applied magnetic force. As the
magnetizing force is increased by increasing the MI, more and more of the magnetic dipoles
get oriented. A stage comes when almost all the magnetic dipoles gets oriented and as such
any increase in magnetizing force does not result in any further increase in the dipoles getting
oriented. The magnetic field is thus established in the forward direction.
This stage of magnetization is called magnetic saturation as shown in fig(i).
When the magnetizing force is gradually reduced it is found that the magnetic dipoles again
get de-oriented , the rate of de-orientation now being little less than the rate of orientation at a
particular magnetizing forces. Thus the demagnetizing curve does not retrace back the
magnetization curve as shown in fig (ii)
In fig (ii), OA is the magnetization curve and AB is the demagnetization curve. It may be seen
that even when the magnetization force is reduced to zero, a small magnetization is left in the
magnetic material. In the fig. OB represents the residual magnetization. If now the
magnetizing force is applied in the negative direction, a small amount of magnetizing force
OC will be spent in totally de magnetizing the material. Further increase in magnetizing force
will orient the magnetic dipoles in the opposite direction thus establishing a magnetic field in
the reverse direction.
Q.81 What is meant by doping? Explain the two types of materials that are formed after doping.
(8)
Ans:
Doping: Semiconductors in its extremely pure form are called intrinsic semiconductor These
intrinsic semiconductor to which some suitable impurity is added in extremely small amount
are called extrinsic semiconductor. This process is called doping and impurities are called
doping agent. Usually the doping agents are pentavalent atom such as arsenic, antimony or
trivalent atom such as gallium, indium, aluminium etc.
61
Depending upon the impurity added, extrinsic semiconductors can be further subdivided into
two classes :
N-type semiconductor.
P- Type semiconductor.
If to pure germanium, a small amount of pentavalent impurity i.e. antimony is added.Four

of the five valence electrons will occupy covalent bonds, and the fifth will be nominally
unbound and will be available as a carrier of current. These are called N-type semiconductor.
In this type of semiconductor electron are the majority carriers.
If a trivalent impurity such as boron, Gallilium etc. is added to an intrinsic semiconductor,
only three of the covalent bonds can be filled, and the vacancy that exists in the fourth bond
constitutes a hole. These are called P type semiconductor in which holes are the majority
carriers.
Q.82 Draw B.H. curve for magnetic materials used in electric machines and explain
(i) Hysteresis loop. (ii) Permeability. (7)
Ans:
B.H Curve for Magnetic Materials
A magnetic material is composed of magnetic dipoles oriented in random direction is zero.
When a magnetic material is magnetized by applying a magnetizing force (= MI), the
magnetic dipoles start orienting themselves in the direction of applied magnetic force. As the
magnetizing force is increased by increasing the MI, more and more of the magnetic dipoles
get oriented. A stage comes when almost all the magnetic dipoles gets oriented and as such
any increase in magnetizing force does not result in any further increase in the dipoles
getting oriented. The magnetic field is thus established in the forward direction.
This stage of magnetization is called magnetic saturation as shown in fig(i).
62
When the magnetizing force is gradually reduced it is found that the magnetic dipoles again
get de-oriented, the rate of de-orientation now being little less than the rate of orientation at a
particular magnetizing forces. Thus the demagnetizing curve does not retrace back the
magnetization curve as shown in fig (ii)
i. Hysterisis Loop
In fig (ii), OA is the magnetization curve and AB is the demagnetization curve. It may be
seen that even when the magnetization force is reduced to zero, a small magnetization is left
in the magnetic material. In the fig. OB represents the residual magnetization. If now the
magnetizing force is applied in the negative direction, a small amount of magnetizing force
OC will be spent in totally de magnetizing the material. Further increase in magnetizing force
will orient the magnetic dipoles in the opposite direction thus establishing a magnetic field in
the reverse direction.
(ii) Permeability:- In the above figure (hysterisis loop) we may define a number of
permeabilties. The initial permeability is defined as the slope of the normal magnetization
curves, at H=0. The incremental permeability is defined as ∆B/∆H about a given point on
the hysterisis loop. Sometimes the differential permeability is used , it is defined as dB/dH,
the slope of the magnetization curves at the point of intersect.
Q.83 What are the important requirements of a good insulating material? (6)
Ans:
Important requirements of good insulating materials:-
The requirement of good insulating materials can be classified as electrical, mechanical,
thermal and chemical. Electrically the insulating materials should have high resistivity to
reduce the leakage current and high dielectric strength to enable it to with stand higher
voltage with out being punctured or broken down. Also the insulator should have small
dielectric loss. Insulators should have low density, a uniform viscosity for liquid insulators
ensures uniform thermal and electrical properties .Liquid and gaseous insulators are used also
as coolants. For example, transformer oil, hydrogen and helium are used for both insulation
and cooling purposes. For such materials, good thermal conductivity is desirable. The
insulators should also have small thermal expansion to prevent mechanical damage. It should
be non ignitable or if ignitable, it should be self-extinguishable.
Chemically, the insulators should be resistance to oils, liquids, gas fumes, acids and alkalies.
It should not deteriorate by the action of chemicals in soils or by contact with other metals.
The insulators should not absorb water particles, since water lowers the insulation resistance
and the dielectric strength. Insulating materials should have certain mechanical properties
depending on the use to which they are put. Thus when used for electric machine insulation
the insulator should have sufficient mechanical strength to withstand vibration. Good heat
conducting property is also desirable in such cases Example of insulating materials are mica
& porcelain. Mica sheets are used for the insulating leaves between commutator segments.
Porcelain insulators are used for transmission line insulators, conductor, rail support on
railways etc.
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Q.84 Discuss classification of conducting materials into low resistivity and high resistivity
materials, give their properties and applications with examples. (16)
Ans:
Conducting materials are classified as low resistivity materials and high resistivity
materials.
1. Low resistivity materials: The conducting materials having resistivity between 10-8 to
10-6 ohm-m come under this category and are used in transmission and distribution lines,
transformers and motor windings. Examples are:- Copper, Aluminium, Gold etc
Properties:-
Low temperature coefficient: For minimum variations in voltage drop and power loss
with the change in temperature, these materials should have low temperature cofficient.
Sufficient mechanical strength: These materials must withstand the mechanical stresses
Ductility: The material to be used, as conductors must be ductile so that it can be drawn
Solderability: The conducting materials are required to be joined and the joint must have
minimum contact resistance. These materials must have good solder ability.
Resistance to corrosion: The material must have a high resistance to corrosion so that it
should not be corroded when used in different environmental conditions.
2. High resistivity materials: The conducting materials having resistivity between 10-6 to
10-3 ohm-m come under this category and are used for making resistance elements for
heating devices, precision instruments, rheostats etc.. Examples are:- Constantian, Nichrome,
Mangnesium etc.
Properties:
Low temperature coefficient: For minimum variations in voltage drop and power loss
with the change in temperature, these materials should have low temperature cofficient.
High mechanical strength: These materials must withstand the mechanical stresses
Ductility: The material to be used, as conductors must be ductile so that it can be drawn
High melting point: These materials which are used as heating elements should have
high melting point.
• Oxidation resistance: The material should have a oxidation resistanceso that it should
get oxidized when used in different environmental conditions.
Q.85 Explain temperature dependence of electrical resistivity and conductivity in conductors and
semiconductors. (10)
Ans:
Temperature dependence of electrical resistivity and conductivity in conductors:
As the temperature is increased, there is a greater thermal motion in the atoms, which
decreases the regularity in the atoms spacing with a consequent decrease in the mobility of
64
the electrons. The resistivity of most of the conductors therefore increases with an increase
in the temperature. Since the number and the energy of the electrons at top of the Fermi
distribution curve vary insignificantly with temperature, the change in temperature must be
associated with a change in the mean free path. In a perfectly regular lattice, each electron
will exist in a particular energy state and will have a fixed velocity. Practically metals do not
have a perfect lattice because of impurities and because of deviations of the atoms about their
mean positions due to lattice oscillations. Since the lattice oscillations decreases at low
temperature the scattering of electron waves falls and the conductivity therefore increases
rapidly as the temperature reaches absolute zero. There is a limiting value beyond which the
conductivity will not increase. In general, purer the specimen higher is the conductivity. the
conductivity of many conductors decreases linearly as the temperature is increased above the
room temperature but below this temperature the conductivity increases markedly.
Temperature dependence of electrical resistivity and conductivity in semiconductors:

