S
S See siemens.
Saalian A northern European glacial *stage
dating from about 0.25 to 0.1 Ma that may be
equivalent to the *Wolstonian of the East Angli-
an succession.
sabkha Wide area of coastal flats bordering a
*lagoon, where *evaporites, dominated by car-
bonate–sulphate deposits, are formed. It is
named after such an area on the Trucial coast
of Arabia.
saccate Applied to *spores and *pollens where
a separation of the *exine layers produces an air
sac (saccus).
Saccominopsis Known from the *Ordovi-
cian, this genus is thought to be the first repre-
sentative of the very important *protist group
the fusilinids. See also foraminiferida.
saccus See saccate.
saddle See suture.
safe bearing capacity The *bearing capac-
ity that is used when planning the foundations
of a building. The safe bearing capacity (qs) is
calculated by dividing the *ultimate bearing ca-
pacity (qf) by a chosen safety factor (F): qs = qf/F.
Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale A
standard scale, introduced in 1955 by meteorol-
ogists of the US Weather Bureau, for reporting
tropical cyclones. It adds a further five catego-
ries to the *Beaufort scale, together with the
damage likely at each level. The former inclu-
sion of the surface atmospheric pressure at the
centre of the low pressure system and the size of
the *storm surge it causes has been dropped.
See wind strength.
A
 Describes the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane
Wind Scale.
sag and swell topography See knob and
kettle.
sag pond A pool of water, typically a few tens
of metres across and a few hundred metres
long, that forms in an elongated depression
caused by compressional or extensional *stres-
ses along a *strike-slip fault.
St David’s A *series (513–501 Ma ago) of the
Middle *Cambrian, underlain by the *Caerfai
and overlain by the *Merioneth.
Sakigake A Japanese *ISAS mission to comet
*Halley, launched in 1985, carrying instruments
to measure plasma wave spectra, solar wind
ions, and interplanetary magnetic fields. All its
instruments worked correctly. Sakigake flew by
Halley on 11 March 1986, and swung by Earth
three times, on 8 January 1992, 14 June 1993,
and 28 October 1994. Communication with the
satellite ended on 7 January 1999.
A
 A Japanese mission to send a test spacecraft
close to Halley’s Comet, when it last orbited
the Earth in 1986.
Sakmarian 1. An *age in the Early *Permian
Epoch, preceded by the *Asselian, followed by
the Artkinsian, and dated at 294.6–284.4 Ma
(Int. Commission on Stratigraphy, 2004). Origi-
nally it was regarded as the basal Permian age,
incorporating the Asselian Age, from which it is
now separated. 2. The name of the correspond-
ing eastern European *stage, which is roughly
contemporaneous with parts of the *Rotlie-
gende (western Europe), the upper *Wolfcam-
pian (N. America), and the upper Somoholoan
(New Zealand).
salcrete A crust of salt–cemented mineral par-
ticles that forms on sandy beaches or other
permeable surfaces which are periodically
washed by salt water that dries rapidly. Contin-
ued exposure to the wind can produce *defla-
tion hollows resembling *sastrugi, with their
sides supported by the salcrete.
salic Applied to the silicon- and aluminium-
bearing *CIPW normative components of an
 salic horizon
*igneous rock. Salic components include the
normative *minerals *quartz (Q), *corundum
(C), *orthoclase (Or), *albite (Ab), *anorthite
(An), *nepheline (Ne), *leucite (Lc), and
*kaliophilite (Kp).
salic horizon *Soil horizon, usually below
the surface, containing not less than 2% salt
and with a figure of 60 or more for the value
calculated as the thickness of the horizon in
centimetres multiplied by the percentage of
salt. It is a *diagnostic horizon.
salina 1. A salt flat or similar place where salt
deposits form by evaporation or are found.
2. (solar pond) A highly saline pond or other
body of water where salt crystals are produced
by evaporation. The pond may be natural or
artificial.
3. See playa.
salination See salinization.
saline giant A thick and extensive salt depos-
it, produced by the evaporation of a large hy-
persaline sea. One example of a saline giant is
the *Miocene *evaporites of the Mediterranean,
which formed by the repeated evaporation
of the Mediterranean Sea. Another is the *Perm-
ian-aged Zechstein salts of north-western Eu-
rope (see zechstein sea), which formed as a
result of the repeated evaporation of a partially
barred marine basin which covered more than
250 000 km2.
saline-sodic soil Soil that contains more
than 15% exchangeable sodium, a saturation
extract with a conductivity of more than 0.4
siemens per metre at 25  C, and in the saturated
soil it usually has a *pH of 8.5 or less. Either high
concentration of salts or high pH, or both, in-
terfere with the growth of most plants.
s saline soil Soil that contains enough soluble
salt to reduce its fertility. The lower limit is
usually defined as 0.4 siemens per metre.
salinity Measure of the total quantity of dis-
solved solids in sea water in parts per thousand
(%) by weight when all the carbonate has been
converted to oxide, the bromide and iodide to
chloride, and all the organic matter is complete-
ly oxidized. Ocean-water salinity varies in the
range 33–8%, with an average of 35%.
salinization (US salination) The process of
accumulating soluble salts in soil, usually by
an upward capillary movement from a saline
*groundwater source, followed by evaporation
from the surface.
510
SALR See saturated adiabatic lapse rate.
salt The product, with water, of the reaction
between an *acid and a *base.
saltation Major process of particle transport
in either air or water, which involves an initial
steep lift followed by travel and then a gentle
descent to the bed. An essential requirement for
the process is *turbulent flow that can lift parti-
cles into the zone of relatively high downstream
(downwind) velocity.
salt dome See dome.
salt-dome trap Salt *diapir which has
pushed up existing *sediments into a dome
structure, and which may result in the trapping
of gas, oil, or water in the *pores of the perme-
able rocks adjacent to and above the salt dome if
a suitable *cap rock is present. The rocks ahead
of the salt diapir are often severely faulted and
may give rise to *fault traps. Oil may also accu-
mulate in the porous top of the salt diapir.
salt fingering A suggested mixing process
between layers of saline and less saline water
in the ocean. Where warm, saline water overlies
cooler, less saline water, e.g. where the saline
Mediterranean water flows out into the less sa-
line Atlantic, mixing by this process is thought
to take place. The vertical water movements
between the water masses of different *salinity
occur in small columns or fingers a few mili-
metres across. These fingers penetrate only
a small distance, producing a mixed layer. The
mixing process may then be repeated at the two
interfaces that are present, and a number of
layers may develop.
salt flat Extensive flat surface, found in hot
deserts, consisting of salts that have accumulat-
ed in a shallow saline lake or *playa. Evapora-
tion then produces a crust of varying hardness.
salt lake A lake with a concentration of
mineral salts typically of the order of 100% or
greater, dominated by dissolved chlorides, e.g.
the Dead Sea, which contains 64% NaCl and
164% MgCl2.
salt marsh Vegetation often found on mud
banks formed at river mouths, showing regular
zonation reflecting the length of time different
areas are inundated by tides. Sea water has
a high salt content which produces problems
of osmotic pressure for the vegetation, so only
plants that are adapted to this environment
(halophytes) can survive there.
511
salt pan A basin in a semi-arid region where
chemical precipitates (*evaporites) are deposit-
ed due to the concentration by evaporation of
natural solutions of salts. The least soluble salts
(calcium and magnesium carbonates) precipi-
tate first, on the outside of the pan, followed
by sodium and potassium sulphates. Finally, in
the centre, sodium and potassium chlorides
and magnesium sulphate are deposited. This
pattern, slightly distorted through tilting, is
seen in Death Valley, California, USA.
saltpetre See nitre.
salt weathering A type of *weathering that
is most active in arid environments, where there
is little *precipitation and a high rate of evapo-
ration. Precipitation fills voids and crevices with
water, which dissolves *salts from the adjacent
rock. As the water evaporates, the salts crystal-
lize. Subsequent heating or *hydration causes
the crystals to expand, widening the spaces
they occupy and detaching loose rock fragments
that are washed away with the dissolved salts
the next time it rains.
salt wedge An intrusion of sea water into a
tidal *estuary in the form of a wedge along the
bed of the estuary. The lighter fresh water from
riverine sources overrides the denser salt water
from marine sources unless mixing of the water
masses is caused by estuarine topography. Salt
wedges are found in estuaries where a river
discharges through a relatively narrow channel.
seaward landward
fresh water
halocline
salt-wedge
salt wedge estuary
Salt wedge
samarium–neodymium dating The
change from 147Sm to 143Nd is the result of
*alpha decay (147Sm has a *half-life of 2.5  1011
years) and provides one of the newest methods
of dating used in *geochronology. The decay
enriches the material in 143Nd relative to the
stable isotope 144Nd. The ratio 143Nd: 144Nd that
is measured is highly resistant to secondary pro-
cesses of alteration and *metamorphism. It can
be used on terrestrial and extraterrestrial mate-
rials and gives valuable secondary information
on *petrogenesis in the *crust and *mantle.
sandbody
sampling frequency (station frequency)
The frequency at which a data set is sampled is
determined by the number of sampling points
per unit distance or unit time, and the sampling
frequency is equal to the number of samples (or
stations) divided by the record (or traverse)
length. For example, if a wave-form is sampled
1000 times in one second the sampling frequen-
cy is 1kHz (and the *Nyquist frequency 500Hz);
if a traverse is 500m long with 50 stations, the
sampling frequency is one per 10m.
sampling interval (station interval) The
distance between points at which measure-
ments are taken or the time which elapses be-
tween measurements; it is equal to the traverse
(or record) length divided by the number of
stations (or samples). For example, a 250 m
ground traverse with 25 stations along it has a
sampling interval of 10 m; a wave-form might be
sampled every two milliseconds, i.e. with a sam-
pling interval of 2 ms (and a *sampling frequen-
cy of 500Hz).
sampling methods Techniques for collect-
ing representative sub-volumes from a large
volume of geologic material. The particular
sampling method employed depends on the
nature of the material being sampled and
the kind of information required. Common
methods are: (a) random sampling, a non-sys-
tematic or haphazard distribution of sampling
locations; (b) systematic sampling, a regularly
spaced distribution of sampling locations; (c)
stratified sampling, a sequentially spaced, verti-
cal distribution of sampling locations based on
sampling each *stratigraphic unit in a succes-
sion; (d) grab sampling, the collection of mate-
rial using an externally controlled, mechanical
grab (a method often used when sampling the
sea floor or the surface of another planet); and
(e) chip sampling, the collection of *borehole
drilling chips that are carried to the surface by s
lubricating mud and are representative of the
material traversed by the borehole.
sand 1. In the commonly used Udden– Went-
worth scale, particles between 62.5 and 2000mm.
Other classifications exist (see particle size).
In pedology, sand is defined as mineral particles
of diameter 2.0– 0.02 mm in the international
system, and as 2.0–0.5 mm diameter particles in
the *USDA (American) system. 2. A class of soil
texture. 3. See sharp sand.
sandbody A finite unit of *sand (or *sand-
stone) that usually accumulated in response
to one type of depositional process (e.g. as a
*channel, beach-bar, or *barrier system). The
 Sander’s symmetry principle
distribution of the sand and the three-dimen-
sional geometry (*architecture) is controlled
largely by the nature of the depositional regime
under which it accumulated (i.e. channel sands
may be sinuous, and beach or shore-bar sands
may be linear and shore-parallel, etc.).
Sander’s symmetry principle An inter-
pretation of the *Curie symmetry principle
introduced by the German geophysicist
B. Sander in 1930. It states that: Whatever the
nature of the contributing factors, the symmetry
that is common to them cannot be higher than
the symmetry of the observed geologic texture,
and symmetry elements absent in the texture
must be absent in at least one of the contribut-
ing factors.
sand line The line on an *electrical log mark-
ing the usual *apparent resistivity of a clean
*sand.
sand ribbon Longitudinal strip of *sand up to
15 km long, 200 m wide and less than 1m thick,
standing on, and surrounded by, an immobile
gravel floor. Sand ribbons are developed on the
sea floor of the *continental shelf where there
are a paucity of sand, water depths of 20–100 m,
and fast-flowing currents. See ribbons.
sand sheet See sheet sand.
sandstone (arenite) *Sedimentary rock type,
formed of a lithified *sand, comprising grains
between 63 mm and 1000 mm in size, bound
together with a mud *matrix and a mineral *ce-
ment formed during burial *diagenesis. The
main constituents are *quartz, *feldspar, *mica,
and general rock particles, although the propor-
tions of these may vary widely.
sandstone dyke See neptunian dyke.
s sandstorm Phenomenon in which *sand
and dust particles are uplifted, often to great
altitude, by turbulent winds. Visibility is greatly
reduced.
sandur (pl. sandar) See outwash plain.
sand volcano A conical body of *sand, re-
sembling the form of a small volcano, rarely
more than a few metres wide and less than
50cm high. Internally the sand volcano consists
of a massive central plug, surrounded by lami-
nated sand paralleling the external form. Sand
volcanoes are formed by the extrusion of lique-
fied sand through a local vent at the surface.
The extrusion usually results from a highly liq-
uefied sand below a confining surface layer.
512
sand wave Large-scale, transverse ridge of
*sand, characteristic of *continental-shelf areas
such as the southern North Sea. The external
morphology is identical to that of the smaller-
scale ripple-and-*dune bedform (megaripple).
The wavelength or spacing of sand-wave crests
is 30–500 m and the height is 3–15 m. The
down-current migration of sand waves leads to
the formation of large-scale cross-bedding.
Sangamonian The third (0.55–0.001 Ma) of
four *interglacial *stages recognized in mid-con-
tinental N. America. It followed the *Illinoian
glacial episode and is the approximate equiva-
lent of the *Riss/Würm Interglacial of the Alps.
Early warm climates and later cooling climates
are represented in well-exposed *pollen spectra.
sanidine See alkali feldspar.
Santernian See quaternary.
Santonian A *stage in the European Upper
*Cretaceous (85.8–83.5 Ma, Int. Commission on
Stratigraphy, 2004), for which the *stratotype is
at Saintes, France. See also senonian.
Sao (Neptune XI) A satellite of Neptune with
a radius of 20 km, visual *albedo of 0.16, and
an orbital period of 2914.1 days.
sapphire See corundum.
saprolite Chemically rotted rock in situ. The
term is often applied to the lower portion of a
*weathering profile. The saprolite on *granite is
locally called ‘grus’ or ‘growan’, although the
latter term may include material broken down
by mechanical weathering. Compare *regolith.
sapropel Organic ooze or sludge accumulat-
ed in *anaerobic conditions in shallow lakes,
swamps, or on the sea bed. It contains more
*hydrocarbons than *peat; when dry it is dull,
dark, and tough; it may be a source of oil
and gas.
sapropelic coal See coal.
sapropelite A sapropelic *coal, consisting
of organic material, particularly *algae, which
accumulated in stagnant lake bottoms or the
floors of *anoxic shallow seas.
SAR See sodium absorption ratio.
Sarcopterygii Subclass of fleshy-finned fish
comprising two main groups (superorders): the
coelacanths (*Crossopterygii), and the lungfish
(*Dipnoi). The Crossopterygii appeared in the
*Devonian, were widely distributed in the *Me-
513
sozoic, and are now represented by a single
genus, Latimeria. One order of the Crossopter-
ygii, the *Rhipidistia, is credited with being the
root stock for more advanced vertebrates. The
Dipnoi also appeared in the Devonian and are
now represented by three species. They inhabit
fresh water and have developed organs by
which they can breathe atmospheric air.
sardonyx See onyx.
Sargasso Sea Calm centre of the anticyclonic
*gyre in the N. *Atlantic. This large eddy of
surface water has boundaries demarcated by
major current systems such as the *Gulf Stream,
Canary Current, and *North Atlantic Drift. The
Sargasso Sea is a large, warm (18  C), saline
(36.5–37.0%) lens of water, which is character-
ized by an abundance of floating brown sea-
weed (Sargassum).
sarl A *pelagic or *hemipelagic sediment (an
*arl), typically found interbedded with purer
oozes in beds up to 1.5 m thick, with a compo-
sition intermediate between a non-biogenic
sediment and a calcareous or siliceous ooze.
It is 30% clay and 70% microfossils, at least
15% of its volume being calcareous microfossils.
Compare *marl; smarl.
saros unit The term for the period of 18 years
(inclusive of leap years) and 10.3 days in which
the *Earth, *Moon, and *Sun return to the
same relative positions, so that solar and lunar
*eclipses repeat themselves. Thus the solar
eclipse of 30 June 1973 was repeated on 11
July 1991. Each saros period contains about 43
solar and 28 lunar eclipses.
sarsen stone Boulder or block of *sediment
consisting of a siliceous *cement binding one of
a range of materials, and found widely in south-
eastern England, especially in the chalk country.
Typical cemented components include angular
*quartz grains and rounded to angular *flints
(the ‘Hertfordshire puddingstone’). Sarsens
are of Palaeogene and Neogene age, and prob-
ably formed as a *duricrust under tropical con-
ditions.
Sartan See valdayan/zyryanka.
sastrugi (zastrugi) Irregular, small grooves
and ridges that occur on the surface of wind–
blown snow as a result of deposition and ero-
sion. They resemble sand dunes, but unlike
dunes they are aligned with the wind direction.
The word is Russian and plural; singular is sas-
truga (zastruga).
saturated adiabatic lapse rate
satellite A minor body orbiting a planet in the
*solar system. About 137 are known, divided
into three general classes. (a) Regular satellites
form miniature solar systems and include all the
classical major satellites, e.g. the *Galilean sat-
ellites. (b) Collisional shards are tiny, craggy
chunks, probably remnants of larger satellites,
e.g. *Amalthea, which is embedded in *Jupiter’s
planetary ring system. (c) Irregular satellites
have elongate, highly inclined orbits, mostly
far from the planet, suggestive of capture, e.g.
the outer satellites of Jupiter. Three bodies, the
Earth’s *Moon, *Triton (orbiting *Neptune), and
*Charon (orbiting *Pluto) do not fit into any of
the above classes, and each has to be regarded
as a unique case.
satellite photography The production of
photographic images, using the visible, infrared,
thermal infrared, and other wavebands, by
means of satellite-based cameras or sensors.
Such images are extensively used in the envi-
ronmental sciences for the study of the oceans,
the atmosphere, and land masses.
satellite sounding Remote sensing of at-
mospheric properties by an orbiting Earth sat-
ellite. For example, indirect sensing is carried
out by spectral analysis of outgoing long-wave
radiation with infrared photography of clouds
and determination of cloud-top height from the
temperature variations.
satin spar See gypsum.
saturated See silica saturation.
saturated adiabatic lapse rate (SALR)
The *adiabatic cooling rate of a rising *parcel
of air which is saturated (see saturated air),
and in which condensation is taking place as it
rises, so that the energy release of the latent heat s
of vaporization moderates the adiabatic cooling.
The reduction of the rate of cooling below
the *dry adiabatic lapse rate of 9.8  C/km varies
with temperature. This results from the greater
energy release by condensation from air at
higher temperatures. Thus at a given atmo-
spheric pressure, air at 20  C may have an
SALR as low as 4  C/km, whereas at -40  C the
SALR may be close to 9  C/km. The *stability or
*instability of the atmosphere at any given time
for vertical motion is determined by whether
the *environmental lapse rate of temperature
within it is less than or greater than the adiabat-
ic lapse rate (i.e. less than or greater than the
rate of decrease of temperature of rising parcels
of air). An average SALR value is 6  C/km.
 saturated air
saturated air Air that contains the maximum
amount of water vapour that is possible at the
given temperature and pressure, i.e. air in
which the *relative humidity is 100%.
saturated flow The movement of water
through a soil that is temporarily saturated.
Most of the loosely held water moves down-
ward, and some moves more slowly laterally.
saturation In *remote sensing: 1. the maxi-
mum digital number value which can be as-
signed to a *pixel; 2. a point between the
*achromatic line and a pure hue of a *pixel
colour corresponding to the relative mixture of
hues going to make up a colour.
saturation deficit At a given temperature,
the difference between the actual *vapour pres-
sure of moist air and the *saturation vapour
pressure.
saturation magnetization and mo-
ment (Msat) The maximum remanent magne-
tization (see remanent magnetism) that a
material can acquire after being placed in a
direct magnetic field. If uncorrected for either
volume or weight, the observed magnetization
is the saturation magnetic moment.
saturation moisture content (SMC) The
maximum amount of water that can be con-
tained in a rock, when all *pore spaces are filled
with water; it is expressed as the percentage of
the dry weight of the rock.
saturation vapour pressure The *vapour
pressure at which the layer of air immediately
above the surface of liquid water is saturated
with moisture at a given temperature.
Saturn The sixth planet in the *solar system,
distant 9.52 AU from the *Sun. Its radius is 60
s 000 km, density 704 kg/m3, mass 95  Earth
mass, volume 833  Earth volume, and it has
an equatorial inclination to the *ecliptic of 29 .
An outer zone of hydrogen and helium is un-
derlain by a zone of metallic hydrogen, around
an ice–silicate core. It has 62 *satellites and is
famous for its ring system.
saturnian satellites *Saturn has 62 known
satellites, of which 18 are described here. See
atlas (saturn xv); calypso (saturn xiv);
dione (saturn iv); enceladus (saturn ii);
epimetheus (saturn xi); helene (saturn
xiii); hyperion (saturn vii); iapetus (saturn
viii); janus (saturn x); mimas (saturn i); pan
(saturn xviii); pandora (saturn xvii); phoe-
be (saturn ix); prometheus (saturn xvi);
514
rhea (saturn v); telesto (saturn xii);
tethys (saturn iii); titan (saturn vi).
Saucesian A *stage (16.5–22 Ma ago) in the
*Miocene of the west coast of N. America, un-
derlain by the *Zemorrian, overlain by the *Re-
lizian, and roughly contemporaneous with the
upper *Aquitanian and *Burdigalian Stages.
saurian Of, or resembling a lizard. Loosely
refers to lizard-like animals, and applied to *fos-
sils, life habits, etc. of the extinct *reptiles.
Saurischia The ‘lizard-hipped’ *dinosaurs,
one of the two dinosaur orders. They included
bipedal carnivores (*Theropoda) and herbivo-
rous *tetrapods (*Sauropoda). The theropods
produced the largest known terrestrial carni-
vores, and the sauropods yielded the largest
known land animals.
saurischian dinosaur See saurischia.
Sauropoda *Jurassic and *Cretaceous qua-
drupedal *dinosaurs of herbivorous habit.
They included Diplodocus, from the Upper Ju-
rassic, one skeleton of which, measuring 26.6 m,
at one time made Diplodocus the longest terres-
trial animal known, but larger sauropods have
since been discovered. Brachiosaurus, from the
Late Jurassic of the USA and Tanzania, is esti-
mated to have weighed 80 t, and Supersaurus is
estimated to have been 15 m tall and possibly 30
m long. *Apatosaurus (Brontosaurus) was also
a sauropod, and although shorter than Diplod-
ocus its skeleton was more massively built.
Sauropterygia (subclass *Archosauria) An
extinct reptilian order, that comprises the
two suborders *Plesiosauria (plesiosaurs) and
*Nothosauria (nothosaurs).
Saussure, Horace Bénédict de (1740–99)
A Swiss naturalist, Saussure made an extensive
study of the structure of the Alps, described
in the four volumes of Voyages dans les Alpes
(1779–96). His theory was *neptunian, but with
*uniformitarian overtones.
saussuritization The complete or partial al-
teration of calcium-rich *plagioclase to a fine-
grained aggregate of secondary, sodic-rich pla-
gioclase, *epidote, *muscovite, *calcite, *scapo-
lite, and *zeolites. The process commonly takes
place during the low-grade *regional metamor-
phism of *gabbros and *basalts, both of which
contain plagioclase as an *essential component.
515
Saxonian The European stratigraphic term
that is equivalent to the Upper *Rotliegende
and Weissliegende. See also autunian.
S-band The radar frequency band between
1550 and 5200MHz.
scalenohedron A *crystal form consisting of
a number (usually 6 or 12) of triangular faces, all
with unequal sides. Its *crystal symmetry is ei-
ther *tetragonal or, more frequently, *hexago-
nal. Each face cuts the vertical c (or z) axis
and the form is often developed in the mineral
*calcite, where it is called ‘dog-tooth spar’.
scandent In a graptoloid graptolite (*Grapto-
loidea), applied to the condition where the
*stipes are united back to back with the nema
in between.
Scandinavian ice sheet An *ice cap which
developed over Scandinavia during the *Quater-
nary. It has been suggested, largely on the basis
of the degree of downwarp and the partial re-
covery of the land surface in Scandinavia and
the surrounding areas, that the ice was 2600 m
thick.
scanning electron microscope (SEM) A
microscope that operates by scanning a finely
focused beam of *electrons across the speci-
men. The reflected electron intensity is mea-
sured and displayed on a cathode-ray screen
to produce an image. The SEM enables magni-
fications of up to 100 000 times to be made and
provides a much better depth of field than a
conventional light microscope (which suffers
from focus limitations), making the three-di-
mensional structure of small objects (e.g. *For-
aminiferida) spectacularly visible. In geology it
is used extensively for *micropalaeontology,
diagenetic studies (see diagenesis), and *grain
textural examination. When coupled with an
*electron probe, semi-quantitative determina-
tions of grain chemistry can be made.
scapolite A member of the *feldspathoids, of
composition (Na,Ca,K)4[Al3(AlSi)3Si6O24] (Cl,
SO4,CO3,OH), forming a *solid solution series
between the two *end-members marialite (Na
and Cl) and meionite (Ca and CO3); sp. gr. 2.5
(mar) to 2.7 (me); *hardness 5–6; white or pale
bluish or greenish; small *prisms or *massive;
occurs in some *pegmatites replacing *quartz or
*plagioclase, but mainly in *metamorphic or
metasomatic rocks (see metasomatism). Scap-
olite is found in association with *sphene, *gros-
sular, *diopside, and *epidote.
scarp retreat
scar Steep, cliff-like slope of bare rock, devel-
oped in the near-horizontally bedded *Carbon-
iferous *limestone of the Yorkshire Dales,
England. The steepest and highest scars are
normally associated with the *outcrop of the
purest and most massively bedded limestone.
Often a *scree is formed at the base.
scarp (abbreviation of escarpment) Steep
slope or cliff found at the margin of a flat or
gently sloping area. Many varieties are recog-
nized, and distinguished in terms of origin.
A ‘fault scarp’ results when a *fault displaces
the ground surface so that one side stands
high. A ‘fault-line scarp’ is produced by *erosion
on one side of an ancient fault: *obsequent and
*resequent varieties are recognized. A ‘compos-
ite fault-line scarp’ results from a combination
of erosion and faulting. Erosional scarps result
from vertical incision, or from the headward
enlargement of *pediments.
scarp, lobate A fault *scarp characterized by
lobes. They are common on the surface of *Mer-
cury, where they are relatively steep, with crest
heights from 0.5 to 3 km, lengths from 20 to 500
km, with a broadly lobate outline on a scale of a
few to tens of kilometres. They are probably due
to *reverse or *thrust faulting resulting from
compressive stress. They predate the close of
the massive bombardment, and so are probably
more than four billion years old. If so, they
record an early period of planetary contraction.
scarp-and-vale topography A landscape
consisting of a roughly parallel sequence of
*cuestas (*scarps and *dip slopes) and interven-
ing valleys (‘vales’). It is typically found on uni-
clinal (homoclinal) structures whose beds show
differing *lithological composition and conse-
quently varied resistance to *denudation. It
dominates most of lowland Britain, which is
characterized by *Mesozoic *sediments dipping s
gently towards the east and south-east.
scarp-foot knick An abrupt change in gra-
dient that often occurs in semi-arid environ-
ments between a *pediment and the adjacent
*scarp. It is the boundary between the zones of
*scarp retreat and pedimentation. It may be
*joint controlled, when it is often so abrupt
that a boot may barely be placed in it.
scarp retreat The recession of the relatively
steep hillslope that terminates a *butte, *mesa,
*cuesta, or any elevated, plateau-like surface.
Several geomorphological *processes may be
involved, including undercutting by an adjacent
stream, *spring sapping, *mass movement,
 scarp slope
*rainwash, and *weathering. Under semi-arid
conditions it may give rise to a hillslope that
retreats parallel to itself.
scarp slope The relatively steep face of
a *scarp. Its steepness is maintained by the
*erosion of a relatively weak *stratum that typi-
cally underlies the resistant *cap rock that main-
tains the form of the scarp. Erosion may be
achieved by *spring sapping, *sheetwash, and
*mass-wasting.
scatter diagram In statistics, the diagram
obtained when two sets of observations are plot-
ted against each other. Scatter diagrams are
usually employed to visualize any correlations
that may occur between two sets of observa-
tions.
scattering Diffusion of incident radiation by
atmospheric particles, e.g. by haze and water
droplets as well as by molecules. Such diffused
radiation is often refracted many times in pass-
ing through the atmosphere. See also mie scat-
tering; rayleigh scattering.
scavenger An animal that feeds mainly on
dead animals or animal products (e.g. faeces).
scavenging The capture and removal by rain
or snow of particulate matter in the atmosphere.
scheelite Mineral, CaWO4; sp. gr. 5.9–6.1;
*hardness 4.5–5.0; *tetragonal; white, or some-
times shades of yellow, green, brown, or red;
white *streak; *vitreous *lustre; *crystals usually
*bipyramidal, also occurs *massive or granular;
*cleavage good {111}; *fluorescent; occurs in
*pegmatite *veins and high-temperature miner-
al veins, often in association with *wolframite,
*cassiterite, *molybdenite, *fluorite, and *topaz,
also in contact *metamorphic zones together
with *axinite, *garnet, *wollastonite, and meta-
s morphic calcium minerals. It is one of the chief
ores of tungsten, and named after the Swedish
chemist K. W. Scheele (1742–86).
Scheuchzer, Johann Jacob (1672–1733) A
Swiss mathematician and physician, Scheuch-
zer is best known for his work on fossil fish and
plants which he attributed to a universal deluge.
He is notorious for finding, in 1726, the fossil
remains of Homo Diluvii Testis (the man who
witnessed the deluge), which was taken as im-
portant evidence for the Mosaic Flood, but was
later shown by *Cuvier to be a giant salamander.
schiller A metallic, bronze-coloured *lustre,
seen for example in moonstone (see alkali
feldspar).
516
Schindewolf, Otto H. (1896–1971) A Ger-
man palaeontologist at the University of Tübin-
gen, Schindewolf made extensive studies of
ammonites (*Ammonoidea) and their evolu-
tionary history. These studies led him to pro-
pose a concept of discontinuous evolution, a
theory which is not now generally accepted.
schist A *regional metamorphic rock of pelitic
(see pelite) composition which displays a
*schistosity. Schists are coarser-grained than
*phyllites, having a grain size greater than 1
mm. The minerals defining the schistosity may
be *muscovite *mica, *biotite mica, and/or elon-
gate *quartz, depending on the composition and
the pressure and temperature of formation.
When a *basic *igneous rock is metamorphosed
it forms a *hornblende-schist (*amphibolite) or
*greenschist if it contains a planar *fabric, or a
*greenstone if no fabric is present. Thus in this
latter context ‘schist’ refers to the fabric compo-
nent and not to the overall rock type.
schistosity The planar alignment of platy
*micas and elongate *amphiboles in a *regional
metamorphic rock. The alignment of these min-
erals into a planar *fabric is caused by (a) the
physical rotation of the mineral grains under the
influence of a *shear stress, or (b) the syntec-
tonic, metamorphic growth of new minerals
with their long axes perpendicular to the prin-
cipal compressive stress direction.
schizochroal See trilobite eye.
schizodont Applied to a type of *hinge *den-
tition, found in certain members of the pelecy-
pod order Trigonioida, in which the teeth are
large and possess parallel ridges at right angles
to the axis of the teeth. The left *valve bears a
single tooth.
Schizomycophyta A name formerly given to
the *bacteria. See eubacteria.
schlieren An *igneous *fabric consisting of
streaked-out, linear, planar, or discoidal aggre-
gates of *mafic minerals more densely concen-
trated than in the host rock, with which they
have diffused boundaries. Some schlieren may
represent partly remobilized, mafic-rich *xeno-
liths, streaked out by the flow of the enclosing
*magma.
Schlumberger array An *electrode config-
uration in which the spacing of the two *poten-
tial electrodes is less than one-fifth of the
distance between the centre of the *array and
one *current electrode. See also geometric
factor.
517
Schmidt hammer An instrument for mea-
suring the compressive strength of a surface by
hammering it with a spring-loaded metal pis-
ton. It is used to test rock hardness and abra-
siveness before drilling.
Schmidt hammer test In *geomorphology,
a technique for comparing the surface tough-
ness or hardness of rocks. For example, it has
been used to compare the mechanical strength
of the surface layers of weathered (see weath-
ering) *limestones and *sandstones with that
of the unaltered rock beneath. See schmidt
hammer.
Schmidt–Lambert net See equal-area
net.
schorl A black, opaque variety of *tourmaline
which may occur as radiating, needle-like crys-
tals, as seen, for example, in the *granites of
Cornwall, Britain.
Schroeder Van Der Kolk method See
half-shadow test.
schuppen structure See imbricate struc-
ture.
Schwassmann–Wachmann 3 A *comet
with an orbital period of 5.35 years; *perihelion
date 2 June 2006; perihelion distance 0.933 AU.
scintillation counter (scintillometer) An
instrument which measures gamma radiation
and is extensively used in airborne and ground
radiometric surveys. It utilizes the flash of light
emitted when the atoms of a suitable ‘phosphor’
(e.g. a large sodium iodide crystal ‘doped’ with
thallium) are energized by *gamma rays. The
scintillations are detected by the light-sensitive
cathode of a photomultiplier tube and are con-
verted by the succession of electrodes in the
tube into a stream of electrons which are col-
lected and recorded on a meter. The scintilla-
tion counter has now been developed into the
gamma-ray spectrometer (see gamma-ray
spectrometry) for portable and airborne use.
It analyses the complex gamma-ray spectrum of
uranium, thorium, and potassium, and indi-
cates the relative gamma-ray contribution of
each element to ground gamma-ray emission
on a continuous readout.
scintillometer See scintillation counter.
scintillometer survey A geophysical pro-
specting method using a scintillation detector
in which radioactivity causes crystals to emit
flashes of light which can be recorded by a
scoriaceous
photomultiplier tube. It is much more sensitive
than methods using a *Geiger counter and can
distinguish different types of radiation.
scirocco (sirocco) Regional term for one of
the genera of warm winds from south of the
Mediterranean. It moves ahead of an east-
ward-travelling depression and brings hot, dry,
dusty conditions to Algeria and the Levant. To
the north, where its humidity increases very
rapidly as it crosses the sea, it brings moist air
to the coast of Europe.
Scleractinia (Madreporaria; stony corals)
(subclass *Zoantharia) Order of solitary or,
more commonly, colonial corals, which always
possess an external calcareous skeleton consist-
ing essentially of radial partitions (septa, see
septum). Septa develop following the pattern
of the radial infoldings in the body wall (*mes-
enteries) in cycles of 6, 12, 24, 48, etc. The order
first appeared in the Middle *Triassic.
sclerotinite See coal maceral.
scolecodont The pharyngeal jaws or maxillae
of annelid worms (*Annelida), commonly found
in paired assemblages. They are usually black
and chitinous and are known from most geolog-
ic *systems.
scolecoid See solitary corals.
Scolicia An *ichnoguild of structures made by
motile, chemosymbiotic organisms (see chemo-
symbiosis) found in sands and muddy sands
dating from the *Jurassic or possibly earlier.
Recent ones were inhabited by Echinocardium
cordatum (sea potato, *Miocene to the present),
a species of heart urchins, remains of which
have been found within them.
scoria Loose, rubbly, basaltic ejecta that accu- s
mulate around *Strombolian eruptive volcanic
vents, eventually building up as a *scoria cone,
whose height may range from a few tens of
metres to up to 300m, and whose slope is de-
termined by the *angle of repose of the loose
material. The scoria *clasts range widely in size,
and have a light, frothy texture, being full of
*vesicles. They are mainly drab grey in colour,
although when fresh they may be iridescent, but
often the scoria oxidizes by reaction with steam
escaping from the vent, when it becomes a deep
reddish brown.
scoriaceous Applied to a vesicular *lava or
*pyroclastic rock, to describe a frothy, bubbly
texture. See scoria; vesicle.
 scoria cone
scoria cone (cinder cone, ash cone) Volca-
nic cone built of *pyroclastic material (cinders
and *scoriaceous ejecta) usually of *basaltic or
*andesitic composition, dominated by frag-
ments 2–64 mm diameter. These air-fall de-
posits build a straight-sided cone with slopes
of about 30 (the *angle of repose). Complex
varieties may occur, including breached or gap-
ing, and cone-within-cone types.
scorpions See chelicerata.
Scotia Plate A tectonic *plate that borders the
*South American Plate to its north, the *Antarc-
tic Plate to its south and west, and the South
Sandwich *Microplate to its east. *Transform
fault boundaries border the Scotia Plate to the
north and south and there is a spreading
boundary between it and the South Sandwich
Microplate. The western boundary with the
Antarctic Plate is more complex.
scour and fill A *sedimentary structure char-
acterized by a concave-upwards *erosion
surface cut into the underlying bed by a high-
velocity *flow of water, and filled by a *sedi-
ment, which is usually coarse, during the wan-
ing stage of the flow that cut the scour.
Scourian A sub-*stage of the *Lewisian, from
about 2600 to 2300Ma ago, characterized by
Scourian *dykes and *gneiss formation, and
named after Scourie, north-west Scotland.
See also inverian.
Scourian orogeny A mountain-building ep-
isode that occurred about 2600 Ma ago, during
the *Archaean, prior to the *Laxfordian orogeny
but possibly representing its first stages. It is
marked by NW–SE trending folds immediately
to the south of the Laxford area, affecting part
s of the Lewisian *gneisses in what is now the
extreme north-west of Scotland.
scour lag A coarse-grained *sediment depos-
ited immediately above a scour surface (see
scour and fill).
scree Accumulation of coarse rock debris
that rests against the base of an inland cliff. It
is added to by the *weathering and release of
fragments from the cliff face. Screes are widely
found in upland areas that are affected by past
or present *periglacial conditions, and in hot,
rocky deserts.
screw dislocation See dislocation.
518
scroll bar One of a series of long ridges of
sand on a point *bar, lying approximately par-
allel to the contours.
ScS-wave See seismic-wave modes.
scud Fragments of low cloud, usually nimbo-
stratus, moving quickly beneath rain clouds.
See also fractus.
scute In fish, an enlarged, bony, dermal plate
or scale.
Scyphozoa (jellyfish) (phylum *Cnidaria)
Class of marine, mainly *pelagic medusoids,
usually with four-part *radial symmetry, in
which the polyp stage is reduced or absent.
Their fossil record is in general scanty, owing
to the absence of hard parts, but jellyfish formed
an important component of the *Precambrian
*Ediacaran fauna. See also medusina mawsoni.
Scythian (Skythian) Originally defined as a
*stage at the base of the *Triassic in the Alps.
Now it is generally regarded as a *series divided,
according to *ammonite *zones, into four
stages. The corresponding Scythian *Epoch is
dated at 251–245 Ma (Int. Commission on Stra-
tigraphy, 2004).
sea 1. Large body of usually saline water which
is smaller in size than an ocean.
2. Chaotic waves generated by the action
of the wind on the surface layers of the ocean.