The electrical conductivity of the semiconductors changes appreciably with temperature
variations. At absolute zero, it behaves as an insulator. At room temperature, because of
thermal energy, some of the covalent bonds of the semiconductor break. The breaking of
bonds sets those electrons free, which are engaged in the formation of these bonds. This
results in few free electrons. These electrons constitute a small current if potential is applied
across the semiconductor crystal. This shows the conductivity for intrinsic semiconductor
increases with increase in temperature as given by η=A exp(-Eg/2kT) where η is the carrier
concentration, Eg is the energy band gap and T is the temperature and A is constant. In case
of extrinsic semiconductors, addition of small amount of impurities produces a large number
of charge carriers. This number is so large that he conductivity of an extrinsic semiconductor
is many times more than that of an intrinsic semiconductor at the room temperature. In n-type
semiconductor all the donors have donated their free electrons at room temperature. The
additional thermal energy only serves to increase the thermally generated carriers. This
increases the minority carrier concentration. A temperature is reached when the number of
covalent bonds that are broken is so large that the number of holes is approximately equal to
the number of electrons. The extrinsic semiconductor then behaves as intrinsic
semiconductor.
Q.86 What are ferrities? Give their properties and applications. (6)
Ans:
Ferrities
A group of magnetic alloys exhibit the property of magnetization, which changes, with the
percentage of different constituent atoms in the alloy. Example: XOFe2O3 with X=Mn, Co,
Ni, Mg, Zn, Cd or Fe++. The alloys are called ferrites. Manganese ferrite is a mixture of
manganese oxide and iron oxide. Ferrites are widely used in computers and in microwave
equipments. Ferrites are advantageous at high frequencies because of low eddy current
losses. The ferrites crystallise in what is known as the spinel lattice. The resistivity of ferrites
is much higher than that of the ferromagnetic metals. Ferrites are hard and brittle materials,
which cannot be shaped by ordinary machining processes. Ferrites are also used in transducer
applications; recording tapes ,compact aerials for radio sets, focusing magnets of TV picture
tubes.
Q.87 Explain Polarization. (5)
65
Ans:
Polarization: A dielectric consists of molecules the atomic nuclei of which are effectively
fixed, relative to each other. In the absence of any external field the electrons are distributed
symmetrically round the nucleus at any instant. When an electric field is applied the electrons
of the atoms are acted upon by this field. This causes a movement of the electrons which are
displaced in a direction opposite to that of the electrons which are displaced in a direction
opposite to that of the field. This movement is opposed by the attractive forces between
nuclei and electrons. The resultant effect is to separate the positive & negative charges in
each molecule so that they behave like electric dipoles. The strength of each dipole is given
by the dipole moment, which in its simplest form, consists of two equal point charges of
opposite sign ± Q separated, by a distance d.
When the dipoles are created the dielectric is said to be polarized or in a state of polarization
considers the dielectric to be composed of a large number of elementary cylinders each of
length l in the direction of the applied field and of cross section δA . Let a uniform field of
strength E be applied normal to the plates. This polarizes the dielectric inducing dipoles in
each elementary cylinder, and charges δq appears on either end of the cylinder. The charge
δq  c  δq m
density, σ on the surface δA of the cylinder is given by σ =  =l =
δA  m 2  δA δV
Where m is the dipole moment and δV is the volume of the elementary cylinder. If the
I
number of dipoles per unit volume be N i.e. if N = then σ =Nm. The product Nm is
δV
called the polarization (P) of the dielectric and is the total dipole moment established within
unit volumes of the insulating medium. Thus a dielectric subject to a homogeneous field
carries a dipole moment P per unit volumes which may be written as P=Nm.
(ii) Thermocouples: Are used for the measurement of temperature. When two wires of
different metals are joined together an emf exists across the junction which is dependent
upon the types of metals or alloys used and also directly proportional to the temperature of
the junction. Depending on the range of temperature to be measured, proper materials are to
be chosen for a thermocouple. If one junction called the cold junction is held at a known
constant temperature, the e.m.f. produced becomes measure of the temperature of the other
junction. The emf produced by the thermocouple is very small but it can be measured with
reasonable accuracy by a sensitive moving coil mili voltmeter, which can be calibrated in
terms of temperature. Some of the materials used for thermocouples are copper/constantan,
iron/constantan etc.
Q.88 Write notes on any TWO:-