See also ocean wave; swell.
sea-anemones See anthozoa.
sea breeze See land and sea breezes.
sea-floor spreading The theory that the
ocean floor is created at the spreading (accre-
tionary) *plate margins within the ocean basins.
*Igneous rocks rise along conduits from the
*mantle, giving rise to volcanic activity in a nar-
row band along the *mid-ocean ridges. As these
cool, the basaltic *lavas and *dykes form the
upper part of the *oceanic crust, and the under-
lying *magma chamber solidifies to form layer 3
of the oceanic crust. The newly formed oceanic
crust spreads perpendicularly away from the
ridge, probably in response to mantle convec-
tive motions (see plate tectonics). As the *ba-
salts originally cooled, they became magnetized
by the ambient *geomagnetic field. As this field
reverses *polarity, oceanic crust formed at dif-
ferent times is characterized by oceanic *mag-
netic anomalies that are parallel to the ridge
at which they originally formed (Vine and Mat-
thews, 1963). These anomalies allow the dating
519 secondary crushing

of the oceanic crust and the determination of its

past relative motion. The creation of new ocean
Parts per Percentage
floor was implicit in the previous concept of
Ion thousand of dissolved
*continental drift, but is mainly characterized
by weight material
by the narrowness of the zone within which
the new ocean floor is formed. It is now a
fundamental concept within the plate-tectonic chloride, Cl 18.980 55.05
theory. sodium, Na+ 10.556 30.61
sulphate, SO42 2.649 7.68
sea fret Popular local term for sea fog, com- magnesium, Mg2+ 1.272 3.69
mon in spring and summer in Cornwall and on calcium, Ca2+ 0.400 1.16
the south, east, and north-east coasts of En- +
potassium, K 0.380 1.10
gland. 
bicarbonate, HCO3 0.140 0.41
sea ice In polar regions the surface of the sea bromide, Br 0.065 0.19
freezes, due to the low air and water tempera- borate, H3BO3 0.026 0.07
tures: the product is known as ‘sea ice’. It exists strontium, Sr 2+
0.008 0.03
year-round in the central Arctic and in some 
fluoride, F 0.001 0.00
Antarctic bays, extending in winter across the TOTAL 34.477 99.99
entire Arctic and far out to sea around Antarcti-
ca. As ice crystals form from sea water, so salt is
excluded and eventually returned to the sea. Sea
ice therefore contains no salt, except where SeaWiFS An instrument (Sea-viewing Wide
pockets of sea water become trapped in the ice. Field-of-view Sensor) carried on NASA’s SeaStar
spacecraft that was launched on 1 August 1997
seamount Isolated, submarine mountain ris-
into a *Sun-synchronous orbit at a height of
ing more than 1000 m above the ocean floor.
about 700 km. It orbits the Earth in 99 minutes,
The sharp, crested summits of seamounts are
observing a swathe 2800 km wide. SeaWiFS
usually 1000–2000 m below the ocean surface.
monitors the colour of the ocean surface, pro-
Seamounts are of volcanic origin. They are in-
viding data from which the concentration and
creasingly coming under study with modern
movement of phytoplankton (see plankton)
methods of submarine acoustic imagery, e.g.
can be calculated.
GLORIA (Geological LOng Range Inclined
Asdic) *side-scan sonar. See also guyot. A
 A NASA mission to provide data on global
sea pens See anthozoa. ocean bio-optical properties.
seatearth A *clay-rich *fossil soil, found im-
Secchi disc A device used in a simple method
mediately beneath a *coal seam, representing
for measuring the transparency of water. The
the soil in which the coal-forming vegetation
disc is 20 cm across, and divided into alternate
grew.
black and white quadrants. It is lowered into the
water on a line until the difference between the
sea water, major constituents 99.9% of
black and white areas just ceases to be visible,
s
dissolved material in sea water can be ac-
counted for by eleven constituents: Na, Mg, and this depth is recorded. The Secchi disc pro-
Ca, K, Sr, Cl, SO4, HCO3, Br, BO3, and F, whose vides a convenient method for comparing the
relative proportions are almost constant in all transparencies of water at different times.
oceans regardless of *salinity. The *pH of sea
water is maintained at 8.0–8.4 by a buffering second arrival The next coherent seismic
system. Because the water is alkaline, most of event to follow the *first break.
the Ca2+ and HCO3- form insoluble CaCO3. Al-
uminium and iron oxides coagulate to form secondary blasting See pop-shooting.
*colloids because of the high concentration of
*electrolytes, and sink to the sea bed, silica is secondary creep The second stage of
taken up by organisms, and thus Cl, Na, SO4, *creep, characterized by viscous strains, in
Mg, and K, for which no removal mechanism a material being deformed as a consequence of
exists, account for almost all the dissolved ma- long-term, low *stress.
terial, at concentrations much higher than those
found in rocks. secondary crushing See crushing.
 secondary depressions
secondary depressions *Depressions initi-
ated as part of a ‘family’ or sequence of frontal
systems that develop to the rear of the first
depression of the series below the *polar-front
jet stream, which drags them along an approx-
imately eastward path. See also frontal wave.
secondary enrichment See supergene
enrichment.
secondary front A *front that forms along a
frontal wave behind the primary front; there
may be more than one secondary front.
secondary geochemical differentia-
tion A theory concerning the processes which
may have taken place in and on the Earth’s
*crust and in the atmosphere, including the
organic reactions leading to the development
of the *biosphere.
secondary geochemical dispersion The
movement of elements at or just below the
Earth’s surface, which results from *weathering,
*erosion, and deposition.
secondary migration Movement of *hy-
drocarbons, usually laterally, into and within
the *reservoir rock where they accumulate.
secondary mineral A *mineral formed by
the subsolidus alteration of a pre-existing *pri-
mary mineral in an *igneous rock. Minerals
which have crystallized from a *magma are sta-
ble only at high temperature and can readily
alter to low-temperature, secondary minerals
when a fluid, e.g. water, is introduced into the
rock system. The fluid acts as a catalyst to initi-
ate the alteration reaction. Most secondary min-
erals are hydrated *silicates. A typical example is
the alteration of primary *olivine to secondary
*chlorite and *serpentine.
s the size of sediment particles by measuring the
secondary porosity The forms of *porosity
which develop in a rock during and after *con-
solidation, by the selective dissolution or alter-
ation of mineral *grains and *cements, or by
the fracturing of the rock by tectonic processes
(see tectonism). See choquette and pray
classification.
secondary quartz *Quartz formed as a
*cement during *diagenesis.
secondary recovery methods In the pe-
troleum industry, techniques by which recovery
has been increased to about 50% since the
1940s, including the injection of natural gas
above the oil in a *reservoir to force the oil
520
downwards, or pumping water in below the oil
to force it upwards.
secondary sedimentary structure A
structure formed by the precipitation of min-
erals in the pores of a sedimentary rock during
or following its consolidation, or by chemical
replacement of some of its constituents. Com-
pare primary sedimentary structure.
secondary wave See s-wave.
second derivative Acceleration due to
gravity (g) is the first derivative of the gravity
potential field. Where g varies with horizontal
distance (due to anomalies), then the gradient
in the direction of the variation is the second
derivative. Such computations exaggerate noise,
as well as highlighting maxima and minima in
the gravity field.
secular variation Any long-term variation
over a period of the order of 10 to 20 years or
longer. In *geomagnetism, a variation that op-
erates on a timescale greater than one year, but
excluding the variation associated with the sun-
spot cycle.
SEDEX See sedimentary exhalative pro-
cesses.
Sedgwick, Adam (1785–1873) Woodwar-
dian Professor of Geology at Cambridge, where
he modernized the teaching of geology. He is
best known for unravelling the stratigraphy of
North Wales (the *Cambrian System) which re-
sulted in a quarrel with R. I. *Murchison over
the boundary between the Cambrian and *Silu-
rian Systems. He made important contributions
to structural geology, distinguishing between
stratification, jointing, and *slaty cleavage.
sedigraph An instrument that calculates
attenuation of a finely collimated X-ray beam
through a settling suspension as a function of
height above the base of the *sedimentation
tube and time.
sediment Material derived from pre-existing
rock, from *biogenic sources, or precipitated by
chemical processes, and deposited at, or near,
the Earth’s surface.
sedimentary basin A subsiding area of the
Earth’s *crust which permits the net accumula-
tion of *sediment.
sedimentary cycle A cycle which comprises
the *weathering of an existing rock, followed by
the *erosion of *minerals, their transport and
521
deposition, then burial. First-cycle *sediments
are characterized by the presence of less resis-
tant minerals and rock fragments. If this mate-
rial is reworked through a second cycle, the less
resistant minerals will be eliminated, or altered
to more stable products. The more sedimentary
cycles that a sediment has passed through,
the more mature it will become and it will be
dominated by well-rounded, resistant minerals
(see resistate mineral).
sedimentary environments Environ-
ments in which *sediments are deposited on
land include *alluvial fans, river beds, lake
beds, sand *dunes, marshes, *deltas, *barrier
beaches, *lagoons, and *tidal flats. Sediments
also accumulate on *reefs, continental shelves,
*continental rises, *continental slopes, and
*abyssal plains. The type of sedimentary deposit
varies according to the type of rock. Knowledge
of the sedimentary processes active today, the
environments in which they occur, and the
types of rock they produce facilitate the inter-
pretation of ancient deposits.
sedimentary exhalative processes
(SEDEX) Processes associated with the upwell-
ing of mineralizing fluids into submarine
sedimentary environments, whereby *mineral
deposits, usually of base-metal sulphides, are
formed. See ‘black smokers’.
sedimentary mélange See olistostrome.
sedimentary rock Rock formed by the de-
position and compression of mineral and rock
particles, but often including material of organic
origin and exposed by various agencies of *de-
nudation. Sedimentary rocks may be classified
as terrigenous (i.e. derived from the breakdown
of pre-existing rocks exposed on the land), or-
ganic (i.e. produced either directly or indirectly
by organic processes such as shell production or
*peat formation), chemical (i.e. produced by
precipitation from water, e.g. some *carbonates
and all *evaporites), or volcanogenic (*pyroclas-
tic, e.g. *tuffs and *bentonites). They may also
be described according to their chemical prop-
erties and behaviour and their environmental
deposition, and each scheme complements the
others.
sedimentary structure The external
shape, the internal structure, or the forms
preserved on bedding surfaces, generated in
*sedimentary rocks by sedimentary processes
or contemporaneous *biogenic activity. Internal
sedimentary structures include: those formed
by physical depositional processes (*cross-strat-
seed plants
ification, flat bedding (see plane bed), *lamina-
tion, and *heterolithic structures); those due to
post-depositional deformation (convolute bed-
ding, *slump structures, dish and pillar struc-
tures, flame structures, *ball and pillow
structures, etc.); those caused by organic distur-
bance (*bioturbation, *trace fossils); or by post-
depositional chemical disturbance (*entero-
lithic structures, collapse and solution struc-
tures, *concretions, etc.). Structures preserved
on the tops of beds include: those formed by
depositional processes (*ripple marks, primary
current lineations); erosional structures (*flutes
and scour marks, see scour and lag); struc-
tures caused by the transportation of an object
over the bed (*tool marks); and other features
such as *desiccation and *syneresis cracks,
*sand volcanoes, adhesion ripples and warts,
rain prints, and biogenic traces and *trails.
Structures preserved on the bases of beds (sole
marks) include *load casts, the casts of flutes,
trails and tool marks, and the fill of erosional
scours. The external form of sedimentary units
(sheet-like, *channel-fill, *reef or mound (see
mud mound), lenticular, etc.) is a function of
the depositional environment and sometimes of
post-depositional *compaction.
sedimentation, rate of See subsidence.
sedimentation coefficient Measure of
the rate of sedimentation of a molecule or par-
ticle; it is equal to the velocity per unit centrifu-
gal field (acceleration), and is measured in
*Svedberg units.
sedimentation tube Apparatus designed to
determine rapidly the grain-size distribution of
*sand-sized *sediment. The sedimentation-tube
method is based on the principle of *Stoke’s law
that particles of different sizes, shapes, and den-
sities will settle through a column of fluid at
different settling velocities. Sediment is intro- s
duced into the top of the settling tube, and the
time is recorded for the various sediment frac-
tions to settle to the bottom of the tube.
sedimentology The scientific study, inter-
pretation, and classification of sediments, sedi-
mentary processes, and sedimentary rocks.
seed plants The group that comprises the
*gymnosperms and *angiosperms, plants distin-
guished by their production of seeds rather than
spores. They arose in the *Devonian from *pte-
ridophyte forebears, probably of a heterospo-
rous character (i.e. bearing microspores and
megaspores (see spore) on the same plant).
These early seed plants were gymnosperms.
 seep
Angiosperms are not certainly represented in
the fossil record until the early *Cretaceous.
seep See spring.
seepage The slow but often steady flow of
water between one water body and another. As
a term, it is often used to describe leakage to
underlying *aquifers through stream beds or the
emergence of *groundwater into a stream chan-
nel, but it may also relate to flow between dif-
ferent aquifer units.
seepage velocity The velocity of *ground-
water calculated from *Darcy’s law. It is not the
actual velocity of the water in the pores, but the
apparent velocity through the bulk of the porous
medium. Actual velocity is higher than seepage
velocity by a factor which combines the effects
of porosity and the tortuosity of the actual flow
path among and around the mineral grains.
seiche A stationary or *standing wave in an
enclosed body of water, e.g. a bay or lake.
Seiches are usually the product of intense
storm activity.
seif dune Linear *dune consisting of curved,
sword-like components, and found in hot de-
serts. Typically it is developed by the elongation
of a *barchan arm, and built up by winds blow-
ing from two principal directions.
s fault, and d is the average slip.
Seif dune
seism- From the Greek seismos meaning
‘earthquake’, a prefix meaning ‘pertaining to
earthquakes’.
seismic anisotropy The situation in which
the speed at which a *seismic wave travels varies
according to the direction of travel. While most
*minerals are anisotropic (see anisotropy) the
mineral grains forming a rock are randomly
aligned, so the anisotropies usually cancel out,
leaving the rock isotropic at the wavelengths of
seismic waves (metres to hundreds of metres).
*Foliation tends to align mineral grains, howev-
er, so large masses of foliated rocks are often
522
anisotropic. Rocks such as *shale are also seis-
mically anisotropic because they are composed
of elongate grains that align during the deposi-
tion that eventually forms the rock.
seismic blind zone A layer which cannot be
detected by seismic refraction methods because
it is too thin or its velocity is lower than that in
overlying strata. See hidden layer.
seismic gap 1. An area within a known active
*earthquake zone within which no significant
earthquakes have been recorded. It is not al-
ways clear whether this gap represents a zone
where gradual motion takes place continually so
there is no strain accumulation, or where mo-
tion is locked and strain is accumulating.
2. (shotpoint gap) In split-spread seismic
*reflection shooting, the distance between the
shot point and the nearest *groups of *geo-
phones, which is larger than that between sub-
sequent geophone groups at larger *offsets.
3. (inter-record gap) A blank space on a
magnetic tape which signals the end of one
block of seismic data (one seismic record) and
heralds the start of another. It is used to facili-
tate the transfer of magnetically recorded data
into a computer system.
seismicity The likelihood that an *earthquake
will be felt in a particular area; i.e. earthquakes
are frequent in zones of high seismicity (e.g.
Japan and California).
seismic margin See active margin.
seismic moment A measure of the size of an
*earthquake, based on the concept of rupture
and slippage along a fault plane as a rotational
motion about a point on the fault. It is given by:
M0 = mAd, where m is a constant varying accord-
ing to the material, A is the area of the ruptured
seismic record (seismogram) The output of
a seismic recording system (*seismograph), e.g.
a paper or film record, showing the seismic
*wiggle traces, usually for a single *shot *spread.
In *refraction surveys, many shots into one
spread may be summed by a signal-enhance-
ment seismograph to produce a single record.
When records are processed they can be placed
side by side along a profile to form a ‘seismic
section’.
seismic reflection See reflection.
seismic-reflection profiling See profil-
ing.
523
seismic refraction See refraction.
seismic section See seismic record.
seismic stratigraphy (seismostratigra-
phy) The study and interpretation of informa-
tion obtained by seismic-*reflection *profiling
in order to construct subsurface *stratigraphic
cross-sections. Analysis of seismic reflections on
a seismic section (see seismic record) can
identify buried stratal surfaces that, when traced
laterally and continuously, represent surfaces of
synchronous deposition or their correlative *un-
conformity surfaces. The character of a reflec-
tion may vary as the seismic profile moves
across a *facies boundary, but the continued
presence of the reflection is of *chronostrati-
graphic significance. More detailed information
regarding the age and *lithology of the sub-
surface strata may be gathered by means of
geophysical *well logging. See also chronos-
tratigraphic correlation chart; deposi-
tional sequence.
seismic survey The exploration of a subsur-
face geologic structure by means of *seismic
waves which are generated artificially. *Reflec-
tion profiling is the most common surveying
method, and *refraction surveys are particularly
important in land surveys for *static corrections.
Small seismic refraction surveys are commonly
carried out for *engineering geophysics site in-
vestigations.
seismic tomography A range of methods
in which the subsurface is divided into a box-
grid whose elements are illuminated by seismic
rays and the physical character of each element
computed. The results are displayed as colour-
coded contour maps of subsurface planes. In
*borehole *tomography, two holes are used; a
source is moved up one while detectors record
along the length of the other. By using a succes-
sion of *shot positions, most of the box elements
in the plane linking the two boreholes are illu-
minated satisfactorily. Seismic tomography is
used to study geologic structures in detail. It
has been extended to investigate the *mantle
and, increasingly, the effectiveness of extraction
techniques in hydrocarbon reservoirs.
seismic velocity The speed with which an
elastic wave propagates through a medium. For
non-dispersive *body waves, the seismic veloc-
ity is equal to both the *phase and *group ve-
locities; for dispersive *surface waves, the
seismic velocity is usually taken to be the
phase velocity. Seismic velocity is assumed usu-
ally to increase with increasing depth and when
seismology
measured in a vertical direction it may be
10–15% lower than when measured parallel to
strata. See anisotropy.
seismic wave A packet of elastic strain ener-
gy which travels away from a seismic source,
e.g. a *shot or *earthquake. See also body
wave; surface wave.
seismic-wave modes The conventional no-
tation ascribed to *seismic waves on the basis of
their travel times from their *earthquake
sources. Letters are used to designate the type
of wave along the different portions of its travel
path: P and S refer to *P-waves and *S-waves
that do not travel through the Earth’s *core; K
and I refer to P-waves only, which travel
through the core and inner core respectively.
The letter J refers to S-waves which are gener-
ated by the conversion of incident P-waves at
the boundary between the inner and outer
cores, and which travel only in that mode within
the solid inner core. As they propagate towards
the Earth’s surface, J-waves are reconverted
back into P-waves at the inner core boundary.
A repetition of the letters (e.g. PP, SS) indicates
that the waves have been reflected at the Earth’s
surface; reflection at the outer edge of the core
is indicated by ‘c’ (e.g. PcP, PcS). For example,
the wave PKIKP travels from the surface,
through the *mantle to the outer core, into the
inner core, and then back to the surface; the
wave PPP has travelled only in the *crust and
upper mantle, and has been reflected twice off
the surface.
seismic zone A region of high *seismicity.
seismogram See seismic record.
seismograph A device which records seismic
information. Usually the term is used to de-
scribe the entire system, including amplifiers s
and means for filtering data and transferring
them to magnetic tape or computer disk, but
occasionally it describes only *geophones. An
enhancement seismograph can sum successive
*hammer impacts or *shots fired into one geo-
phone *spread in order to enhance the signal-
to-*noise ratio, and is commonly used in *engi-
neering geophysics site investigations.
seismology The study of elastic (seismic)
waves and how they are produced. Global seis-
mology is the study of *seismic waves from
*earthquakes (and to a lesser extent nuclear
explosions), to investigate the structure of and
processes within the Earth. In exploration seis-
mology, artificially generated seismic waves are
 seismometer
used in the search for resources (e.g. hydrocar-
bons, etc.) and the study of the Earth’s surface
and near-surface. Planetary seismology is the
use of seismic waves to investigate the structure
of and processes within planets and natural
*satellites in the *solar system.
seismometer 1. A device used to detect
*seismic waves originating from *earthquakes.
2. In exploration *seismology, a *geophone.
seismostratigraphy See seismic stratig-
raphy.
seismotectonics The study of recent *earth-
quakes, especially with their spatial and tempo-
ral distribution and magnitudes, and their
relationship with *plate tectonics. See also neo-
tectonics.
SELENE (KAGUYA) A mission that was
launched from the Tanegashima Space Center
on 14 September 2007 by the Japan Aerospace
Exploration Agency, that obtained data on
the origin and evolution of the Moon and de-
veloped technologies needed for future lunar
exploration. Its name is derived from SELeno-
logical Engineering Explorer. SELENE orbited at
about 100 km and released two small satellites
into polar orbits, Okina and Ouna, which en-
tered elliptical orbits at 100  2400 km and 100
 800 km, respectively. The main orbiter was
manoeuvred into a controlled crash into the
Moon on 11 June 2009.
A
 A JAXA mission to study the Moon’s origins
and evolution.
selenite See gypsum.
selenizone See archaeogastropoda.
selenology The astronomical study of the
s *Moon. The term is derived from the Greek
word selene, meaning ‘moon’.
self diffusion See diffusion (2a).
self-exciting dynamo A dynamo that pro-
duces a magnetic field around itself whereby
motions of an electrical conductor, carrying
magnetic lines of force, generates further cur-
rent, eventually resulting in a stable external
magnetic field. It is generally considered that
the *geomagnetic field is produced by two self-
exciting dynamos, the interaction of which
results in *reversals of geomagnetic polarity.
self-potential method See spontaneous-
potential method.
524
self-potential sonde (spontaneous po-
tential sonde, SP sonde) A *well-logging
instrumental package that measures the electro-
chemical activity of the rocks within a *bore-
hole. Formations yielding a high and true SP
log response include *clay-rich *sediments and
*sulphide minerals. The SP method cannot be
used for logging wells in offshore areas, where
saltwater-based drilling muds are used.
self-reversal The ability of certain *ferro-
magnetic materials to acquire a thermal rema-
nence in the opposite direction to the ambient
magnetic field. Usually this requires the interac-
tion of two or more magnetic lattices, or of
minerals with different *Néel or *Curie temper-
atures.
SEM See scanning electron microscope.
Senecan A *series (370–388 Ma ago) in the
Upper *Devonian of N. America, underlain by
the *Erian, overlain by the *Chautauquan, and
comprising the Fingerlakian and Cohoktonian
*Stages. It is roughly contemporaneous with the
*Frasnian of Europe.
Senonian Part of the Late *Cretaceous which
is dated at 89.3–65.5 Ma (Int. Commission on
Stratigraphy, 2004) and comprises the *Conia-
cian, *Santonian, *Campanian, and *Maastrich-
tian *Ages. Some authors do not include the
Maastrichtian Age within the Senonian.
Sensitive High Resolution Ion MicroP-
robe (SHRIMP) A device for dating granite
*batholiths in situ by analysing zircon grains
taken from several samples.
sensitive tint See accessory plate.
sensitivity 1. The consistency of *clay as this
is affected by *remoulding. The effect depends
on the type of clay and the amount of pore
water. In a sensitive clay, *shear strength is de-
creased dramatically on remoulding when
moisture content remains constant. Sensitivity
is measured as the ratio of the *unconfined
compressive strength to the strength in the re-
moulded state at the same water content. 2. In
chemical analysis, the smallest change in con-
centration which can be discriminated by the
analytical method.
septa See rugosa; tabulata; septum.
septarian nodule A *concretion, roughly
spheroidal in shape, usually of *clay *ironstone,
and characterized by an internal structure
of angular blocks separated by radiating
525
mineral-filled blocks. The mineral filling the
cracks is usually *calcite. The structure results
from the formation of a hard exterior to the
nodule due to the development of an aluminous
*gel on the exterior, followed by dehydration of
the colloidal mass (see colloid) in the interior,
leading to cracking and subsequent mineral in-
filling of the radiating pattern of cracks.
septomaxilla A bone at the front of the
upper jaw in reptiles; monotremes (*Mono-
tremata) are the only mammals in which
this bone maintains its separate identity. See
obdurodon.
septum (pl. septa) A cross wall or
partition.1. A morphological term used particu-
larly with reference to the *Cephalopoda, whose
shells are divided internally into a series of
chambers (camerae) by septa which are gener-
ally concave towards the anterior. There is an
opening (foramen) in each septum and this is
usually bordered by a collar (septal neck). Sep-
tal necks are forward-pointing (prochoanitic) in
ammonoids (*Ammonoidea) and backward-
pointing (retrochoanitic) in nautiloids (*Nauti-
loidea). In many ammonoids the septum be-
comes fluted and there has been much
discussion concerning the function of the com-
plex fluting.
2. The radially arranged *plates that occur in
the *corallum of corals. The first-formed septa
are called ‘prosepta’ and are usually larger than
the metasepta, which occur between them.
sequence stratigraphy The analysis, with-
in the framework of a *chronostratigraphic
scale, of depositional units that are related to
one another genetically (i.e. they were formed
by similar processes). There are two schools: the
Exxon Production Research (EPR) *depositional
sequence model and the *genetic stratigraphic
sequence model (proposed by W. E. Galloway in
1989), differing mainly in the type of boundaries
by which they define the strata.
serac Ice pinnacle found on the surface of a
*glacier and resulting from tensional failure
in the more rigid upper crust. This is due to
the stretching that occurs when a glacier
moves over a convex-up slope, spreads out
over a plain, or passes round a bend in its valley.
serein The fall of rain from an apparently clear
sky. The phenomenon may be explained by the
evaporation of cloud particles following the for-
mation of rain droplets, or by the movement of
cloud away from the overhead position as the
rain approaches the ground.
serpentinite
sericite A white variety of *muscovite or
paragonite and member of the *phyllosilicates
(sheet silicates) with the formula K2Al4[Si3A-
lO10]2(OH)2 formed from the alteration of *feld-
spar by either hydrothermal alteration or later-
stage *weathering. It appears as small scales or
flakes or compact aggregates which give the
feldspar a ‘cloudy’ appearance in *thin section.
series The major subdivision of a *system, and
the chronostratigraphic equivalent of an
*epoch. It denotes the layers of strata or the
body of rock formed during one epoch. A series
may itself be divided into *stages. When used
formally the initial letter of the term is often
capitalized, e.g. Lower *Cretaceous Series.
serir Veneer of mixed sand and gravel man-
tling a Saharan plain and transported originally
by *sheetwash and *braided-stream activity.
Subsequently it was weathered and modified
under more arid conditions.
serpenticone See involute.
serpentine A group of *minerals belonging to
the 1:1 group of *phyllosilicates (sheet silicates)
with the composition Mg6[Si4O10](OH)8 and in-
cluding the minerals chrysotile (the asbestiform
variety), lizardite, and antigorite; sp. gr. 2.55–
2.60; *hardness 2.0–3.5; *monoclinic; chrysotile
is fibrous whereas lizardite and antigorite occur
as flat *tabular crystals or *massive; various
shades of green, also brown, grey-white, or yel-
low; *greasy to *waxy *lustre, occasionally *silky;
formed from altered *olivine and *orthopyrox-
ene. It results from the alteration of ultramafic
(see ultrabasic) rocks either by *hydrothermal
action at a late stage or by alteration during
*metamorphism, chrysotile forming first and
then altering to antigorite; it is a constituent of
ophicalcites, a serpentine-*calcite rock derived
from the dedolomitization (see dedolomite) of s
a siliceous *dolomite. It is used extensively as a
facing stone and for ornament; chrysotile has
been used as a source of commercial *asbestos
in Thetford, Canada. Lizardite occurs on the
Lizard Peninsula, Cornwall, UK.
serpentine barrens Impoverished vegeta-
tion, often dominated by scrub or heath, asso-
ciated with *serpentine rocks. On *weathering
these rocks release an excess of magnesium into
the soil, and this often inhibits the development
of the natural climax in the areas concerned.
serpentinite Altered rock formed from
an *ultrabasic precursor by low temperature
and water interaction. Such rocks are compact,
 serpentinization
variously coloured, and may have considerable
ornamental value. They consist mainly of hy-
droxyl-bearing magnesium silicates formed
from original *olivine and *pyroxenes.
serpentinization The process whereby
high-temperature *primary *ferromagnesian
minerals in an *igneous rock undergo alteration
to a member of the *serpentine group of min-
erals. The process is initiated by the introduc-
tion of low-temperature water into the rock
system, the water acting as a catalyst for
the reaction in which the high-temperature pri-
mary ferromagnesian minerals are converted to
low-temperature, *secondary, serpentine-group
minerals. Serpentinization is extremely com-
mon in *ultrabasic rocks, especially those
found in *ophiolites where the entire rock may
be converted to serpentine-group minerals,
forming a *serpentinite rock. Where the original
mineral assemblage can be inferred from relict
minerals or *pseudomorph textures, the original
mineral name can be added to the rock name.
Thus a serpentinized *dunite would be an *ol-
ivine-serpentinite.
Serpukhovian 1. The final *epoch in the
*Mississippian, comprising the Pendleian, Arns-
bergian, Chokierian, and Alportian *Ages (these
are also *stage names in western European stra-
tigraphy). The Serpukhovian is preceded by the
*Visean, followed by the *Bashkirian (*Pennsyl-
vanian), and dated at 326.4–318.1 Ma (Int. Com-
mission on Stratigraphy, 2004). 2. The name of
the corresponding eastern European *series,
which is roughly contemporaneous with the
upper *Chesterian (N. America) and *Namurian
A (western Europe).
Serravallian 1. An *age in the Middle *Mio-
cene, preceded by the *Langhian, followed by
the *Tortonian, and dated at 13.65–11.608 Ma
s (Int. Commission on Stratigraphy, 2004).
2. The name of the corresponding European
*stage, which is roughly contemporaneous with
the Helvetian (Europe), upper *Luisian and
lower *Mohnian (N. America), *Lillburnian
(New Zealand), and *Bairnsdalian (Australia).
The *stratotype is in the Scrivia Valley, Italy.
sesquioxides General term for the hydrated
oxides and hydroxides of iron and aluminium.
sessile 1. Lacking a stalk. 2. Attached to a
substrate; non-motile.
seston Particulate matter suspended in sea
water.
seta Stiff, hair-like or bristle-like structure.
526
Setebos (Uranus XIX) A lesser satellite of
Uranus with a radius of 24 km and a visual
*albedo of 0.07.
settlement 1. Gradual subsidence of a struc-
ture, caused by the compression of soil below
*foundation level. Normally a uniform amount
of settlement can be accepted but damage may
occur when different parts settle disproportion-
ately. See differential settlement. 2. In min-
ing, the lowering of overlying strata due to
extraction of material.
settling lag The period of time it takes for a
fine-grained particle to settle through a water
body after the cessation of transportation in
suspension. The settling time will be dependent
on the *particle size and *particle shape, and
governed largely by Stokes’s law of settling.
sexual dimorphism Phenomenon of mor-
phological differences (besides primary sexual
characters) that distinguish the males from the
females of a species. For example, male deer
often have larger antlers than females, and the
males of many birds have differing plumage
(often more brightly coloured). Sexual dimor-
phism is known to have been common in am-
monites (*Ammonoidea), and many *fossils
originally thought to have represented separate
species are now recognized as dimorphs within
one species (e.g. the *Jurassic Kosmoceras jason
and K. gulielmi are dimorphs within K. jason).
See also dimorphism.
Seymouria One of the more problematic of
fossil *amphibians, possessing a combination of
amphibian and reptilian characters so that it has
been referred to both groups on different occa-
sions. One of the features separating it and its
relatives from other amphibians is the presence
of a large, forward-extended optic notch (the
primitive site of the ear drum). A medium-
sized amphibian, it existed during the Lower
*Permian in N. America.
sferics Natural electromagnetic signals, gen-
erated in the atmosphere by discharges of
lightning, which propagate around the Earth
between its surface and the *ionosphere. The
word is derived from ‘atmospherics’.
S-fold An asymmetrical *parasitic fold whose
approximately S-shaped profile, when observed
down the *plunge of the *fold axis, indicates its
position on the right limb of the major *anti-
cline, but not on the *syncline. See minor fold.
SG The older abbreviation for *specific gravity
(sp. gr.).
527
SGCS Standard Global Chronostratigraphic
(Geochronologic) Scale. See standard strati-
graphic(al) scale.
shade temperature The temperature of the
air, conventionally measured in a standard shel-
ter or screen that protects the thermometer
from rain and from direct sunshine, but that
allows the free passage of air.
shadow test See half-shadow test.
shadow zone 1. A region of the subsurface
from which seismic *reflections cannot be de-
tected because their ray-paths do not emerge to
the surface.
2. A zone over the Earth’s surface in which
*P-waves and/or *S-waves generated by an
*earthquake are detected only weakly, or are
absent, because of *refraction within the various
layers deep within the Earth, and especially in
association with the Earth’s *core. Seismic sig-
nals refracted from the *mantle are usually
poorly discernible at a range of up to about
10 . At a range of 103–142 from the earthquake
P- and S-waves are observed only very weakly;
between 110 and 142 some very weak P-waves
can be measured and these are thought to have
been refracted from the inner core. Between
142 and 180 from an earthquake no S-waves
are recorded because the waves cannot travel
through the liquid outer core.
shaft well A well sunk by a mining technique
rather than by drilling. Normally it is larger in
cross-section than a drilled well.
shale Fine-grained, fissile, *sedimentary rock
composed of *clay-sized and *silt-sized particles
of unspecified mineral composition. The noun
may be qualified by an adjective (e.g. *black
shale, *paper shale, and *oil shale).
shale line The line on an electrical log mark-
ing the usual *apparent resistivity for a *shale.
shallowing-upward carbonate cycle A
stratigraphic sequence found on platforms,
shelves (see shelf), and some former lake
beds, where carbonates have been deposited
in progressively shallower water. The sequence
develops where the rate of carbonate deposition
exceeds the rate at which the receiving basin
sinks, so the sediment surface repeatedly rises
towards the water surface, while at the same
time the deposit progrades (see prograda-
tion).
shamal Regional north-westerly wind
which brings hot, dry conditions in summer,
shear plane
especially in June and July, to Iraq, Iran, and
the Arabian Peninsula. It blows with great force
during the day.
shape fabric A *fabric in which the orienta-
tion of mineral grains is determined by their
shape, so the fabric may be modelled by the
shapes of various *strain ellipsoids. Three *tec-
tonite fabrics are commonly used to demon-
strate shape fabrics. L-tectonites, produced by
uniaxial stretching with planar fabrics, corre-
spond to prolate ellipsoids (see prolate uni-
axial strain). S-tectonites, produced by
flattening with planar fabrics, correspond to ob-
late ellipsoids (see oblate uniaxial strain).
L–S-tectonites, produced by stretching and flat-
tening with intermediate fabrics, correspond to
triaxial ellipsoids.
sharp sand *Sand composed of angular, not
rounded, grains, with little foreign material; it is
used in mortar.
shatter cones Striated, conical, nested frac-
ture pattern that has apparently occurred
in response to shock waves of the magnitude
(2–25 GPa) generated by a *meteorite impact.
Individual cone shapes may vary from less than
a centimetre to several metres in size. The api-
ces of the cones tend to point towards the centre
of impact. Shatter cones were first discovered by
R. S. *Dietz in the 1940s and have been observed
at many postulated impact *crater sites, e.g. the
Sudbury Structure, Ontario, Canada; the Ries
and Steinheim Basins, southern Germany; and
Gosses Bluff, Australia.
shear box Laboratory equipment used to test
the *shear strength of soil or rock. The upper
and lower halves of a sample are subjected to
horizontal shear by lateral pressure, and the
s
effects measured.
shear direction See shear plane.
shear modulus (μ, Lamé’s constant μ, ri-
gidity modulus) The ratio of the shearing
stress (t) to the resultant shear strain compo-
nent (tan y in the case of simple shear). It can
also be given by m = ½E/(1 + s) where E is
*Young’s modulus and s is *Poisson’s ratio.
shear plane A plane that is parallel to the
walls of a *shear zone and contains the shear
direction (the displacement vector).
 shear strain
shear plane
shear zone
Shear plane and zone
shear strain See angular shear strain.
shear strength The internal resistance of a
material to *shear stress; this varies depending
on temperature, *confining pressure, shape,
size, loading rate, and amount of pore fluid
present. It is measured as the maximum shear
stress on an original cross-sectional area that
can be sustained. In soils, it is the maximum
resistance of a soil to shearing forces under
specified conditions. The peak shear strength
is the highest stress sustainable just prior to
complete *failure of a sample under load; after
this, stress cannot be maintained and major
strains usually occur by displacement along fail-
ure surfaces. The residual shear strength is the
ultimate strength along a surface or parting in
soil or rock after shearing has occurred. For
material not previously sheared there is a rapid
decline in strength with increasing shear until
the residual shear strength is reached.
shear stress (t) The *stress which acts paral-
lel to a plane on which a force has been applied.
Shear stresses tend to promote sliding along a
plane. Conventionally they are designated by
the symbol t; +t indicates a left-handed shear
sense, t a right-handed shear sense.
shear wave See s-wave.
s shear zone A region, narrow compared to its
length, within which rocks have undergone in-
tense deformation. There are two end-mem-
bers. Brittle shear zones (*faults), marked by a
surface of rupture, are a common feature of
higher crustal levels. In ductile shear zones de-
formation is continuous and characterized by
high ductile *strains due to the rocks having
formed under high temperatures and pressures
at deeper crustal levels. Both brittle and ductile
shear zones may occur as subparallel or *conju-
gate sets.
sheath fold A *fold with extreme curvature
at the *hinge, often close to 180 .
sheep-walk See terracette.
528
sheet flood See flash flood.
sheet lightning The appearance of lightning
flashes as a general flash when cloud cover
causes the diffusion of their light. It may be
due to flashes between two clouds seen through
an intervening cloud, or flashed between sepa-
rate charges within a single cloud.
sheet sand (sand sheet) A flat or gently
undulating area of sand surrounding a *dune.
sheet silicate See phyllosilicate.
sheetwash A geomorphological *process by
which a thin, mobile sheet of water flows over
the surface of a hillslope and may transport the
surface *regolith. It ils important in semi-arid
regions, and may also be significant in temper-
ate zones if the vegetation cover has been re-
moved. See rainwash.
Sheinwoodian A *stage (426.2–428.2 Ma
ago) of the Middle *Silurian, underlain by the
*Telychian and overlain by the *Whitwellian.
shelf A gently sloping or near-horizontal, shal-
low, marine platform. Horizontal shelf areas,
particularly in carbonate-dominated areas, are
referred to as ‘platforms’ if they have precipitate
margins; more uniformly sloping shallow ma-
rine carbonate areas are termed ‘ramps’.
shell beak In *Bivalvia, the oldest part of the
shell, located near the *hinge.
shell bed A *lag deposit of shells and skeletal
remains that are too heavy to be transported by
sea currents, but from which the currents have
winnowed away the sedimentary particles.
shell structure Shell growth is similar in
*Mollusca and *Brachiopoda. The shell is divid-
ed into an outer periostracum, which is organic,
and an inner ostracum. Both parts are secreted
by the *mantle and shells grow by marginal in-
crements which are commonly visible on the
exterior as growth lines. Shell thickening takes
place and in some groups accessory or addition-
al shell material may be laid down. External
ornament, e.g. ribs, often reflects the shape of
the mantle edge or structures contained within
it and quite complex patterns of ornament are
sometimes produced.
shelly limestone *Carbonate rock that
contains a large proportion of shell or shell
fragments.
shelter porosity See choquette and pray
classification.