(i) Iron and silicon iron alloys.
(ii) Electrical contact materials.
(iii) Polymers and their applications. (8+8)
Ans:
(i) Iron: Galvanised steel and iron wires which are generally used for earth conductor in low
voltage distribtion systems may also be used for the phase conductor in rural areas.
Cast iron is used in the manufacturing of ‘resistance grids’ to be used in the starting of large
dc motors.
66
Silicon iron alloy: Pure iron has low resistivity, which results in higher eddy current losses.
These losses can be minimized by increasing the resistivity of the material, which is achieved
by adding 1-4% of silicon to iron. Silicon increases the electrical resistivity of iron. It reduces
hysterisis loss. The magnetostriction effect is also reduced. Silicon iron alloy is used in the
form of thin sheets called laminations. These laminations are used in transformers, small
machines and large turbo generators.
(ii) Electrical contact materials: Several elements, in their relatively pure forms such as
copper, molybdenum, nickel, palladium, platinum, silver and tungsten are acceptable make
and break contact materials. Alloys and heterogeneous mixtures which are, in general,
combinations of the elements mentioned above are also used for electrical contacts. Silver is
an important contact material. Copper added to silver reduces the cost of the contact material,
whereas a combination of tungsten and silver results in a contact material having the
advantages of the individual metals. A silver tungsten contact material will have high thermal
and electrical conductivity, low contact resistance and high resistance to oxidation due to the
presence of silver and a high melting point and a high resistance to electrical erosion due to
the presence of tungsten.
(iii) Polymers and their applications

Polymeric materials or plastics comprise a large group of organic or organo metallic high
molecules compound.
The common properties of these materials are their ability to soften and even melt, ability to
pass into a liquid state, insolubility in water and solubility in one or more organic solvents.
The mechanical properties of these materials vary widely, some can be spun into fibers like
nylon and terrylene , other can be moulded and are hard and glass like in mechanical
properties. Other group shows rubber like properties.
Plastic are synthetic resins obtained basically in two different ways, by linear polymerization
and by polycondensation. The polymers obtained by linear polymerization are known as
thermoplastics since they can be repeatedly melted or dissolved in various solvents. The
properties of the thermoplastics do not change considerably if they are melted and then
cooled and solidified. Example of thermoplastics is polystyrene.
Second types of polymers are thermosetting and are used as binding agents and varnish base.
Thermosetting plastic melt on heating but are converted into a rigid solid mass if maintained
at an elevated temperature. Examples of these polymer is phenol formaldehyde. Synthetic
resins are widely used in electrical industry as insulating and structural components. Some of
the important synthetic resins commonly used in electrical engineering are polystyrenes,
P.V.C.(polyvinyl chloride.) etc
Q.89 Discuss applications of dielectrics. (10)
Ans:
Application of dielectrics:
For different applications different properties of dielectric materials are required such as:
electrical, mechanical, thermal and chemical. Electrically the insulating material should have
high resistivity to reduce the leakage current and high dielectric strength to enable it to
withstand higher voltage without being punctured. Further, the insulator should have small
dielectric loss. Since the insulators are used on the basis of volume and not weight, a low
density is preferred.
67
Liqiid and gaseous insulators are used also as coolants. For example: transformer oil,
hydrogen and helium are used both for insulation and cooling purpose. For such materials
good thermal conductivity is a desirable property.
Materials with large electronic and ionic Polariability and therefore large permittivity are
used for making dielectric capacitors. Titanium oxide which has a permittivity of about 100
is a good example of such a material.
Some of the important dielectric materials and their applications are :
Mica: Mica sheets are used for insulating leaves between commutator segments.
Porcelain: It is used for h.v. transmission line insulators, conductor rail support on
railways and high voltage switch parts.
Bakelite: It is used for small moulded parts such as lamp holder, terminal blocks,
switch covers etc.
PVC: Cables with PVC insulation are not affected by oil and petrol and are therefore
widely used in aircraft and factories.
Cotton and silk: Cotton covered wire is widely used for the winding of small magnet
coils, armature winding of small and medium sized machines, small transformer coil
choke etc. silk is more expensive than cotton but takes up less space and is therefore
used for winding in fractional horsepower machines.
Q.90 Explain the effect of magnetic field on superconductivity. (6)
Ans:
Effect of magnetic field on superconductivity:
It is possible to destroy superconductivity by the application of a strong magnetic field. When
the magnetic field exceeds a certain critical value, the superconducting state disappears, the
magnetic field penetrates the material and the electrical resistance is restored. The transition
from the superconducting to the conducting state is reversible. The critical magnetic field Hc
is a function of temperature T.
The disappearance of superconductivity by means of a strong magnetic field is the principle
on which switching elements like the cryotrons operate. Superconductors are used for
producing a magnetic field of about 50 tesla.
Q.91 Write short notes on any FOUR:-

(i) Dielectric constant.
(ii) Hall Effect.
(iii) Carbon and graphite.
(iv) Ferroelectric materials.
(v) Einstein relation (between diffusion constant and mobility)
(vi) MOSFET. (4 × 4)
Ans:
(i) Dielectric Constant

Every insulation material has the capacity to store charge when placed in between two
conducting plates as in capacitors. Relative permittivity or dielectric constant, it is the ratio of
the capacitance of a capacitor with a specified dielectric material placed between the plates,
to the capacitance of the same capacitor with free space i.e. air between the plates.
(ii) Hall effect:
68
Consider a slab of material in which there is a current density J resulting from an applied
electric field Ex in the x- direction. The electrons will drift with an average velocity Vx in
the x direction, when a magnetic field of flux density Bz (wb/m2) is superposed on the
applied electric field in the Z direction the electrons will experience a Lorentz force
perpendicular to Vx and to Bz ; the magnitude of this force will be given by Bz ( µ x)e.
Thus the electrons are driven towards one face in the sample resulting in an excess of
electrons near one face and a deficiency of electrons near the other face. These charges
will in turn create a counteracting electric field Ey in the y-direction. Ey would build up,
until it is of sufficient magnitude to compensate the lorentz force exerted on the electrons
due to the magnetic field we may therefore write e Ey =Bz e( Vx )
In the steady state , a Hall voltage, VH,is thereby established in the y-direction given by
VH,= Ey.a = Bz ( Vx ),a.
The current density in the sample is given by
J x = N .e(Vx )
Where N=no. of conduction electrons/m³
The current density can be calculated from the total current and the cross section (axb) of
the sample.
Thus,
I
Jx = = Ne(Vx )
axb
I = Ne(Vx )axb -------------------------------(i)

VH = BZ ( Vx ).a ------------------------------(ii)
Eliminating ( Vx ). from equating (i) and (ii) we have.
I
VH =
N .e.b
1 Bz.I
=( . )
Ne b
1 Ey
The ratio ± = must be constant.
Ne ( Jx.Bz )
It is called the hall coefficient and is denoted by RH.
Another variable which is often used to describe the Hall effect is the rato of the currents
JY to JX.
69
This is called the Hall angle and is denoted by θ
θ = JY / JX = σ EY / JX
= σ RH BZ
= µ H BX
Where µ H is called the Hall mobility. The hall angle is equal to the average number
of radians traversed by a particle between collisions
Application of Hall Effect:
1. It is used for determining whether a semi-conductor is n-type or p-type.
2. It is used in determining the carrier concentration.
3. In calculating the mobility.
4. It is used in flux meters, which measure magnetic fields.
iii. Carbon and graphite: The rate of commutator wear in electrical machines is greatly
reduced by using brushes made of carbon. Carbon is also used in automatic voltage
regulators for making the pressure sensitive pile resistors. Other uses of carbon are for
making arc welding electrodes, fixed and variable resistors for light currents and contacts of
certain classes of dc switch gear which are subjected to arcing. The resistance temperature
coefficient of carbon is negative.
iv. Einstein relation:

There exists an important relation between the diffusion constant and the mobility. This is
known as the Einstein relation and may be deduced as follows:
Consider a semiconductor in which there exists an electric field Ex and a concentration
gradient such that the current is zero. Under these conditions the system is in thermal
equilibrium and the Boltzmann statistics applies. Consider a potential V(x) producing at x an
electric field E(x)= -dV/dx.
The Boltzmann expression for the density of holes as a function of x in thermal
equilibrium is
p(x)= Ce-eV/KT
Where C is a constant.
The gradient gradient of the hole density is therefore given by
dp/dx = (-e/KT)p.(dv/dx)
= (e/KT)p.E
The hole current vanishes in thermal equilibrium.
Therefore,
O=peup Ex-eDp dp/dx
=peup Ex-(e2 /KT)Dp . Ex
Dp = (KT/e) Up (The Einstein relation)
Q.92 Give three important, electrical properties of copper as a conducting material. Why copper is
preferred over aluminium for transformer windings or generator windings?
(4+5)
Ans:
Electrical properties of copper as a conducting material:
i. The conductivity of copper is decreased when it is hard drawn into wires for use in
machines. Annealing is therefore necessary before the material can be used in machine.
ii. Copper has the second highest electrical conductivity. The conductivity of copper is only
few percent less than that of silver.
70
iii. Copper can be soldered easily.
Copper is preferred over aluminium for transformer windings or generator windings , because
it is easily workable without any likelihood of fracture. Further, it can be soldered easily thus
simplifying the jointing operation.
Q.93 What is superconductivity? Give a few applications of superconductors. (3+4)
Ans:
Super Conductivity
A large number of metals become superconducting below a temperature, which is
characteristic of the particular metal. The metals which are very good conductors at room
temperature e.g. Cu, Ag, and Au do not exhibit superconducting properties, whereas metals
and compounds which superconducting are rather bad conductors at ordinary temperatures.
Monovalent metal and ferromagnetic and anti ferromagnetic metals are not superconducting.
The transition temperature of superconductor varies with the isotopic mass, showing that
super conductivity may be the result of interactions between electrons and lattice vibrations
.The resistivity of a superconductor is zero. At the same time it has been observed that the
magnetic flux density B though such a substance also vanishes. It is possible to destroy
superconductivity by the application of a strong magnetic field when the magnetic field
exceeds a certain critical value, the superconducting state disappears, the magnetic field
penetrates the material and electrical resistance is restored.
Application of superconductors in Electrical and Electronic Engineering

(i) The most important application of superconductor is the exploitation of zero
electrical resistance. By making current carrying conductors superconducting
losses due to the resistance of wire which carry electrical power over a long
distance through transmission lines, would be eliminated.
(ii) In production of very powerful magnets
(iii) With the invent of high temperature superconducting materials, superconducting
magnets find application in many areas like magnetic resonance Imaging (medical
diagnose and spectroscopy) ore refining, magnetic shielding and in magnetic
levitation high speed trains
(iv) In electronic engineering there are two areas in which superconducting properties
can be advantageously used viz in chip interconnections and in electronics gates.
Q.94 Explain the properties and applications of