529
shergottyite/nakhlite/chassignite me-
teorites (SNC) Association of about a dozen
*meteorites, much younger (1.3 billion years)
than the majority found (4.6 billion years).
They have *igneous *textures and contain iron-
rich *silicates and iron oxides, therefore must
come from an oxygen-rich environment, and
also small amounts of water-bearing minerals.
Probably they all come from the same planetary
body; the most favoured possibility is the planet
*Mars.
Shermanian A *stage (454–457 Ma ago) of
the *Ordovician in the Upper *Champlainian
*Series of N. America.
shield 1. A tunnel borer consisting of a con-
ventional shield with thrust rams and erector
system. The cutter head and support are inside
the shield. This type of machine is usually em-
ployed in soils or variable materials, e.g. a sand–
rock–gravel sequence. 2. See craton.
shield volcano See hawaiian eruption.
shingle Beach pebbles, normally well round-
ed as a result of abrasion, whose diameters are
typically 0.75–7.5 cm. They are made of resistant
materials such as *flint, which is the dominant
constituent of the shingle beaches of south-
eastern England. They may also show lateral
sorting, e.g. the shingle of the Chesil Beach,
Dorset, England, steadily increases in size over
29 km from west to east.
Shipka A *solar system asteroid (No. 2530),
with an orbital period of 5.25 years. It was
to have been visited in October 2008 by the
*Rosetta spacecraft, but the plans were revised
and Shipka was dropped from the itinerary.
shoal A mound or other structure raised above
the sea bed in shallow water that is composed
of, or covered by, unconsolidated material and
may be exposed at low water.
shoaling The behaviour of waves as they ap-
proach a shelving shore. The waves cease to be
symmetrical and sinusoidal and become asym-
metrical and solitary. Wavelength and wave ve-
locity decrease, wave height and wave steepness
increase, and wave period remains constant.
shoal retreat massif Large *sand accumu-
lation preserved on the *continental shelf dur-
ing and after a marine *transgression. The
massifs represent former *estuary-mouth sand
bars (inlet-associated shoals) or former zones of
*longshore-drift convergence (cape-associated
shoals). In the Middle Atlantic Bight of the east
shoestring sand
coast of the USA the massifs are up to 70 km
long by 20 km wide and can be found offshore
from the present Hudson, Delaware, and Ches-
apeake estuaries, and longshore-drift conver-
gence zones such as Cape Hatteras.
shock metamorphism Changes included
in *rocks and *minerals when they are subjected
to pressures from shock waves travelling at 10–
13 km/s resulting from *meteorite, cometary, or
asteroidal impact. Pressures ranging to more
than 50 Mpa are experienced during such
events. Materials subjected to less than 10 Mpa
are severely disrupted and fractured; between
10 and 25 Mpa, framework *silicates exhibit
planar deformation features; maskelynite (vitri-
fied *plagioclase feldspar) forms between 25
and 40 Mpa; *quartz and *feldspar melt from
40 to 60 Mpa; while rocks subjected to pressures
of more than 60 to 70 Mpa become molten. Peak
pressures are sufficient to vaporize material.
shock-remanent magnetization The
magnetization acquired as a result of rapidly
applied stress while being held in a magnetic
field. It is usually attributed to meteoritic im-
pacts. See also piezoremanent magnetiza-
tion.
Shoemaker, Eugene Merle (1928–97) An
American geologist who founded the scientific
study of impact cratering on Earth, the Moon,
and on other solar system planets and their
satellites, and who also pioneered the study of
near-Earth comets and asteroids, often in col-
laboration with his wife Carolyn. This led him to
recognize the importance of the cratering pro-
cess in the history of the solar system. Shoemak-
er worked for the US Geological Survey (USGS,
rom 1948 to 1993), then continuing to serve as
scientist emeritus. In the 1960s he established
the Astrogeology Branch of the USGS and its
centre at Flagstaff, Arizona. Studies of the s
Moon and other bodies lacking atmospheres
led him to propose that their surfaces should
be covered with a layer of ejecta he termed
‘regolith’, and that the age of a surface could
be inferred from its cratering. In March 1993,
Gene and Carolyn Shoemaker and David Levy
discovered a fragmented comet close to Jupiter.
The comet, named Shoemaker-Levy 9, collided
with Jupiter spectacularly in July 1994. Gene
Shoemaker died in a car crash in the Australian
outback. He and Carolyn, who survived, had
been on their way to study a crater.
shoestring sand An irregular, sinuous
*sandbody having a form resembling a shoe-
lace, often representing the preserved sandy
 shonkinite
deposit of a meandering river channel (see me-
ander).
shonkinite A dark coloured, coarse-grained,
*igneous rock consisting of *essential *diopside
(making up about 50% of the rock), *alkali feld-
spar, and *biotite, with or without *olivine and/
or *nepheline. Where olivine or nepheline is
abundant the rock name is prefixed with these
*mineral names (e.g. olivine-shonkinite). Shon-
kinites are essentially a type of alkali *syenite.
shooting flow See critical flow; froude
number.
shoreface The subtidal coastal zone between
the low-water mark and a depth of about 10–20
m, within which wave action governs the sedi-
mentary processes. Below the lower limit of the
shoreface waves do not affect the sea bed. See
wave base.
shore platform (marine platform, marine
terrace, marine flat, marine bench, wave-
cut bench, wave-cut platform) Intertidal
bench cut into a land mass by the action of
waves and associated processes. It is terminated
landward by a sea cliff, and slopes gently sea-
ward at about 1 .
shortening The reduction in length of a line
as a result of *strain, e.g. by thickening, folding,
thrusting, or the loss of material by solution.
Simple shortening may be calculated using the
same equation as for *extension (e): e = (LF –
LO)/LO, where LF is the final length and LO the
original length; if e has a negative value when
calculated from this equation, the line has been
shortened.
short wavelength infrared See near-in-
frared.
s shrinkage joint See joint.
shot A source of seismic shock waves that
are produced for experimental purposes, e.g.
by a *hammer, an explosion, an *airgun, or a
*water gun.
shot bounce The noise on a *seismic record
that is generated by the physical and mechani-
cal motion of a recording vehicle.
shotcrete A type of *concrete, sometimes re-
inforced with metal or glass fibre, which is
sprayed on to the face of an excavation to form
a protective lining and support, usually a few
tens of millimetres thick. It is most useful in
protecting soft or weak material and can be
adapted to suit varying conditions. It is often
530
used in conjunction with other forms of sup-
port, e.g. *rock bolts and *arching.
shot depth The depth below ground level of a
seismic source. If the source is non-explosive, it
is the depth at which the source impulse is
generated; if it is explosive, it is the depth to
the top of the explosive, or to its mid-point if
the length of the explosive material is small in
relation to the depth of the hole, or to both top
and bottom of the explosive charge (i.e. two shot
depths) if it is very large.
shotpoint gap See seismic gap.
shower *Precipitation of short duration that
begins and ends abruptly, associated with con-
vective clouds which usually do not form a con-
tinuous cover of the sky. Intensity varies, e.g.
showers may be slight, moderate, or heavy.
Hail or snow may form part of the precipitation.
shrieking sixties Popular maritime term for
the prevailing westerly winds which are com-
monly strong over the oceans in temperate lati-
tudes of the southern hemisphere, south of 60  S.
See also furious fifties; roaring forties.
SHRIMP See sensitive high resolution ion
microprobe.
shrimps See malacostraca.
shrinkage In *concrete, a measurement of
the reduction in dimensions due to the loss of
water. Fine-grained *cement has a low coeffi-
cient of permeability and behaves in a similar
manner to fine-grained soil.
shrinkage cracks See desiccation cracks.
shrub-coppice dune (nabkha, nebkha) A
*sand *dune that is irregular or approximately
elliptical in shape, and streamlined in the down-
wind direction, that results from the accumula-
tion of sand around a clump of vegetation and
downwind of it. It is the commonest type of
sand dune.
shutter ridge A ridge that forms when a
*strike-slip fault occurs across a *gully, at an
angle to the axis of the gully. The movement
shifts the raised side of the gully on one side of
the fault to a position opposite the lowered side
of the gully on the other side of the fault.
531
Shutter ridge
SH-wave See love wave.
SI (SI units) Système International d’Unités, an
internationally agreed group of units of mea-
surement, used especially in scientific work.
The system comprises seven basic and two sup-
plementary units. The basic units are the: metre
(m); kilogram (kg); second (s); ampere (A); kel-
vin (K); mole (mol); and candela (cd). The sup-
plementary units are the: radian (rad); and
steradian (sr). A further 18 units are derived
from these: becquerel (Bq); coulomb (C); farad
(F); gray (Gy); henry (H); hertz (Hz); joule (J);
lumen (lm); lux (lx); newton (N); ohm (Ω); pas-
cal (Pa); siemens (S); sievert (Sv); tesla (T); volt
(V); watt (W); and weber (Wb). See si units,
conversions, and multiples (appendix d).
Siberian high The region of high average
pressure in the colder seasons of the year over
Siberia, centred to the south of Lake Baikal. The
intensity of the high pressure is increased by the
density of the very cold air at the surface over
the Siberian plains.
sichelwannen Crescent-shaped *p-forms cut
into a flat or sloping rock surface by the action
of a *glacier. They are typically 1–10 m long and
5–6 m wide. The horns of the crescents point
down-glacier. Their origin is unclear; the action
of saturated *till and of subglacial meltwater
have both been invoked. The name is German,
its literal meaning being ‘sickle tubs’.
Sicilian See quaternary.
sicula The skeleton of the initial zooid of a
graptolite (*Graptolithina) colony.
side-looking airborne radar (SLAR) An
airborne *radar system which scans sideways
from the flight track and detects the *backscat-
tered radar *reflections from the ground surface
in order to produce a radar image of the ground
much as *side-scan sonar produces an image of
the sea floor. Since different surface materials
have different radar reflectance characteristics
the radar image can be interpreted in terms of
surface features.
side-scan sonar
sidereal day The time it takes for the Earth to
complete one rotation on its axis such that a
particular point on the surface returns to its
former position in relation to the position of
the fixed stars. The sidereal day, of 23 hours 56
minutes and 3.93 seconds, is 3 minutes 55.9
seconds shorter than the mean solar day, be-
cause the movement of the Earth in its solar
orbit is imposed on its rotational motion.
sidereal month A period of 27 days, 7 hours,
and 43 minutes, which is the average period of
revolution of the *Moon around the *Earth, as
determined by using a fixed star as a reference
point.
Siderian A period of the *Proterozoic eon that
began 2500 Ma ago and ended 2300 Ma ago, its
beginning and end being defined by fixed dates.
The Siderian was the first period of the *Palaeo-
proterozoic, following the end of the *Archaean
eon, and was followed by the *Rhyacian period.
siderite (chalybite, spathose iron) Mineral,
FeCO3; sp. gr. 3.8–4.0; *hardness 3.5–4.5; *trigo-
nal; grey to grey-brown or yellowish-brown,
translucent when pure; white *streak; vitreous
*lustre; uneven *fracture; crystals *rhombohe-
dral with curved faces, but also occurs *massive,
granular, fibrous, compact, *botryoidal, and
*earthy in habit; *cleavage perfect rhombohe-
dral {1011}; widespread in *sedimentary rocks,
especially *clays and *shales where it is *concre-
tionary and makes clay into *ironstone, also as
a *gangue mineral in *hydrothermal veins to-
gether with other metallic ores (e.g. *pyrite,
*chalcopyrite, and *galena) and as a replace-
ment mineral in *limestone; dissolves slowly in
cold, dilute hydrochloric acid, which effervesces
when warmed.
siderolite See stony-iron meteorite.
s
siderophile Applied to elements with a weak
affinity for oxygen and sulphur and soluble in
molten iron. For example, Ni, Co, Pt, and Ir,
which are found in iron *meteorites and are
probably concentrated in the Earth’s *core.
Compare atmophile; biophile; chalcophile;
lithophile.
side-scan sonar A sideways-looking acous-
tic-survey system which uses the *reflection of
high-frequency (30–110 kHz) sound waves from
a surface to map the texture of that surface. It is
most commonly used to map sea-floor features
(sand *ripples, rock *outcrops, pipes, wrecks,
etc.) but it can also be suspended vertically
from a vessel to investigate vertical surfaces,
 sidewall corer
e.g. the submerged parts of icebergs and major
ice fronts.
sidewall corer A device for coring samples
from the side of a drill hole. See also core
slicer.
Sidufjall A normal *polarity subchron which
occurs within the *Gilbert reversed *chron.
Siegennian 1. A *stage of the Early *Devonian
(see praghian). 2. The name of the correspond-
ing European *stage, which is roughly contem-
poraneous with the *Merionsian (Australia),
and the upper Helderbergian, Deerparkian,
and lower Onesquethawian (N. America).
siemens (S) The derived SI unit of electrical
conductance in a circuit with a resistance of one
ohm, and thus equal to a reciprocal ohm (mho,
or Ω-1). It is used in measuring conductivities,
where the unit is S/m. The siemens is named
after Sir William Siemens (1823–83).
sieve A circular-framed container with a
meshed base. The mesh size is accurately ma-
chined and the sieve will permit the passage
only of particles finer than the mesh size.
sieve deposit A well-sorted, *matrix-free
*conglomerate, which forms where the *sedi-
ment transported and deposited comprises
only *pebble and gravel grades. Sieve deposits
are found mainly on *alluvial fans whose source
areas consist of well-jointed, resistant *litholo-
gies such as *quartzites.
sieving A method of grain-size analysis (see
particle size) in which the sample is passed
through a stack of sieves, arranged with the
coarsest mesh at the top and finest at the base.
The weight of *sediment trapped on each mesh
is recorded, and percentage weight plotted ei-
s ther on a histogram or cumulative frequency
curve (see cumulative percentage curve).
sigma-t density (s-t density) The density
of a sea-water sample measured at atmospheric
pressure, i.e. at the sea surface. It is defined as
density minus 1000, where the density is mea-
sured in kg/m3. Thus sea water at 0 C and 35%
*salinity has a density of 1028 kg/m3, or a s-t
density, at a pressure of 0.1 MPa, of 28.
signature The characteristics of geophysical
anomalies within a region or along a profile. It
is often based on *Fourier or power-spectrum
analyses of either gravity (gravity signature) or
magnetic (magnetic signature) *residual anom-
alies.
532
significant wave height The average
height of the highest one-third of waves in a
given group of waves. This height is usually
used as a standard when describing the wave
characteristics of a given area.
silcrete See duricrust.
silent quake See slow slip.
Silesian The Upper *Carboniferous sub-sys-
tem in western Europe, underlain by the *Di-
nantian, and comprising the *Namurian,
*Westphalian, and *Stephanian *Series. It is
dated at 326.4–299 Ma and is roughly contem-
poraneous with the uppermost *Mississippian
(*Serpukhovian Series) plus the *Pennsylvanian.
silex See flint.
silica Silicon dioxide (SiO2) which occurs nat-
urally in three main forms: (a) crystalline silica
includes the *minerals *quartz, *tridymite, and
*cristobalite; (b) *cryptocrystalline or very finely
crystalline silica includes some *chalcedony,
*chert, *jasper, and *flint; and (c) amorphous
hydrated silica includes *opal, *diatomite, and
some chalcedony. *Coesite and stishovite are
two high-density *polymorphs of quartz which
rarely occur in nature but have been synthe-
sized experimentally.
silica-oversaturated rock See silica
saturation.
silica saturation The concentration of silica
(SiO2) in an *igneous rock, relative to the con-
centration of other chemical constituents in the
rock which combine with the silica to form *sil-
icate minerals. On this basis, three classes of
igneous rock are recognized: (a) silica-oversa-
turated rocks (e.g. *granite), in which there is
more than enough silica to satisfy the require-
ments of all the major silicate minerals, the free
silica appearing as *quartz in the rock; (b) silica-
saturated rocks (e.g. *diorite), in which there is
just enough silica present to satisfy the require-
ments of all the major silicate minerals, there
being neither an excess nor deficiency of silica,
resulting in a lack of both quartz and *feld-
spathoid minerals in the rock; and (c) silica-
undersaturated rocks (e.g. *nepheline syenite),
in which there is not enough silica present to
satisfy the requirements of all the major silicate
minerals, the silica deficiency being accommo-
dated by the crystallization of feldspathoids
(*nepheline, *leucite) in place of *feldspar, the
feldspathoids containing less silica in their
structure than feldspars.
533
silicates The most important and abundant
group of rock-forming minerals, which can be
classified according to the structural arrange-
ment of the fundamental SiO4 *tetrahedra
which are the main building blocks of the
group. (a) *Nesosilicates have independent
SiO4 *tetrahedra linked by *cations, e.g. *olivine
group. (b) Sorosilicates have two SiO4 *tetrahe-
dra sharing one oxygen, e.g. *epidote group.
(c) *Cyclosilicates have rings of three, four, or
six linked SiO4 *tetrahedra, e.g. *axinite and
*tourmaline. (d) *Inosilicates (chain silicates)
have SiO4 *tetrahedra linked either into single
chains by sharing two oxygens, e.g. *pyroxene
group, or into double chains (band silicates) by
alternately sharing two or three oxygens, e.g.
*amphibole group, (e) *Phyllosilicates (sheet sil-
icates) share three oxygens to form a flat sheet,
e.g. *mica group. (f) Tectosilicates have SiO4 *tet-
rahedra linked into a three-dimensional frame-
work by sharing all the oxygens, e.g. *feldspar
and *quartz groups.
silica-undersaturated rock See silica
saturation.
siliceous ooze Fine-grained *pelagic deposit
of the deep-ocean floor with more than 30%
siliceous material of organic origin. *Radiolaria
and *diatom remains are the major constituents
of the siliceous oozes, which tend to occur at
depths in excess of 4500m.
siliceous sinter A *silica-rich precipitate
found around the mouth of a *geyser or hot
spring whose waters carry large amounts of dis-
solved minerals which precipitate when the
water cools suddenly on exposure to the atmo-
sphere.
silicification The introduction of *crypto-
crystalline *silica into a non-siliceous rock via
*groundwater or fluids of *igneous origin. The
introduced silica either fills *pore spaces in
the rock or replaces pre-existing minerals.
siliclastic Applied to a *sediment which com-
prises particles composed of *silicate minerals
and rock fragments, i.e. *mudstones, *sand-
stones, and *conglomerates.
silicon ‘burning’ In stellar evolution,
the process whereby silicon, with magnesium
and sulphur, ‘burns’ at a temperature of
around 3  109 K, producing elements of the
‘iron peak’ (e.g. Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, and Ni). See
carbon ‘burning’; helium ‘burning’; hydro-
gen ‘burning’; oxygen ‘burning’; nucleo-
synthesis.