(i) Cotton (ii) glass
(iii) Asbestos (iv) PVC. (4 × 4)
Ans:
i. Cotton: Cotton is hygroscopic and has low electric strength so that it must be
impregnated with varnish or wax after winding. Cotton covered wire is widely used for
winding of small magnet coils, armature winding of small and medium sized machine,
small transformer coils, chokes etc.
ii. Glass: Ordinary glass is a good insulator but is too brittle to be used for anything but
scientific instrument parts, accumulator container and for certain other special purposes.
71
Increasing use is being made of toughened glass for insulation in extra H.V lines (above
100k.V)
iii. Asbestos: Asbestos insulation can be used in very high temperature surroundings . It is
also used as a covering for conductors in highly rated machines.
iv. Polyvinylchloride (PVC) : PVC is replacing rubber to a great extent in many
applications. PVC insulated (non-sheathed) or PVC insulated and sheathed cables for
general purpose wiring is now well established and the choice between VIR and PVC is
very often largely a matter of relative price or personal preference on the part of the user.
An attractive feature of PVC is that it can be produced in clear and permanent color
simplifying identifications where large number of single core cable has to be used.
Cables with PVC insulation are not affected by oil and petrol and used in aircraft and
factories.
Q.95 Define polarization of a dielectric material. Explain the different types of polarization and
the effect of frequency of applied electric field on them. (2+8+6)
Ans:
Polarization of a dielectric material:
A dielectric consists of molecules the atomic nuclei of which are effectively fixed, relative to
each other. In the absence of any external field the electrons are distributed symmetrically
round the nucleus at any instant. When an electric field is applied the electrons of the atoms
are acted upon by this field. This causes a movement of the electrons which are displaced in a
direction opposite to that of the electrons which are displaced in a direction opposite to that
of the field. This movement is opposed by the attractive forces between nuclei and electrons.
The resultant effect is to separate the positive & negative charges in each molecule so that
they behave like electric dipoles. The strength of each dipole is given by the dipole moment,
which in its simplest form, consists of two equal point charges of opposite sign
± Q separated, by a distance d.
When the dipoles are created the dielectric is said to be polarized or in a state of polarization.
Consider the dielectric to be composed of a large number of elementary cylinders each of
length l in the direction of the applied field and of cross section δA . Let a uniform field of
strength E be applied normal to the plates. This polarises the dielectric inducing dipoles in
each elementary cylinder, and charges δq appears on either end of the cylinder. The charge
δq  c  δq m
density, σ on the the surface δA of the cylinder is given by σ =  =l =
δA  m 2  δA δV
Where m is the dipole moment and δV is the volume of the elementary cylinder. If the
I
number of dipoles per unit volume be N i.e. if N = then σ =Nm. The product Nm is
δV
called the polarization (P) of the dielectric and is the total dipole moment established within
unit volumes of the insulating medium. Thus a dielectric subject to a homogeneous field
carries a dipole moment P per unit volumes which may be written as P=Nm.
Polarization are of three types.

i. Electric polarization
ii. Ionic polarization.
iii. Dipolar polarization.
72
Electric polarization or polarization density is the vector field that expresses the density of
permanent or induced electric dipole moments in a dielectric material. The SI unit of measure
is coulombs per square metre.
The electric polarization P is defined as the difference between the electric fields D (induced)
and E (imposed) in a dielectric due to bound and free charges, respectively. In cgs,
D−E
p= which can be written in terms of the electric susceptibility( χ e ) as P = χ e E
4π
In MKS, P =∈0 χ e E where ∈0 is the permittivity of free space.
Ionic polarization is polarization which is caused by relative displacements between positive

and negative ions in ionic crystals (for example, NaCl).
If crystals or molecules do not consist of only atoms of the same kind, the distribution of
charges around an atom in the crystals or molecules leans to positive or negative. As a result,
when lattice vibrations or molecular vibrations induce relative displacements of the atoms,
the centers of positive and negative charges might be in different locations. These center
positions are affected by the symmetry of the displacements. When the centers don't
correspond, polarizations arise in molecules or crystals. This polarization is called ionic
polarization.
Ionic polarization causes ferroelectric transition as well as dipolar polarization. The transition
which is caused by the order of the directional orientations of permanent dipoles along a
particular direction is called order-disorder phase transition. The transition which is
caused by ionic polarizations in crystals is called displacive phase transition
Dipolar polarization is a polarization that is particular to polar molecules. This polarization

results from permanent dipoles, which retain polarization in the absence of an external
electric field. The assembly of these dipoles forms a macroscopic polarization.
Effect of frequency of applied electric field:
When an external electric field is applied, the distance between charges, which is related to
chemical bonding, remains constant in the polarization; however, the polarization itself
rotates. Because this rotation completes not instantaneously but in the delay time τ, which
depends on the torque and the surrounding local viscosity of the molecules, dipolar
polarizations lose the response to electric fields at the lowest frequency in polarizations. The
delay of the response to the change of the electric field causes friction and heat
Q.96 Explain the energy bands in solids. Also classify the materials based on the energy bands
and explain them. (8)
Ans:
There are as many energy bands in a solid as there are energy levels in the parent atoms.
Most electrical properties of importance to engineers and scientists are related to the upper
band of energy levels and to be specific the upper two called the conduction band and the
valance band. The valence band contains energies of the same level as those of valence
73
electrons. Electrons in this band are in effect attached to individual atoms and therefore not
free to move about.
The conduction band energies are high enough so that electrons attaining these levels of
energy are loosely attached to individual atoms or practically free such that they could easily
move under the influence of an electric field. Electrons in the valence band can leave their
band to join the conduction band if given sufficient energy to jump the forbidden energy
band (energy gap , Eg ) . The size of Eg is a prime factor in determining whether a solid is a
conductor, an insulator, or a semiconductor.
Classification of materials based on energy bands
With reference to different band structures shown in fig. below we can broadly divide solid
into conductors, semiconductors, and insulators. Conductors contain a large number of
electrons in the conduction band at room temperature. No energy gaps exist and the valence
and conduction bands overlap.
Insulator is a material in which the energy gap is so large that practically no electron can be
given enough energy to jump this gap.
These materials might conduct little electricity if their temperature are raised to very high
values enabling a number of electrons to join the conduction band. A semiconductor is a
solid with a energy gap small enough for electron to cross easily from the valence band to the
conduction band. At room temperature sufficient energy is available for a valence electrons
to bridge the energy gap to the conduction band, thus the material sustains some electric
current.
The energy distribution of electrons in a solid are governed by the laws of Fermi – Dirac
statistics.
The Fermi level is such that at any temperature, the number of electrons with greater energy
than the Fermi energy is equal to the number of unoccupied energy levels lower than this. In
conductors, the Fermi level is situated in a permitted band (since the valence band and
conduction band overlap with no energy gap.). In insulators, it lies in the centre of the large
energy gap while in semiconductors it lies in the relatively small energy gap.
Q.97 Explain the different types of semiconductors and the conduction process in them. (8)
Ans:
Semiconductors are of two types:
i. Intrinsic semiconductors:
In a semiconductor the energy gap is so small that even at ordinary room temperature, there
are many electrons which posses sufficient energy to jump across the small energy gap from
the valence to the conduction band. However , when each electron gets liberated into
74
conduction band , a positively charge hole is created in the valence band, when an electric
field is applied to intrinsic semiconductor at a temperature greater than 00K, conduction
electrons move to the anode and the holes in the valence band move to the cathode. Hence
semiconductor current consists of movement of electrons and holes in opposite direction.
ii. Extrinsic semiconductor :
Those intrinsic semiconductors to which some suitable impurity or doping agent is added in
extremely small amount are called extrinsic semiconductors. Usually the doping agents are
pentavalent. Antimony, arsenic atoms or trivalent atom (gallium, aluminium, boron).
Pentavalent doping atom is known as donor atom because it donates or contributes one
electron to the conduction band of pure germanium. Trivalent doping atom known as
accepter atom because it accepts one electron from the germanium atom.
Depending upon the impurity added, extrinsic semiconductors can be further subdivided into
two classes :
(i) N-type semiconductor.
(ii) P- Type semiconductor.
If to pure germanium, a small amount of pentavalent impurity i.e. antimony is added. Four
of the five valence electrons will occupy covalent bonds, and the fifth will be nominally
unbound and will be available as a carrier of current. These are called N-type semiconductor.
In this type of semiconductor electron are the majority carriers.
If a trivalent impurity such as boron, gallilium etc. is added to an intrinsic semiconductor,
only three of the covalent bonds can be filled, and the vacancy that exists in the fourth bond
constitutes a hole. These are called P type semiconductor in which holes are the majority
carriers.
Q.98 Write notes on Thermocouple. (4)
Ans:
Thermocouple was discovered by Seebeck in 1822. When he demonstrated hat a loop
composed of 2 dissimilar metals could be made to carry a continuous current simply by
maintaining the two junctions at different temperatures. The magnitude of the current
depends on the resistance the metals happen to have; what is characteristic of the
thermocouple is its electromotive force. When the two metals are placed in contact then a
contact potential equal to the difference in the work function of the two metals is established
at the junction. The work function is defined as the difference between the escape level and
the Fermi level. The Fermi level is subjected to a small temperature change and this is of the
−5 −4 o
order of 10 − 10 eV / K . This causes a difference in the contact potentials at the two
junctions due to the different temperatures at the two ends and the result is an e.m.f. which is
free to drive the current. The magnitude of e.m.f. is of the order of a few microvolts per
degree temperature difference between the two junctions.
Q.99 Explain the magnetisation- curves of magnetic materials. (8)
Ans:
The main characteristic of a ferromagnetic substance is its domain structure. Every crystal of
a ferromagnetic substance has a perpendicular crystallographic direction along which it is
most easily magnetized. Higher fields are required to magnetize single crystals along some
other directions. With small external fields the domain wall movements are reversible,
corresponding to the known reversibility of the initial portion of the magnetization curve. In
75
somewhat higher fields, these boundary movements continue but are often larger and
irreversible. The irreversible movements occur mostly in the steep part of the magnetization
curve and finally result in all favourably oriented domains reaching their maximum size. At
this stage each domain is still magnetized in what is locally the easiest direction. Application
of still higher fields twists the magnetization into the field direction (domain rotation) and
away from the easy directions, thus storing up energy.
Domain wall Movement

(Irreversible)

M (Irreversible)

W (Reversible)
Magnetization Curve
Q.100 Explain the significance of the loss tangent of a dielectric material. (8)
Ans:
The loss tangent has a very small value for free space. For solid materials tan δ = 0.003,
which is equivalent to a Q (quality factor) of 3000. A fairly good value of Q for a coil is
around 300. That is why more importance to losses in a coil is given. The variation of tan δ
with frequency will show normal resonance behaviour. This is shown in the fig. below. The
curve of tan δ has the largest value in the region of frequencies where there is a sharp change
in the dielectric constant. In case of ionic resonance this change in the dielectric constant
occurs from microwave to infrared regions of frequencies. The dielectric losses associated
with ionic vibrations are usually referred to as infrared absorption. Similarly the losses in the
optical region associated with electronic vibrations are referred to as optical absorption.
Hence it is possible to predict whether the dielectric properties are due to ionic or electronic
polarisation.
tan δ
tan δ
76
Q.101 Give the properties and application of permanent magnetic materials. (4)
Ans:
Permanent magnetic materials:
Properties:
i. These materials have a large area of hysterisis loop.
ii. They have large retentivity and coercivity.
iii.High saturation values.
iv. High residual magnetism
v. These materials are hard to be magnetized.
Applications: These materials are used to make permanent which finds application in relays,
electric machines, measuring instruments, microwave devices, loudspeakers.
Q.102 Explain junction transistors (npn and pnp) (8)
Ans:
Junction Transistor:
The junction transistor consists of two p-n junctions combined in one crystal as shown in fig.
below.
There are two main forms of junction transistors depending upon whether the middle section
is on an n material or a p material. The middle sector is called the base and the outer regions
are called the emitter and the collector respectively.
The transistor is a 3-terminal device and its properties may be specified in terms of
characteristic curves connecting the three currents and the three voltages shown in fig. below.
In a transistor there is zero resultant current of electrons and holes across each junction. If the
collector is joined directly to the base and a small positive voltage is applied between emitter
and base then a current flows just as in a p-n junction diode in the forward direction.
Similarly if the emitter is joined to the base and a negative voltage is applied between
77
collector and base, a current flows in the reverse direction, showing a saturation of collector
current.
If these voltages with the same polarity are applied simultaneously as shown in fig. below.
The potential barrier between base and emitter is reduced and the flow of holes across the
barrier greatly increased. There is an increased flow of electrons from base to emitter but
since the hole density in the p- region is much greater than the electron density in the n-
region, the current may be considered to be mainly due to the holes. The holes enter the n-
region and diffuse through it, and combine with the electrons in that region since the base
region is made sufficiently thin, a large number of holes reach the collector and base junction
and very few arrive at the base terminal. At the collector base junction, holes fall easily in to
the collector region on account of the field at the junction. Thus the collector current is very
nearly equal to the emitter current and the base current is nearly zero. VCB has little effect on
the current as long as its magnitude is above some minimum value and the base is
sufficiently thin. A small change in VEB causes a change in IC resulting in an almost equal
change in IC.
Q.103 Explain the terms: mobility, diffusion. (8)
Ans:
Mobility: Average drift velocity of the electrons in an applied field is proportional to the
field, the absolute magnitude of the proportionality factor eq/m, called the mobility of the
electrons, which is denoted by µ . The mobility may thus be defined as the magnitude of the
average drift velocity per unit field.
The mobility of the electrons can be determined by knowing the conductivity of the material
and estimating the number of free electrons. Unit of mobility is m²/volt.sec
Diffusion: Although the mobility of the carriers in a semiconductor is greater than that of the
electrons in a metal, the conductivity in the former is much less than that in the latter because
of the too few current carriers. The conductivity is so less that the random movement of the
carriers due to unequal carrier densities plays a greater part in conduction than the drift due to
the applied fields. Diffusion arises essentially from density difference and the resulting
current are called diffusion currents .
The defining equation for diffusion currents in one direction are
∂n
J n = eDn for electrons
∂x
∂P
J P = −eDP for holes
∂x
Where J n = diffusion current density of electrons
78
J P = diffusion current density of holes
Dn =diffusion constant of electron
DP = diffusion constant of holes
∂n
n = gradient of electron density
∂x
∂P
=gradient of hole density.
∂x
Therefore, the diffusion current due to the random motion of carriers from the dense to the
less dense regions is proportional to the gradient or rate of increase of carrier density with
distance.
The coefficient of proportionality is called the diffusion constant and is denoted by D.
79
PART III
NUMERICALS
Q.1 An electric heater element is made of Nichrome wire having resistivity equal to
100 × 10 −8 ohm-metre. The diameter of the wire is 0.3 mm. Calculate the length of the wire
required to get a resistance of 30 ohms. (4)
Ans:
When the heater element is Nichrome ρ = 100x 10-8 Ω-m.
π
a= (0.3 ×10−3 ) 2 m2
4
a = 7.069 x 10-8 m2
R =30 Ω
l 100 × 10−8 × l
R = ρ or 30 =
a 7.069 × 10−8
Į = 2.12 m.
Q.2 A heater element is made of nichrome wire having resistivity equal to 100 × 10 −8 ohm-m.
The diameter of the wire is 0.4mm. Calculate the length of the wire required to get a
resistance of 40 Ω . (6)
Ans:
When the heater element is Nichrome ρ = 100x 10-8 Ω-m.
a = π (0.4 x10-3)2 m2
4
a = 12.6 x 10-3 m2
R = 40Ω
R=ρ l = 40 = 100 x 10-8 x l
a 12.6 x 10-3
l = 5 m.
Q.3 The resistance of a wire is 60 Ω at 25o C and 65Ω at 75o C . Find the resistance of wire at
0o C and value of temperature co-efficient at 0o C . (6)
Ans:
Given R25 = 60 Ω and R75 = 65 Ω
Rt = RO (1 + α t)
Rt = RO (1 + αO t)
R25= RO (1 + αO 25) -----------------(1)
R75= RO (1 + αO 75) ------------------(2)
Divide (1) by (2)