Silurian
silky Applied to the mineral *lustre of some
fibrous minerals, e.g. *satin spar (see gypsum).
sill A tabular *igneous *intrusion having *con-
cordant surfaces of contact.
sillar A local Peruvian name for *ignimbrites
that have been pervasively altered by *vapour-
phase crystallization. The alteration of original
*pumice and *glass shards involves deposition
of *tridymite, *cristobalite, and *alkali feldspar
that occurs as *drusy infills of the *matrix and
pumice cavities in the upper parts of ignimbrite
cooling units. The gas is derived by diffusion
from *juvenile glassy fragments within the flow
and from heated *groundwater percolating
through the flow. The resulting material makes
excellent, lightweight, easily worked building
stone, usually white. The city of Arequipa,
southern Peru, is renowned for its buildings of
sillar.
sillimanite (fibrolite) A *nesosilicate and
one of an important group of three *mineral
*polymorphs with the same composition
Al2SiO5, the other two being *andalusite and
*kyanite; sp. gr. 3.23; *hardness 6.5–7.5; *ortho-
rhombic; occurs as elongate *prismatic *crystals
with a diamond-shaped cross-section or as *fi-
brous and felted masses; colourless; occurs
under conditions of high-grade *metamorphism
either in the innermost zones of thermal aure-
oles (see contact aureole) or in high-grade
regional metamorphic rocks (see regional
metamorphism) formed under high tempera-
tures and pressures. It is named after the Amer-
ican mineralogist B. Silliman.
silt 1. In the commonly used Udden– Went-
worth scale, particles between 4mm and
62.57 mm in size. Other classifications exist. In
*pedology, silt refers to mineral soil particles s
that range in diameter from 0.02 to 0.002 mm
in the international system, or from 0.05 to 0.002
mmm in the *USDA system. See particle size.
2. A class of soil texture.
siltstone A lithified *silt, comprising *grains
between 4 mm and 62.5 mm in size.
Silurian Third (443.7–416 Ma) of six *periods
of the *Palaeozoic *Era. The end of the period is
marked by the climax of the *Caledonian orog-
eny and the filling of several Palaeozoic basins
of deposition.
A
 The Silurian Period of the Palaeozoic Era.
 silver, native
silver, native Malleable metallic element,
Ag; sp. gr. 10.5; *hardness 2.5; white; *cubic
crystals, thin sheets, or scales; occurs in associ-
ation with other silver minerals in the oxidized
zone of silver-rich mineral deposits and in
*hydrothermal vein deposits.
silver glance See argentite.
silver iodide Substance used in the form of
fine particles to act as nuclei in *cloud seeding.
silver spike In stratigraphy, a time-line se-
lected as a reference point in a regional succes-
sion of *strata. Compare *golden spike.
silver thaw 1. Phenomenon resulting from
the formation of ice on cold surfaces (e.g. due to
rain) during a period of rapid thaw after a severe
frost. See also glaze. 2. A name given to freezing
rain in the Pacific Northwest of the USA; it
is called ‘thaw’ because warmer weather often
follows it.
Simiiformes (Anthropoidea) (cohort Un-
guiculata, order Primates) Infra-order compris-
ing the monkeys, apes, and humans. Monkeys
and apes have a common ancestor and diverged
in the *Oligocene. The dryopithecines of the
succeeding *Miocene were undoubted apes.
The traditional palaeontological view is that
these Miocene apes gave rise in turn to three
new lines, one leading to the gibbons, another
to the great apes, the third to humans. However,
on the basis of anatomical characteristics and
genetic criteria, it has long been maintained that
ancestors of both the gibbons and the orang-
utan diverged from the ancestral line of the
advanced Primates at an early date and that
only subsequently did that line split to give
one group comprising humans and another
comprising the gorilla, chimpanzee, and bono-
s bo; recent palaeontological evidence now tends
to support this second view.
similar fold A *fold in which the *orthogonal
thickness changes systematically such that the
thickness of the fold remains constant when
measured parallel to the *axial surface. Single
layers are thicker at the *hinge and thinner
in the limb regions. Unlike a *parallel fold, a
similar fold can maintain its form throughout a
sequence.
simoom Regional wind that blows in spring
and summer over the south-eastern Sahara and
Arabia. The wind blows for only a short period
at a time and its whirlwind effect carries sand
and brings very hot, dry conditions.
534
simple shear (homogeneous rotational
strain, rotational shear) A rotational *strain
in which the maximum and minimum strain
axes are re-oriented in relation to their original
positions. See also homogeneous strain.
Compare *pure shear.
Simpson, George Gaylord (1902–84) An
American palaeontologist, specializing in mam-
malian evolution, who also studied mammal
migrations. He obtained his Ph.D. from Yale
University in 1926, for a thesis on *Mesozoic
mammals, and then joined the staff of the
American Museum of Natural History, in New
York City, becoming curator in 1942. In 1945 he
moved, as a professor, to Columbia University.
From 1959 to 1970 he was Alexander Agassiz
Professor of Vertebrate Palaeontology at the
Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard
University, and in 1967 was appointed professor
of geosciences at the University of Arizona. His
studies of fossil mammals, especially those of
Madagascar, led him initially to oppose the the-
ory of *continental drift. Simpson proposed that
the dispersion of species occurred along
*sweepstakes dispersal routes.
Sinemurian A *stage in the European Lower
*Jurassic (196.5–189.6 Ma, Int. Commission on
Stratigraphy, 2004), roughly contemporaneous
with the upper Aratauran (New Zealand). See
also lias.
single couple (Type I earthquake source)
A *seismic wave pattern, consisting of four lobes
(for *P-waves) and two lobes (for *S-waves) of
alternate compression and dilation, which is
generated by movement along a single *fault
plane. Compare *double couple.
single-stage lead *Common lead (Pb)
removed at a particular time from a single,
constantly evolving, uranium–thorium–lead en-
vironment. It can be used to provide the basis
for the common-lead method of dating (see
lead–lead dating). After the removal of this
lead in solution and its deposition as a lead ore
(such as *galena), it is then assumed not to have
been altered in isotopic composition by the fur-
ther addition of *radiogenic products.
singularity In meteorology, a short seasonal
episode lasting a few days and commonly oc-
curring about specific dates of the year.
One example is the periods of fine, dry, warm
weather commonly occurring in September
and early October in Britain and central Europe,
and known as ‘old wives’ summer' (or ‘Indian
535 Sivapithecus

summer’), which are due to slow-moving *anti-

cyclones.

Sinian The final *stage of the *Neoproterozoic,

dated at about 800–542 Ma (Int. Commission on
Stratigraphy, 2004). The name is derived from a
region of central China.

sinistral coiling See coiling.

sinistral fault (left lateral fault) The sense

of displacement in a *strike-slip fault zone
where one block is displaced to the left of the
block from which the observation is made.
siphonal
canal
sink A natural reservoir that can receive energy
or materials without undergoing change.
Siphonal canal
sink-hole See doline. siphonate Applied to the *aperture of a gas-
tropod (*Gastropoda) shell when a canal or
sinking See downwelling. notch for the *siphon is present.

Sinope (Jupiter IX) One of the lesser satellites
of *Jupiter, with a diameter of 28 km; its orbit is
*retrograde.
Sinornis An early *Cretaceous bird from Liao-
ning Province, China. It is one of the earliest to
show the advanced avian features of an exten-
sive *synsacrum and complete fusion of the
distal *tarsal bones with *metatarsals.
sinter A concentration of material, especially
*silica and calcium carbonate, formerly dis-
solved in a hydrothermal solution, that was pre-
cipitated as the solution cooled.
sinus A Latin word meaning ‘curve’ or ‘bay’.
1. The word ‘sinus’ was used by Giovanni B.
Riccioli in 1651 to designate bay-like features
on the lunar maria (see mare). The best known
example is Sinus Iridum, the ‘Bay of Rainbows’,
on the north-western margin of the ‘Sea of
Rains’ (Mare Imbrium). 2. In certain bivalves
(*Bivalvia), a recess or embayment in the pallial
line; most bivalves with a pallial sinus are
burrowers.
siphon In bivalve molluscs (*Bivalvia) and
gastropods (*Gastropoda), a tube that connects
the mollusc to the world outside, funnelling
water towards and away from the gills. In bi-
valves siphons may occur in pairs.
siphonal canal In some gastropod (*Gastro-
poda) shells, an indentation or channel that
accommodates the *siphon.
siphonostomatous See aperture.
siphuncle A long tube present in those ceph-
alopods (*Cephalopoda) that possess external
shells. It runs internally, through all the cham-
bers, and contains the siphuncular cord of body
tissue, extending from the visceral mass through
a perforation in each *septum of the shell. The
siphuncle releases gas into the unoccupied
chambers of the shell, making the animal buoy-
ant.
sister groups The twin products of *clado-
genesis which, under the rules of *phylogenetic
systematics, must be classified at the same rank
taxonomically (i.e. the two daughter lineages
that result from the splitting of a single parent
species).
sister taxa In *phylogenetics, two taxa con-
nected through a single *internal node. s
site investigation The geologic examina-
tion of a potential development site in order to
design the foundations of surface buildings,
roads, etc. It includes geophysical surveys, trial
pits, and *boreholes.
Sivapithecus Genus of early *hominoid Pri-
mates, which probably includes the so-called
*Ramapithecus. They are known from E. Africa,
south-eastern Europe, Turkey, Arabia, Pakistan,
northern India, and southern China, from
the Middle and Late *Miocene 15–8 Ma ago.
The genus may include ancestors of great apes
and humans, but certainly early relatives of the
orang-utan have been identified among species
 skarn
of the genus. Although there are similarities
between the teeth of Sivapithecus and those of
humans, these are probably misleading, and
Sivapithecus is now regarded as an ape that
was ancestral either to the orang-utan alone,
or to all living great apes and humans.
skarn A contact metamorphic rock (see con-
tact metamorphism) composed of calcium,
magnesium, and iron silicates (with or without
iron, copper, and manganese sulphides and ox-
ides) which has been derived from *limestone
or *dolomite by the metasomatic (see metaso-
matism) introduction of large amounts of sili-
con, aluminium, iron, and magnesium from a
nearby *igneous *intrusion, usually a *granite.
Many skarns serve as host rocks for economic
deposits of *magnetite and copper sulphides.
skeletal limestone See leighton–pendex-
ter classification.
skeletal material In most vertebrates the
skeleton is made from *bone (calcium phos-
phate); among *invertebrates it is more varied.
*Calcite or *aragonite in various forms is com-
mon in such groups as the brachiopods (*Bra-
chiopoda) and molluscs (*Mollusca). Normally
the invertebrate skeleton is made up from sev-
eral layers, and often each layer has a distinctive
structure. The main, calcified portion of the
shell is called the ‘ostracum’; an outer layer,
the ‘periostracum’ (made from layers of pro-
tein), disappears after death. Calcitic skeletons
also occur in corals and *Bryozoa. Echinoderms
(*Echinodermata) have skeletons made up of a
number of elements. Each element is permeat-
ed with living tissue but the hard material is
calcite, which forms in optical continuity to
form a single *crystal. Chitin (a hydrocarbon
related to cellulose) is the principal component
of insect cuticle. It has been assumed that chitin
s impregnated with calcium carbonate forms the
exoskeletal material in trilobites (*Trilobita), but
although organic material occurs its nature is
still unknown. Similarly, recent studies of grap-
tolite (*Graptolithina) skeletal material have
shown that the material is not chitin but a
scleroprotein (a fibrous, insoluble protein). In
some simple animals, e.g. *Radiolaria and some
sponges (*Porifera), the skeleton is composed of
opaline silica.
skeletal micritic limestone See leigh-
ton–pendexter classification.
skewness An expression of the degree of
asymmetry shown on a frequency distribution.
A non-skewed distribution is a perfect, normal
536
(*Gaussian) distribution. *Grain-size distribu-
tions are skewed positively where larger parti-
cles are more numerous than fine ones, or
negatively where finer particles exceed coarse
within the distribution.
skin depth (zs) The effective depth of pene-
tration (m, in metres) of an *electromagnetic
wave of frequency f Hz, at which the amplitude
of the wave has been attenuated by 1/e (37%) of
its surface value. It can be calculated by: zs =
503.8/√(sf) = 503.8√(r/f), where s is the con-
ductivity (in S/m) and r the resistivity (in Ω/m)
of the medium.
skip mark A type of *tool mark formed by the
intersection at a low angle of an object with a
muddy *sediment surface, so that the object
skips across the surface, producing a linear se-
ries of depressions. See also bounce mark;
prod mark; sedimentary structure; tool
mark.
Skolithos With *Ophiomorpha, an *ichno-
guild of cylindrical or U-shaped, vertical or
steeply inclined *burrows, permanently occu-
pied by suspension feeders. The burrows lack
*spreiten, and were possibly formed in shallow,
sublittoral environments. Burrows of this type
are recorded from the *Cambrian to Recent.
SKS-wave See seismic-wave modes.
skull See cranium.
Skythian See scythian.
sky-view factor The extent of sky observed
from a point as a proportion of the total possible
sky hemisphere.
slab-pull The force, caused by the sinking of
the cold, dense *lithosphere into the *astheno-
sphere at a *destructive margin, which is hy-
pothesized to be one of the two major driving
forces for the movement of *plates (the other is
*ridge-push).
slake-durability test A test to estimate the
resistance of rocks, particularly *argillaceous
rocks, to a combination of wetting and abrasion.
Test results are expressed as a slake-durability
index for each particular rock.
slaking Breaking up of earth materials when
exposed to water or air. The susceptibility of
rock to slaking is measured with a *slake-dura-
bility test.
537
slant range In *radar terminology, the dis-
tance between the radar platform and an object
on the ground.
slant-range resolution The minimum dis-
tance by which two objects on the ground must
be separated in order to be resolved by a *radar.
The minimum distance must be equal to or
greater than half the *pulse length of a radar.
See also azimuth resolution.
SLAR See side-looking airborne radar.
slate Low-grade, *regionally metamorphosed
rock, which is highly fissile and fine grained.
The *fissility (*slaty cleavage) results from the
parallel alignment of numerous fine *phyllosili-
cate minerals (e.g. *muscovite and *chlorite)
induced by compressive tectonic deformation.
The smooth, hard, impermeable surface pro-
duced when slate is split makes it commercially
valuable for roofing, cladding of buildings, and
for making such items as billiard-table tops,
laboratory benches, and blackboards. Compare
*phyllite; schist.
slaty cleavage A continuous *cleavage
formed by the preferred alignment of homoge-
neously distributed *phyllosilicates throughout
a rock. Slaty cleavage is commonly produced
during lower grade *metamorphism. See meta-
morphic grade.
sleet *Precipitation in the form of a mixture of
rain and melting snow. In N. America the term
is applied to ice pellets of less than 5 mm in
diameter that form when rain freezes as it falls.
sleeve exploder A seismic source, used in
marine investigations, in which a mixture of
gases (e.g. propane and oxygen) is detonated
inside a rubber sleeve which expands rapidly
to accommodate the products of the explosion,
thus generating a shock wave in the surround-
ing water. The exhaust gases are vented to the
surface through a pipe to reduce problems
caused by a *bubble pulse.
slick Quiescent area on the surface of a water
body. The relative smoothness of these areas
compared to adjacent waters is usually caused
by a thin surface film of oil which changes the
*surface tension.
slickenfibres Clusters of *mineral fibres that
grow along *fault planes, marking the direction
of relative displacement of the faulted blocks.
slickenside 1. A *lineation on a *fault or *bed-
ding plane caused by the frictional movement of
slope profile
one rock body against another. The plane may
be coated by a *mineral, often *quartz or *cal-
cite, which itself shows striations in the direc-
tion of movement. 2. The polished surface left
by the passage of a mud slide. 3. In soils, the
natural crack surfaces produced by swelling and
shrinkage in clayey soils that are high in swell-
ing *clays.
slide See gravity sliding.
slide-rock See rock slide.
slingram method A dual-coil, *electromag-
netic *profiling system in which both the trans-
mitter and receiver can be moved while
maintaining a constant distance between them.
sling psychrometer See whirling psy-
chrometer.
slip 1. The relative displacement to either side
of a *fault plane of points which were originally
coincident. The total displacement (i.e. the sum
of the *dip-slip and *strike-slip components) is
called the ‘net slip’. 2. (translation gliding) The
gliding of intracrystalline zones in relation to
one another over distances which are integers
of the unit pattern.
slipface The lee face of a sand dune where
the surface is at the *angle of repose for sand
(30–4 ).
slip-off slope See meander.
sloc (pl. slocan) From the Gaelic word for
hollow. Long, deep, parallel-sided depressions
at the coast, common on the Hebridean islands
of Mull and Skye, caused by the erosion of
*dykes cutting through the ancient *gneisses.
slope angle The gradient of a stable hillslope.
In part this may reflect the *particle-size char-
acteristics of the mantling *regolith. For exam- s
ple, maximum slope angles of about 26 are
common in areas where the regolith consists
of a mixture of rock rubble and coarse soil
particles.
slope processes The set of geomorphologi-
cal *processes that act on and below the surface
of a hillslope, affecting the *regolith and bed-
rock. Some of the most important are *rainwash,
*sheetwash, *weathering, *mass movement,
piping, and linear *erosion by *rill and gully
activity. Each process tends to be associated
with a distinctive *slope profile.
slope profile The two-dimensional form of a
hillslope when measured down the steepest
 slope stability
gradient. Traditionally it has been divided into a
number of units, each of which reflected a dis-
tinctive geomorphological *process. For exam-
ple, in 1957 L. C. King identified four elements
in his ideal profile: a crest (or ‘waxing slope’ or
‘convex slope’) dominated by *creep; then a
*scarp (or ‘free face’) affected by *rill activity
and *mass movement; followed by a debris (or
‘constant’) slope where *talus accumulated; and
succeeded finally by a *pediment (or ‘waning
slope’) modified by *sheetwash. Subsequently,
a nine-unit model has gained some acceptance.
slope stability The likelihood that a slope
will fail. This depends on the relative strengths
of the forces tending to make slope material
move and the forces resisting such movement.
The safety factor for a slope is expressed as the
ratio between the *shear strength and *shear
stress. F = s/t, where F is the safety factor, s is
total shear strength along a specified *shear
plane, and t is the total shear stress along that
plane. For shallow slopes, F = c + [(gz cos2 b – u)
tan F]/ gz sin b cos b, where c is *cohesion, g is
the unit weight of the *regolith, z is the vertical
depth of the shear plane, b is the angle of the
shear plane, u is the *pore-water pressure at
the shear plane, and F is the angle of internal
friction. A slope is stable if F > 1.3 and unstable
if F < 1.
slope stabilization The stability of slopes is
important in the design of such excavations as
open pits, quarries, and foundations, and in
natural slopes forming cliffs, valley sides, and
reservoirs, where movement may have serious
consequences. Investigations into slope stability
include measurements of shape, geologic struc-
tures, and soil strengths. Stabilization can be
achieved by regrading, grassing, *dewatering,
meshing, *grouting, *shotcreting, *rock bolting,
or combinations of these.
s is 30% clay and 70% microfossils, with siliceous
slow earthquake See slow slip.
slow-neutron process (s-process) In a
second-generation star, successive neutron cap-
ture on a slow timescale, termed the ‘s-process’,
is considered to account for the abundance dis-
tribution of the heaviest nuclides. The neutrons
are furnished by the basic sequence of energy-
producing reactions, i.e. *hydrogen ‘burning’,
*helium ‘burning’, etc., thus continuing the ele-
ment-building process beyond Fe. See also
nucleosynthesis.
slow slip (silent quake, slow earthquake)
An episodic movement along a segment of a
major fault in which the opposing sides are
538
able to slide past each other slowly. A slow slip
generates no seismic waves and can be detected
only by extremely sensitive measurements of
movements in or on the crust.
sluff A small avalanche (see mass-wasting) of
loose material.
slump A type of *mass-wasting in which loose-
ly consolidated material moves down a slope.
The material may be rock, debris, or soil, and
the movement is usually rotational (see rota-
tional slump) and occurs slowly or at a mod-
erate speed.
slump structure A *sedimentary structure
consisting of overturned *folds, formed by the
mass sliding of the semi-consolidated *sedi-
ment downslope under the influence of gravity.
Smålfjord A *stage of the Cryogenian Period,
dated at 640–650 Ma (Int. Commission on Stra-
tigraphy, 2004).
small circle A circle on the surface of a sphere
whose centre is not coincident with the centre
of the sphere, so that a plane whose circumfer-
ence is a small circle does not bisect the sphere.
In a *stereographic projection a small circle pro-
jects on to the *plane of projection as a circle
whose centre lies inside the *primitive circle. If
the small-circle plane is horizontal it will project
as a circle smaller than the primitive circle but
concentric with it. If it is vertical it will project as
an arc, concave towards the centre of the prim-
itive circle.
smarl A *pelagic or *hemipelagic sediment (an
*arl), typically found interbedded with purer
oozes in beds up to 1.5 m thick, with a compo-
sition intermediate between a non-biogenic
sediment and a calcareous or siliceous ooze. It
and calcareous microfossils present in approxi-
mately equal amounts. Compare marl; sarl.
SMC See saturation moisture content.
smectite A family of *clay minerals that in-
cludes *montmorillonite and *bentonite.
Smith, William (1769–1839) A land surveyor
engaged on canal construction whose work led
him to see that strata could be identified and
correlated by their *fossil content. In 1815 he
published the first geologic map and sections of
England, showing the sequence of strata.
Smithian See scythian.
539
smithsonite (calamine) Mineral, ZnCO3; sp,
gr. 4.4; *hardness 4.5; *trigonal; colour variable,
shades of grey, brown, or greyish-white, but
green, brown, and yellow types also occur;
grey *streak; vitreous *lustre; crystals rare, but
when they develop *rhombohedral with curved
faces, more usually occurs as *botryoidal and
stalactitic masses; *cleavage perfect rhombohe-
dral; occurs in the oxidized zone of zinc ore
deposits, commonly associated with *sphalerite,
*galena, and *calcite, also as a *replacement in
*limestone, and in *hydrothermal veins; soluble
in dilute hydrochloric acid, with effervescence.
The green variety is used to make ornaments.
It is named after the British mineralogist James
Smithson (founder of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion in Washington, DC).
Smith’s rule The formula by which the max-
imum possible depth of a body of unknown
shape can be determined using gravity data.
The body can have either a positive or negative
density contrast with the surrounding rocks.
The maximum depth, dmax, is given by: dmax =
Agmax/(dg/dx), where dg/dx is the maximum
horizontal gradient of the *gravity anomaly,
gmax is the value of the anomaly peak, and A
varies between 0.86 for a three-dimensional
body to 0.65 for an essentially two-dimensional
body.
smog Naturally occurring fog mixed with
visible (smoke) and/or invisible pollutants.
See also photochemical smog.
smoker See hydrothermal vent.
SMOW (Standard Mean Ocean Water) A sea-
water sample which comprises the international
standard for *D:H and *18O:16O ratios. Differ-
ences in isotopic composition are expressed as
parts per mille (%) deviations from the isotopic
composition of this standard.
smudging The burning of materials (e.g. oil)
to produce a smoke layer that reduces the effect
of radiation cooling of the air above the ground
surface. It is used as a protective measure (e.g.
in fruit-growing areas) especially in *frost hol-
lows.
SNC See shergottyite/nahklite/chassig-
nite meteorites.
Snell’s law The ratio of the sine of the *angle
of incidence (i) to the sine of the *angle of
refraction (r) is a constant for any two *isotropic
media bounded by a common *interface. The
refractive index n is given by: n = sin i/sin r,
and n1sin i = n2sin r, where n1 and n2 are the
sodalite
refractive indices of the two media. The law also
indicates that a *P-wave incident upon a bound-
ary will be reflected and refracted partly as a P-
wave and partly as an *S-wave. The law was
formulated by the Dutch astronomer and math-
ematician Willebrord Snell (1591–1626).
snout The steep, terminal zone of a *glacier. It
is usually heavily loaded with debris.
snowball Earth A period during which ice
covers the entire surface of the Earth, except for
the highest mountains, and mean temperatures
are about –50 C. This condition is believed to
have occurred four times between 750 and 580
Ma ago, on each occasion lasting for approxi-
mately 10 million years.
snowblitz theory A theory which proposes
that following a bad winter with heavy snowfall,
snow persists in lowland areas throughout the
summer. This increases the *albedo and thus
reduces the amount of solar warming of the
ground. More snow is added during the next
winter, and more snow may thus accumulate
year by year. An *ice cap may develop, and
glaciation may occur after only a few hundred
years. Such a sequence of events is more likely
in high than in low latitudes.
snowflake The result of the growth of ice
crystals in a varied array of shapes. Very low
temperatures usually result in small flakes; for-
mation at temperatures near freezing point pro-
duces numerous crystals in large flakes.
snow-gauge A modified *rain-gauge used for
collecting and measuring snowfall. The record-
ing is made after the snow has melted and re-
ported as the rainfall equivalent to correct for
the varying amounts of air entrained between
*snow grains in different types of snow.
snow grain Small ice particle precipitated as s
a usually flattish grain.
snow line The lower limit of permanent snow
cover. The height of the line varies with latitude;
locally it also varies with aspect, because of the
relationship to prevailing winds and quantity of
snow deposited, insolation, and to summer
temperatures, etc.
soapstone See talc.
soda lake See natron lake.
sodalite An important group of *silicate min-
erals belonging to the *feldspathoids and in-
cluding sodalite Na8[Al6Si6O24]Cl2, *nosean,
*haüyne, *cancrinite, *lazurite, and *scapolite;
 soda nitre
sp. gr. 2.27–2.88; *hardness 5.5–6.0; greyish to
bluish, yellow; occurs as *rhombohedra or
*massive; *vitreous *lustre; occurs in *nepheline
syenites in association with *nepheline and
*fluorite, and in metasomatized (see metasoma-
tism) calcareous rocks near *alkaline *igneous
intrusions.
soda nitre (Chile saltpetre, nitratine) Very
soluble *mineral, NaNO3; sp. gr. 2.2–2.3; *hard-
ness 1–2; *trigonal; normally colourless or
white, with various darker colours due to impu-
rities; white *streak; *vitreous *lustre; *crystals
rhombohedral, also occurs *massive; *cleavage
perfect, rhombohedral; occurs in arid regions as
surface deposits together with *gypsum, *halite,
and other soluble nitrates and *sulphates; deli-
quescent. It is worked as a source of nitrate.
sodication In soils, an increase in the per-
centage of exchangeable sodium. Sodium ad-
sorbs on to *cation-exchange sites in the soil,
causing soil *aggregates to disperse, which
closes soil *pores and renders the soil imperme-
able to water. See also sodium-adsorption
ratio.
sodic soil 1. Soil with a sodium content suffi-
ciently high to interfere with the growth of most
crop plants. 2. Soil with more than 15% ex-
changeable sodium.
sodium-adsorption ratio (SAR) Describes
the tendency for sodium *cations to be ad-
sorbed at *cation-exchange sites in soil at the
expense of other cations, calculated as the ratio
of sodium to calcium and magnesium in the
soil; more precisely, it is the amount of sodium
divided by the square root of half the sum of the
amounts of calcium and magnesium, where
*ion concentrations are given in milliequiva-
lents per litre. A low sodium content gives a
s low SAR value. In practice, allowance must be
made for other reactions within the soil that do
not involve sodium but that affect concentra-
tions of calcium and magnesium. The SAR
value is most likely to be changed by irrigation
water.
sodium feldspar See alkali feldspar.
sodium-sulphate soundness test A
method of testing the *weathering resistance,
particularly to frost action, of building materials.
A sample is soaked in saturated sodium-sul-
phate solution, drained, and dried. This is re-
peated and the sample examined for cracks.
The method simulates the stresses due to frost
action.
540
SOFAR channel (sound channel) Acronym
for the SOund Fixing And Ranging channel, a
zone in the oceanic water column at a depth of
about 1500 m where the velocity of sound is at a
minimum value. Sound passing through the
zone is refracted upwards or downwards back
into the zone, with little loss of energy, causing
sound energy to be trapped in a zone of well-
defined depth. The SOFAR channel may be
used for the transmission of sound over long
distances, exceeding 28 000 km, and can be
used to track free-drifting, subsurface, *neutrally
buoyant floats.
soil 1. The natural, unconsolidated, mineral
and organic material occurring above bedrock
on the surface of the Earth; it is a medium for
the growth of plants. 2. In engineering geology,
any loose, soft, and deformable material, e.g.
unconsolidated *sands and *clays.
soil air The soil atmosphere, comprising the
same gases as in the atmosphere above ground,
but in different proportions: it occupies the
*pore space of an unsaturated *soil.
soil anchor See anchor.
soil association 1. Group of *soils forming a
pattern of soil types characteristic of a geo-
graphical region.
2. Mapping unit used to denote the distribu-
tion of soil types where the scale of the map
does not require or permit the identification of
individual soils. See also soil complex.
soil-atmosphere survey A method for
finding geochemical anomalies, which uses
geochemical features of the gases trapped in
*soil *pore space. The method can be used
only to find *ore minerals which, on *weather-
ing or as a result of their radioactive decay,
liberate gases which can readily be analysed
(e.g. radon, released by the decay of uranium).
soil borrow The transference of material
from elsewhere for refilling excavations, etc.
soil complex Mapping unit used to denote
the distribution of *soils: it is more precise than
a *soil association, and is used where soils of
different types are mixed geographically in
such a way that the scale of the map makes it
undesirable, or impractical, to show each one
separately.
soil conservation The protection of the *soil
by careful management, to prevent physical loss
by *erosion and to avoid chemical deterioration
(i.e. to maintain soil *fertility).
541
soil formation The action of the combined
primary (*weathering and humification) and
secondary processes to alter and to rearrange
mineral and organic material to form *soil, in-
volving the differentiation of *soil profiles and
the formation of loose soil from consolidated
rock material. See also pedogenesis.
soil geomorphology (pedogeomorphol-
ogy) The study of the relationship between
types of *soil and land-forms. This involves ana-
lysing the way geomorphological and pedologi-
cal processes interact.
soil grading curve A graph of *grain size
plotted on a horizontal logarithmic axis against
percentage on an arithmetical vertical axis. A
point on the curve gives the percentage by
weight of material smaller in size than that at
the given point on the graph. See grading
curve.
soil horizon A relatively uniform *soil layer
which lies at any depth in the *soil profile, which
is parallel, or nearly so, with the soil surface, and
which is differentiated from adjacent horizons
above and below by contrasts in mineral or
organic properties. Soil horizons are grouped
primarily into O, A, B, and C horizons. O hori-
zons (formerly known as Ao horizons) comprise
organic material at the surface. A horizons are
surface horizons of mixed organo-mineral com-
position. Where mineral matter has been lost,
the A horizon is sometimes called the E (for
eluviated) horizon. Where they are present, B
horizons are usually located in the middle of the
sequence, and are horizons into which material
(mineral and organic) is deposited, thus altering
the character of the horizon. C horizons are soil
*parent materials, weathered but not otherwise
altered by pedogenic processes. The underlying
unweathered material is sometimes called the D
or R horizon. In addition to these, surface litter
may form an L horizon, above a layer of fermen-
ted material (F horizon) and, below that, humi-
fied material (H horizon), and a mineral crust,
often cemented, is sometimes called the K ho-
rizon. See pedogenesis.
soil individual See polypedon.
soil line In *remote sensing, the line which
runs at 45 on a plot of *digital number values of
red wavelengths of light against digital number
values of very-*near infrared wavelengths of
light. Soils plot very close to this line, vegetation
plots away from this line having a higher ten-
dency to reflect very-near infrared. See also veg-
etation index.
soil survey
soil management A variety of practices and
operations with respect to *soil, that aid the
production of plants; normally they are planned
to allow for sustained yield in the future.
soil mechanics Study of the mechanical
properties of loose or unconsolidated particles,
especially their composition, shear resistance,
and the effects of water. It is applied to *soils
to determine their suitability for building sites,
mining, etc., and to engineering problems deal-
ing with the stability of *foundations due to
mechanical and chemical *weathering of rocks.
See shear strength.
soil-moisture content The ratio of the vol-
ume of contained water in a *soil compared
with the entire soil volume. When a soil is fully
saturated, water will drain easily into the under-
lying unsaturated rock. When such drainage
stops, the soil still retains *capillary moisture
and is said to contain its *field-capacity mois-
ture content. Further drying of the soil (e.g. by
evaporation) creates a soil-moisture deficit,
which is the amount of water which must be
added to the soil to restore it to field capacity,
measured as a depth of *precipitation.
soil-moisture deficit See soil-moisture
content.
soil-moisture index See moisture index.
soil-moisture regime The changing state
of soil moisture through the year, which reflects
the changing balance of monthly *precipitation
and *potential evapotranspiration above the
ground surface. When the latter exceeds the
former the period is one of soil-moisture deficit
in the annual regime.
soil profile A vertical section through all the
constituent *horizons of a soil, from the surface
to the relatively unaltered *parent material. s
soil separates Size divisions of mineral par-
ticles (*sand, *silt, and *clay) that comprise the
fine earth, each particle being less than 2 mm in
diameter.
soil series Basic unit of soil mapping and
classification: all *soils in a series have similar
profile characteristics and have developed from
the same *parent material.
soil structure Grouping of individual *soil
particles into secondary units of *aggregates
and *peds.
soil survey 1. Systematic examination
and mapping of *soil in the field.
 soil taxonomy
2. Chemical analysis of soil for the detection
of geochemical anomalies. See geochemical
soil survey; orientation survey.
soil taxonomy The classification of types of
soil, in a manner similar to that used for biolog-
ical classification. In one of the most widely
used systems, devised by workers at the US
Soil Survey, within the *USDA, soils are divided
into 11 orders: *Alfisols, *Andosols, *Aridisols,
*Entisols, *Histosols, *Inceptisols, *Mollisols,
*Oxisols, *Spodosols, *Ultisols, and *Vertisols.
These orders are further subdivided into sub-
orders, great groups, families, and soil series,
defined by *diagnostic horizons. See also
world reference base for soil resources.
soil variant *Soil sufficiently different in
properties from adjacent soils to warrant the
use of a new *soil-series name, but occupying
a geographical area too small to warrant the
issuing of such a new name.
soilwash See rainwash.
soil-water zone (unsaturated zone, va-
dose zone) The zone between the ground sur-
face and the *water-table. Water is able to pass
through this zone to reach the water-table, but
while in the zone it is not given up readily to
wells because it is held by *soil or rock particles
and capillary forces. See groundwater.
Sojourner See mars pathfinder.
sol 1. Colloidal solution (see colloid) or dis-
persion of solid particles in a liquid, as in a
completely fluid mud. Compare quick clay;
gel. 2. One martian day (= 24.7 hours).
sola See solum.
solar abundance of elements Studies of
s the solar spectrum have determined the relative
abundances of about 70 elements in the *Sun’s
atmosphere. Hydrogen and helium predomi-
nate, and in general abundance decreases with
increasing atomic number. A few exceptions,
however, e.g. silicon and iron, have a high
abundance, probably correlated with nuclear
binding energies and nuclear stability. Spectra
originate from the outer layers of the Sun, so
their value in determining the total solar abun-
dance of elements should not be over-empha-
sized, but total abundances of elements are
much less important than their relative propor-
tions.
solar constant The mean intensity of the
solar beam in free space (i.e. before penetrating
542
the Earth’s atmosphere) at the average distance
of the *Earth from the *Sun. The intensity is not
strictly constant for all the wavelengths of radi-
ation involved. The amount of variability is still
a subject of debate, but is certainly very small
apart from the long-term development in the
history of the Sun.
solar cosmic rays See cosmic radiation.
solar flare A short-lived, cataclysmic outburst
of solar material, driven by magnetic forces,
from a relatively small area of the solar surface
and generating particles with energies in the
range 1–100MeV which produce track records,
e.g. in exposed lunar minerals.
solarimeter Instrument for measuring *solar
radiation.
solar magnetic variation See diurnal
variation (2).
solar nebula See solar system.
solar pond See salina.
solar radiation Electromagnetic radiated
energy from the *Sun. This is the dominant
energy input to the *Earth and is intercepted
by the *atmosphere and absorbed at the surface.
See also radiation budget.
Solar Radiation and Climate Experi-
ment (SORCE) A NASA space mission carried
on the SORCE satellite, which was launched on
25 January 2003 into an orbit that crosses the
equator at 40 , at a height of 640 km. SORCE
carries four instruments, the total irradiance
monitor (TIM), spectral irradiance monitor
(SIM), solar stellar comparison experiment
(SOLSTICE), and the extreme ultraviolet pho-
tometer experiment (XPS). These measure
solar radiation, providing data to help under-
stand the influence of variations in solar radia-
tion on climate.
A
 A NASA mission to study energy reaching the
Earth from the Sun.
solar system The system that consists of the
central *Sun (G spectral type star), around
which orbit eight planets, three dwarf planets
(Pluto, Ceres, and Eris), about 110 *satellites,
about 3000 discovered *asteroids, and probably
1012 *comets. Most bodies lie close to the plane
of the *ecliptic. The age of the solar system, 4.56
billion years obtained from *meteorites, marks
the formation of the system from a rotating
cloud of dust and gas (the solar nebula).
543
solar wind General term for the stream of
high-energy particles (mainly protons, elec-
trons, and alpha particles) emitted by the *Sun.
The particles have velocities of hundreds of kilo-
metres per second and ‘wind’ strength is great-
est during periods of maximum solar activity. In
the neighbourhood of the *Earth the solar wind
has velocities in the range of 300–500km/sec
and an average density of 107 ions/m3. See also
cosmic radiation.
Solenopora See rhodophyceae.
sole structure The term applied to a group
of *sedimentary structures found on the base of
beds. Sole structures are mostly formed by the
scouring action of a current, or by the passage of
an implement (*tool) over a muddy substrate,
followed by the infilling of the scour by *sands
(*scour and fill). Sole structures include *flute
marks, produced by turbulent flows of water;
*skip, prod, bounce, drag, and *groove marks,
caused by the transport of an object over the
mud; and *load casts, formed by the sinking of
dense sand into underlying layers of less dense
mud. Sole structures provide an important
means of determining the ‘way-up’ of beds,
and in many cases give an important indication
of palaeocurrent direction. See palaeocurrent
analysis.
sole thrust (basal thrust) In a *thrust
terrain, the lowest regional thrust surface. See
also floor thrust.
solfataric activity The quiet escape of hot,
sulphur-rich gases from recently emplaced vol-
canic bodies. The name is derived from the
fields of sulphurous gas vents at the Solfatara
crater, north of Naples, Italy. When cooled by
the atmosphere the escaping gases deposit
many minerals, including chlorides, sulphur
and *hematite.
solid Applied to a map (e.g. in Britain one
published by the Geological Survey) which de-
picts the *outcrop patterns of rocks unobscured
by their cover of recent superficial deposits (e.g.
glacial, *alluvial, or marine *sediments).
solid-melt equilibrium The degree of *par-
tial melting which, in any particular rock, is a
function of temperature, pressure, and the
availability of water, and is usually controlled
by the abundance and thermal stability of
hydroxyl-bearing minerals, e.g. *muscovite, *bi-
otite, and *hornblende.
solid solution Solid crystalline *phases
representing a mixture of two or more *end-
solodic soil
members and which may vary in composition
within finite limits without the appearance of
another phase. A mineral may exhibit solid so-
lution involving atoms of an *isomorphous min-
eral; for example, magnesium and iron *ions are
similar in size, and complete solid solution oc-
curs between *forsterite (Mg2SiO4) and *fayalite
(Fe2SiO4) end-members of the *olivine series, in
the most common type of solid solution, known
as ‘substitutional solid solution’. See also ionic
substitution.
solid-state imaging camera (SSI) In *re-
mote sensing, an instrument that operates in
the visible spectrum and uses a *charge-
coupled device to enhance its images.
solidus The position of points marking the
boundary between complete solid and liquid/
solid at equilibrium, in a *temperature–compo-
sition diagram. In *binary systems the solidus is
a straight or curved line, in *ternary systems a
flat plane or curved surface.
solifluction (solifluxion) Downhill move-
ment of *regolith that has been saturated with
water. It was originally described in *periglacial
regions (see gelifluction), but the term was
subsequently widened to include all environ-
ments. The thick regolith of the humid tropics
is particularly prone to solifluction after intense
rainfall.
solifluxion See solifluction.
solitary corals Those corals where a single
*corallite makes up the *corallum. Shape and
size range from an extremely low cone with an
apical angle of 120 or more (patellate), through
discoid (button-shaped), to horn-shaped and
slender with an apical angle of 20 or less (cer-
atoid). A steep, conical shape with an apical s
angle of 40 is called ‘trochoid’; a subcircular,
parallel-sided corallite ‘cylindrical’; cylindrical
corallites that bend crookedly in a worm-like
manner are ‘scolecoid’; a corallite shaped like
the toe of a slipper is ‘calceolid’. Other shapes
are also described.
solodic soil Leached, formerly *saline soil,
associated with semi-arid tropical environ-
ments, in which the A *soil horizon has become
slightly acid, and the B horizon is enriched
with sodium-saturated *clay. The term was
used in soil classification systems derived from
early Russian systems based on the work of
V. V. *Dokuchayev, but is no longer used in
soil classification.