R25 RO (1 + αO 25)
=
R75 RO (1 + αO 75)
80
60 1 + αO 25
=
65 1 + αO 75
60 + 4500 αO = 65 + 1625 αO
2875 αO = 5
αO = 5 / 2875 = 0.001739 / 0C
R25 = RO (1 + 0.001739 X 25)
RO = 60 / 1.04348 = 57.49 Ω
Q.4 The resistivity of pure copper is 1.56 micro-ohm –cm. An alloy of copper contains 1 atomic
percent nickel has a resistivity of 2.81 micro-ohm –cm. An alloy of copper containing 3-
atomic percent silver has a resistivity of 1.98 micro-ohm –cm. What is the resistivity of an
alloy of copper containing 2 atomic percent nickel and 2 atomic percent silver? (6)
Ans:
ρ cu = 1.56
ρ ( cu + Ni ) = 2.81
ρ1 , increase in resistivity for one atomic percent-added impurity (Nickel)
ρ1( Nickel ) = 1.25 = 2.81 − 1.56 = 1.25 .
1.98 − 1.56
ρ1( Silver ) = = 0.14
3
ρ alloy = 1.56 + 2 ×1.25 + 2 × 0.14 = 4.34 µΩ - cm.
Q.5 The field resistance of a dc machine is 50 ohm at 20o C. The resistance increases to 55 ohm
at 50 o C. Find the temperature coefficient of the resistance material. (4)
Ans:
Solution:
R = Ro [1 + α(t-to) where R and Ro are resistances at 50oC and 20oC
50 x 30 x α = 5
α = 5/1500= 3.3 x 10-3/oC
Q.6 A 6 V / 2.5 mA relay is connected in the output stage of a transistor. The coil is made of
aluminium having α = 0.004 . The resistance of the coil is 600 Ω at 32o C . Calculate the
resistance of the coil at 42o C . (6)
Ans:
α = 0.004
R (at 320C) = 600 Ω
T = 273 + 32 =305
R = R0 (1+ α T)
600 = R0 (1+ 0.004 x 350) = 2.4R0
81
R0 = 600 /2.4 =250 Ω
R (at 420C)
T = 273 + 42 = 315
R = R0 (1+ α T) = 250 (1 + 0.004 x 315)
R = 565 Ω
Q.7 Calculate the diameter of copper wire of length 100 metres used as winding material in a
transformer such that the resistance of the whole winding is 2 ohms. Calculate the diameter
of wire if aluminium is to be used for the above winding, resistance remaining the same.
Given the resistivity of Cu is 1.72 ×10 −8 ohm-metre and of AI is 2.8 × 10 −8 ohm-metre. (8)
Ans:
L = 100 meter
R=2Ω
ρcu = 1.72 x 10-8 Ω -meter
R = ρ l /A
= 1.72 x 10-8 x 100 /A = 2
A = 1.72 x 10-8 x 100 / 2
= 0.86 x10-6
π r = 0.86 x10-6
2
r2 = 0.86 x10-6 / π
= 0.274 x 10-6
r = 0.523 x 10-3
diameter = 1.047 x 10-3 meter
For Aluminium
ρAl = 2.8 x 10-8 Ω -meter
R = ρ l /A
= 2.8 x 10-8 x 100 /A = 2
A = 2.8 x 10-8 x 100 / 2
= 1.4 x10-6
π r = 1.4 x10-6
2
r2 = 1.4x10-6 / π
= 0.446 x 10-6
r = 0.667 x 10-3
diameter = 1.335 x 10-3 meter
82
DE52/DC52/DE102/DC102 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL & ELECT. ENGG. JUN 2015
Q.2a. Compare electric and magnetic circuits. (8)

Answer:
b. A magnetic circular ring of diameter 0.2 meter has cross-sectional area of