 Solonchaks
Solonchaks A reference soil group in the
World Reference Base for Soil Resources classi-
fication. Solonchaks have a *soil horizon more
than 15 cm deep that is enriched with soluble
*salts, located at the surface or a little way below
it. These soils often form from recent *alluvial
deposits.
solonetz Mineral soil at a transitional stage of
*leaching or a *saline soil during solodization, in
semi-arid, tropical environments; it has a sandy,
acid, A *soil horizon and a B horizon partially
enriched with sodium-clay. The term was used
in earlier systems of soil classification. Solonetz
soils fall within the order *Aridisols in the US
*soil taxonomy and Solonetz is a soil group in
the *World Reference Base for Soil Resources.
solstice The time of most northerly or south-
erly declination of the sun from the equator. In
the northern hemisphere, the summer solstice
is around 22 June and the winter solstice around
22 December. These dates are reversed for the
southern hemisphere.
solubility product Constant which de-
scribes the product of ionic concentrations of
any slightly soluble salt. The solubility of a sub-
stance is the maximum amount of that sub-
stance which can be dissolved in a *solution
that is in equilibrium with a solid source of the
solute. The main technique for studying solubil-
ity involves the use of the solubility product,
which is the total number of *ions of each type
in a compound that can coexist in a solution.
At a given temperature and at equilibrium
the value for the solubility product will always
be the same. For example, in a solution of silver
chloride, AgCl dissociates to Ag+ and Cl. The
solubility product Ksp is the product of
their concentrations: Ksp = [Ag+][Cl] mole2/
litre2. The solubility of AgCl in moles per litre
s is equal to the activity of Ag+ or Cl as one mole
of AgCl dissolves in water to give one mole
of each in solution. The value of Ksp for AgCl at
25 C is 109.8.
solum (pl. sola) The upper part of a *soil
profile, above the *parent material, in which
processes of soil formation occur, and within
which most plant roots and soil animals are
found.
solution 1. A physically homogeneous mix-
ture of two or more substances in which
solid, liquid, or gaseous *phases may combine
in one of those phases. A constituent of a solu-
tion can be separated out by changing its phase,
e.g. boiling, condensing, or freezing. Where a
544
solution is formed by dissolving a quantity of
one substance in a larger quantity of another,
the smaller quantity is called the ‘solute’, the
larger quantity, the ‘solvent’. Compare colloid.
2. A *weathering process by which weakly
bonded ionic components of minerals are de-
tached through the attraction of water mole-
cules (which carry a positive electrical charge
at one end and a negative charge at the other,
although they are neutral overall), and then
carried away from the weathering environment.
*Halites and the sulphates and carbonates of
magnesium and calcium are especially vulner-
able. Solution is usually the first stage of *chem-
ical weathering.
solution channel An elongate void
within a rock, which has been enlarged by the
*solution action of moving *groundwater on
the rock itself. Solution channels are most com-
monly associated with *carbonate rocks, and
groundwater in them can flow as fast as
in a river on the ground surface. See karstic
aquifer.
solution cleavage A spaced, usually dis-
junctive *cleavage which is common in *quartz-
ites and limestones. Solution cleavages
commonly contain zones of relatively insoluble
minerals indicating that *pressure solution has
operated. Some authorities (e.g. C. McA. Powell,
1979) suggest that the term ‘solution cleavage’
should not be used in descriptions of cleavage
as it implies the mode of origin.
solution pan See panhole.
solution pipe A cylindrical, near-vertical
pipe that is developed at a *joint intersection
in a *karst environment. It is caused by a local
increase in the rate of *carbonation resulting
from enhanced drainage.
Solvan A *stage of the Middle *Cambrian,
underlain by the *Lenian and overlain by the
*Menevian and dated at 513–502 Ma (Int. Com-
mission on Stratigraphy, 2004).
solvus In a geochemical system, a line or sur-
face which separates a homogeneous *solid so-
lution from a field of several *phases which may
form by *exsolution or *incongruent melting.
solvus temperature See hypersolvus
granite.
Somali Plate See african plate.
sombric horizon Subsurface *soil horizon of
well-drained, mineral, tropical and subtropical
545
soils into which *humus has leached downward.
Base saturation is less than 50%. It is a *diag-
nostic horizon.
Somoholoan See asselian; sakmarian.
sonar See side-scan sonar; sonic log; echo-
sounding.
sonde See radiosonde; rawinsonde;
self-potential sonde; sonic sonde; well
logging.
sonde self-potential See self-potential
sonde.
sonic log See continuous velocity
logging; sonic sonde.
sonic sonde An instrumental package con-
taining two seismic-energy sources and four
*geophones which allow the measurement
of the *seismic velocities of the rocks in a *bore-
hole as the sonde is pulled through it. The
record is a sonic log (velocity log). See also
well shooting.
sonobuoy A disposable, free-floating buoy
used in large-scale marine *seismic-refraction
surveys. One or more hydrophones are sus-
pended from the buoy and detect the *head
waves which are then transmitted back to the
firing ship, timed, and recorded. After a certain
time the buoys are designed to sink automati-
cally.
sonograph A graphic presentation of re-
flected sound waves from a sonar scanner.
Sorby, Henry Clifton (1826–1908) An En-
glish amateur scientist, Sorby studied estuarial
and inland waters of England, but he is best
known for developing the study of rocks in
*thin sections, using the techniques invented
by *Nicol. He was the first to show that individ-
ual mineral crystals and grains could be identi-
fied using this process. He also used the method
to study *meteorite sections.
SORCE See solar radiation and climate
experiment.
Sordes pilosus Discovered in 1971, one of
the first *pterosaurs known to have been cov-
ered in thick fur: the name means ‘hairy filth’.
The indication is that this reptile and its close
relatives were *homoiotherms. It was found in
Upper *Jurassic sediments of Chimkent, Soviet
Kazakhstan, and was a small, toothed pterosaur
with a long tail.
South American Plate
sorosilicate See silicates.
sorted biosparite See folk limestone
classification.
sorting An expression of the range of grain
sizes (see particle size) present in a *sediment.
A well-sorted sediment is characterized by a
narrow range of grain sizes, whereas a poorly
sorted sediment contains a wide range of grain
sizes.
Soudleyan A *stage (457–458 Ma ago) of the
*Ordovician in the Middle *Caradoc, underlain
by the *Harnagian and overlain by the *Long-
villian.
sound channel See sofar channel.
sounder (radio) An instrument which emits a
continuous series of short pulses of electromag-
netic energy towards a planetary or *satellite
surface. The return signal provides a map of
the subsurface electrical conductivity, which
can be used to infer subsurface structure, as
well as information on topography. This tech-
nique was used on the Apollo 17 lunar mission
to study subsurface structure.
sound speed The rate at which sound energy
moves through a medium. In sea water this is
between 1400 and 1550 m/s. In sea water, the
speed of sound is a function of temperature,
*salinity, and pressure due to depth. At a salinity
of 34.85% and a temperature of 0  C, the speed
of sound is 1445 m/s. It increases by approxi-
mately 4 m/s for each degree Celsius rise in
temperature, by 1.5 m/s for each 1% increase
in salinity, and by 18 m/s for each 1000 m
increase in depth.
source region (for air masses) Extensive
areas of essentially uniform surface conditions s
over land or water, typically of large-scale air
*subsidence and lateral divergence, where *air
masses acquire their initial properties.
source rock 1. *Sediment (usually *shale or
*limestone) in which *hydrocarbons originate; it
contains more than 5% organic matter and has
the potential to generate *petroleum. 2. Any
parent rock from which later sediments are de-
rived.
South American Plate One of the major
present-day lithospheric *plates, extending
from the *Mid-Atlantic Ridge in the east to the
subducting *Nazca Plate in the west, with most of
the boundaries with other plates (i.e. *Antarctic,
 South-east Pacific Plate
Scotia, *Caribbean, and *North American) being
*transform faults.
South-east Pacific Plate A lithospheric
*plate which is now coupled with the *Antarctic
Plate, but whose oceanic *lithosphere is inter-
preted to have been subducted under southern
Chile and the Antarctic Peninsula.
southerly burster Regional wind in south-
ern and south-eastern Australia, characterized
by a rapid shift in direction from north-west to
south in the rear of a *cold front. Such winds
are especially prevalent between October and
March. The change to a southerly wind can
bring a great increase in wind speed accompa-
nied by a rapid and marked fall in temperature.
Such conditions are akin to *line squalls, and
related to the S. American *pamperos.
Southern Ocean See antarctic ocean.
southern oscillation A fluctuation of the
intertropical atmospheric circulation, in partic-
ular in the *Indian and *Pacific Oceans, in which
air moves between the SE Pacific subtropical
high and the Indonesian equatorial low, driven
by the temperature difference between the two
areas. The general effect is that when pressure is
high over the Pacific Ocean it tends to be low in
the Indian Ocean, and vice versa. The pressures
are measured at Tahiti and Darwin, Australia.
The phenomenon is strongly linked to *El Niño.
sövite A type of *carbonatite that consists
largely of *calcite accompanied by minor *mag-
netite, and *apatite with or without *phlogopite.
SP See self-potential sonde.
spaced cleavage See fracture cleavage.
space lattice See lattice.
space–time substitution A technique for
s analysing land-forms that is based on a theory
of how particular land-forms develop over time
as a result of geomorphological processes. Thus,
the appearance (i.e. shape) of a landscape
changes over time and this fact can be used to
determine its past and future appearance. The
technique was pioneered by W. M. *Davis (see
davisian cycle), but was introduced by Charles
Darwin, in his study of the development of
*atolls, fringing *reefs, and *barrier reefs.
spallation 1. (nuclear) A nuclear reaction in-
volving the ejection of many particles from an
atomic nucleus, following a collision with a
high-energy particle. Both the mass number
and the atomic number of the target nucleus
are changed by the event.
546
2. (planetary geol.) The removal of the sur-
face layers of a rock by the interaction of a
compressional shock wave with the surface,
caused by micrometeorite impact. See ‘zap
pits’.
spandrels of San Marco An analogy used,
in a classic paper by Stephen Jay Gould and
Richard Lewontin, to indicate how non-adaptive
characters may arise in evolution. Spandrels are
the spaces left between the tops of neighbouring
arches in churches (in this case, St Mark’s ca-
thedral, in Venice); these spaces, not related
to the functional architecture, are free to be
decorated in a non-functional fashion.
spar Any crystal that breaks easily into frag-
ments with clearly visible faces. By extension,
a mining term describing any white or light–
coloured, non-metallic mineral with *vitreous
*lustre and well developed *cleavage, resem-
bling *gypsum, for which the Old English
name was spærstān.
sparite Sparry *calcite *cement. Sparite is the
coarse crystalline calcite cement which fills
*pore spaces in many *limestones after deposi-
tion, formed by the *precipitation of calcite from
*carbonate-rich solutions passing through the
pore spaces in the *sediment.
-sparite See folk limestone classification.
sparker A seismic source created by the rapid
formation of a gas-plasma bubble from the
ionization of sea water after the discharge of a
high-voltage spark from a comb of electrodes
contained within a frame. It provides good res-
olution (1–2 m) with limited depth penetration
(less than 100 m).
sparse biomicrite See folk limestone
classification.
spastolith A *grain which, being composed of
soft material, became squashed and deformed
by mechanical *compaction during burial.
Spathian The final *stage (245–247.4 Ma ago)
of the *Scythian Epoch, preceded by the *Nam-
malian.
spathose iron See siderite.
spatial frequency In *remote sensing, the
frequency of change per unit distance across an
image. High spatial frequencies include those
changes which occur in very close proximity,
such as fine lines, low spatial frequencies in-
clude those changes which occur over greater
distances, such as broad bands. The ability of
547
the human eye to discern spatial frequency
is limited and so selective removal of certain
spatial-frequency ranges within an image may
result in a more interpretable image with less
noise. See also spatial-frequency filter.
spatial-frequency filter In *remote sens-
ing, a filter used to enhance the appearance of
the spatial distribution of data in an image to
make it more interpretable to the human eye.
Spatial-frequency filters examine the spatial
variations in *digital number of an image and
are used to modify the image by selectively
suppressing or separating certain *spatial-
frequency ranges. Spatial-frequency filters in-
clude *directional filter, *high-pass filter, medi-
um-pass filter, and low-pass filter. See also
median filter.
spatter Fluid basaltic *pyroclasts which accu-
mulate by fallout from a *Strombolian volcanic
*eruption column to form a rampart around the
vent. The individual clots are so fluid when they
land that they often mould together, like flat-
tened pancakes.
spatter cone (driblet cone) Small (usually
5–20 m high), volcanic cone built from *tephra
blown out as clots of relatively fluid basaltic
*lava.
spatter-fed flow See hawaiian eruption.
specialization Degree of adaptation of an
organism to its environment. A high degree of
specialization suggests both a narrow habitat or
niche and significant interspecific competition.
species (sing. and pl.) 1. A class of particular
chemical individuals all of which are similar,
e.g. *ions, atoms, or molecules. 2. See classifi-
cation.
species longevity The persistence of spe-
cies for long periods of time, characterizing
for example *Gastropoda and *Bivalvia.
species selection A postulated evolutionary
process in which selection acts on an entire
species population, rather than individuals.
This might occur, for example, as a conse-
quence of the geographical range of a popula-
tion, which affects the population as a whole
and, possibly, its longevity or development.
species zone See taxon range zone.
specific gravity (sp. gr.) The ratio of the
weight of a substance to the weight of an
equal volume of water, expressed as a number.
For example, the weight of a given volume of
spectrograph
*quartz, with a specific gravity of 2.65, is 2.65
times that of the same volume of water. The
average sp. gr. of metallic minerals is about 5.
See also density.
specific-gravity determinations In soils,
for engineering computations, grains are
weighed in a calibrated glass container (*pyc-
nometer), carefully excluding air, to relate the
mass of the sample to its volume. The *specific
gravity of solid rocks can be determined using a
Walker balance, and can be carried out on dry
or water-saturated samples. See also density
determination.
specific humidity The ratio of the mass of
water vapour to a unit mass of air including the
water vapour. See also humidity; mixing ratio.
specific retention The ratio of the un-
drained water to the total water in a rock, the
undrained water being water contained in rock
voids or *pore spaces, from which it cannot be
recovered by drainage or pumping. It is retained
against the action of gravity by molecular attrac-
tion and *capillarity.
specific yield 1. The ratio of the water
drained from a rock under the influence of
gravity, or removed by pumping, to the total
volume of the rock voids or *pore space in the
drained rock. The difference is caused by the
retention of water in the rock, due to molecular
attraction and *capillarity. See specific reten-
tion. 2. The volume of water released by a
falling *water-table from a given volume of
fully saturated rock.
spectra See spectrum.
spectral hue A *hue which is present in the
spectrum of colours produced by splitting white
light with a prism. Spectral hues include red,
green, and blue. Compare non-spectral hue. s
spectral radiance The *radiance of a speci-
fied wavelength of *electromagnetic radiation.
spectrochemical analysis An analytical
technique in which a sample is heated to a
high temperature, usually in a carbon arc, to
produce emission lines whose intensities are
proportional to the abundance of elements
present. Line intensities may be recorded on
photographic plates or measured directly by a
photosensitive device, e.g. a photomultiplier.
See also spectrum.
spectrograph Analytical instrument used
mainly for elemental analysis.
 spectrometer
spectrometer An instrument which, with as-
sociated equipment, furnishes the ratio, or
some function of a ratio, of the radiant power
of two electromagnetic beams as a function
of their spectral wavelength. It requires a source
of radiation (in emission spectrometers the
sample serves as its own source), a means
of distinguishing between different radiation
frequencies, and includes narrow band filters,
a prism, a diffraction grating, a system of slits
to isolate a narrow band of radiation, a sample-
containing system, and a photodetector, ampli-
fier, and output device (meter, recorder, VDU,
etc.) See gamma-ray spectrometry; mass
spectrometry.
spectrophotometer An instrument for de-
termining the intensity of the light absorbed by
a compound (usually in *solution). The light
absorbed at a given wavelength is proportional
to the concentration of the compound in the
solution.
spectroradiometer A *spectrometer which
measures very narrow wavelengths of the *elec-
tromagnetic radiation radiated or reflected by a
surface. It is used in *remote sensing to establish
the spectral characteristics of a surface material.
spectroscope An instrument used in spec-
troscopy, whose main features are a slit and
collimator, prism, telescope, and counter. A
parallel beam of radiation is passed through
the prism, so dispersing different wavelengths
through different angles of deviation, which can
be measured.
spectroscopic binary See star pair.
spectrum (pl. spectra; optical emission
spectrum) A series of lines (line spectra), pro-
duced as *electrons return to their original
s energy levels and emit excess energy as
infrared, visible, or ultraviolet light of character-
istic wavelengths, after atoms have been heated
strongly and valence electrons in the outer shell
have moved to higher energy levels. Each ele-
ment has a characteristic line spectrum. The
intensity of each line is related to the concen-
tration of the element being excited.
specular See splendent.
specularite See hematite.
specular reflection *Reflection of light or
a radar beam, as from a mirror or a plane fac-
eted surface such as an angular boulder. See
backscatter; compare diffuse reflection.
548
spelean Pertaining to caves.
speleothem See dripstone.
Spermatophyta (seed plants) A division of
the plant kingdom comprising the *angio-
sperms and *gymnosperms. In modern classifi-
cations it is usually ranked as a superdivision,
the gymnosperms comprising five groups of
plants each of which is classed as a division.
It may also be ranked as a subdivision (Sperma-
tophytina) of the *Tracheophyta (vascular
plants).
spessartine (spessartite) Member of the
*garnet group of *minerals, that has the formula
Mn3 Al2 (SiO4)3; sp. gr. 4.18; *hardness 6.5–7.5;
*cubic; dark red to orange-yellow or brown;
greasy to vitreous *lustre; crystals commonly
*dodecahedra; widely distributed in *metamor-
phic and *igneous rocks, and in beach and river
*sands. It is named after the Spessart Moun-
tains, Bavaria, Germany.
spessartite 1. A type of *lamprophyre, char-
acterized by *essential *hornblende and *plagio-
clase feldspar. *Aphyric varieties are called
‘*malachites’. 2. See spessartine.
sp. gr. See specific gravity.
sphaericone See involute.
sphalerite (black jack, zinc blende) Miner-
al, ZnS; sp. gr. 3.9–4.1; *hardness 3.5–4.0; *cubic;
colour variable, but commonly yellow, brown,
or black, and crystals can be transparent to
translucent; brownish red to bright yellow or
white *streak; resinous to near-metallic *lustre;
crystals *tetrahedral or *dodecahedral, with
curved faces, but also granular, *fibrous, or *bot-
ryoidal; *conchoidal fracture; *cleavage perfect
{011}; the most common *ore mineral for zinc
metal, Zn–Pb is common in strata