0.1 meter2 & relative permeability 1000. An excitation coil of 500 turns is
wound over this ring. (8)
(i) Calculate reluctance of ring
© IETE 1
(ii) MMF to established flux density of 1 T in this ring

(iii) Current in ring to established flux density of part(ii)
(iv) Magnetic flux in ring
Answer:
Q.3 a. State & explain superposition theorem with suitable example. (8)
© IETE 2
Answer:
© IETE 3
b. Three impedances having per phase impedance Zp = (3+j4) ohm are

connected in star. This three phase load is connected across 400 volt
supply, calculate: (8)
(i) Phase voltage
(ii) Phase current
(iii) Line current
(iv) Power consumed by load
Answer:
© IETE 4
Q.4 a. Derive torque equation of DC motor. (8)

Answer:
© IETE 5
b. A Pole DC shunt motor has armature winding resistance Ra = 0.3 ohm

and shunt field resistance(Rsh = 100) When motor connected with 400
volt supply, draws 40 Amp current and running at 1000 RPM. Calculate
resistance must be inserted in armature circuit to reduce speed up to 800
RPM. Assume torque is constant. (8)
Answer:
© IETE 6
Q.5 a. Discuss rotating magnetic field and principle of operation of three phase
induction motor. (8)
© IETE 7
Answer:
© IETE 8
b. Magnetic core of 1 –  transformer is made by CRGO silicon steel (µr =

4000). Its mean length is 0.8 meter & area of cross- section is 0.2 meter2. (8)
(i) Calculate Reluctance of core.
(ii) What is current in primary winding (which has 500 turns) to set flux
density of 2 Tesla in the core
(iii) Calculate emf induced in primary winding. Assume supply frequency
50Hz.
(iv) Calculate number of turns & emf induced in secondary winding if
transformation ratio is 2.
Answer:
© IETE 9
© IETE 10
Q.6 a. Compare N-Type & P-Type Extrinsic semiconductors. (8)

Answer:
b. Draw V-I characteristic of P-N Junction diode and explain working of

diode in forward and reverse bias. (8)
© IETE 11
Answer:
© IETE 12
Q.7 a. With the help of schematic, explain working of full wave (bridge) rectifier and
draw wave forms also. (8)
© IETE 13
Answer:
© IETE 14
© IETE 15
b. Calculate series resistance Rs in Voltage regulator circuit shown in Fig.2.

Here zener diode current is 2A. (8)
Answer:
Q.8 a. Explain input & output V-I characteristics of transistor in CE

configuration.
(8)
© IETE 16
Answer:
© IETE 17
© IETE 18
b.With the help of circuit diagram, explain working of voltage divider bias and
comments on thermal stability of this circuit. (8)
Answer:
© IETE 19
Q.9 Draw circuit diagram & explain working of the following: (16)
(i) Two stage CE amplifier
(ii) Phase shift oscillator
© IETE 20
Answer:
© IETE 21
TEXT BOOKS
1. V.N. Mittle and Arvind Mittal, ‘Basic Electrical Engineering’, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing
Company Limited, 2nd edition, 2006
2. Electronic Devices and Circuits, David A Bell, Fourth Edition, PHI (2006), Electronic
Devices and Circuits, I.J. Nagrath, PHI, 2007
© IETE 22

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Code: DE06 Subject: BASIC ELECTRONICS

TYPICAL QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

OBJECTIVE TYPES QUESTIONS

Choose correct or the best alternative in the following:

(A) 27 K ± 10% K (B) 2.7 M ± 20% K

Q.2 In an n-type semiconductor, as temperature T increases, the Fermi level EF

(A) moves towards conduction band

Q.3 In a BJT with β = 100, α equals

(A) 99 (B) 0.99

Q.4 In integrated circuits, npn construction is preferred to pnp construction because

(A) npn construction is cheaper

Q.5 Pinch-off voltage VP for an FET is the drain voltage at which

(A) significant drain current starts flowing

Q.6 In SCR, the turn ON time

Q.7 Avalanche breakdown results basically due to

(A) impact ionisation

Q8 Dynamic plate resistance of pentode is of the order of

Q.9 At room temperature, the current in an intrinsic semiconductor is due to

(A) holes (B) electronics

Q.10 The varactor diode is usually

(A) Forward biased (B) reverse biased

Q.11 The diode in which impurities are heavily doped is

(A) Varactor diode (B) PIN diode

Q.12 A transistor in common emitter mode has

(A) a high input resistance and low output resistance

Q.13 In an SCR the holding current is

(A) cut off bias (B) cut in voltage

(A) 3 Amp (B) 300 mAmp

Q.16 An Op-amp as a voltage follower has a voltage gain of

(A) Infinity (B) Zero

(A) 4.7 K Ω ± 10 % (B) 4.7 K Ω ± 5 %

(A) mica capacitor (B) ceramic capacitor

Q.19 An ideal voltage source of 12 V provides a current of 150 mA to a load connected

(A) 0.3 A (B) 0.15 A

Q.20 An intrinsic semiconductor at the absolute zero temperature

(A) behaves like a metallic conductor

Q.21 Which of the following diodes is operated in reverse bias mode ?

(A) P-N junction (B) Zener

Q.22 Compared to bipolar transistor, a JFET has

(A) lower input impedance

(A) trigger current (B) holding current

Q.24 A virtual ground

(A) is a ground for voltage

Q.25 Which of the following doping will produce a p-type semiconductor

(A) Germanium with phosphorus (B) Silicon with Germanium

(A) pentavalent atoms (B) trivalent atoms

Q.27 An ideal differential amplifier has CMRR equaling

(A) Unity (B) – 1 (minus unity)

Q.28 Which of the following is an active device

(A) an electric bulb (B) a diode

Q.29 Which configuration has unity voltage gain (ideal)

(A) a Common Collector (CC) (B) a Common Emitter (CE)

(A) Current controlled device with high input resistance

Q.31 The depletion region in a Junction Diode contains

Q.32 Photo-electric emission current is proportional to

(A) frequency of the incident light

PART – II, VOL – I

Q.1 Power is to be supplied from a source whose resistance is 20 K Ω to a load of 100 Ω .

The diode current is given as (

From given data:

Large reverse bias current I≈IO = 0.2 µA

so, the current flowing through the diode, (

Determination of voltage gain: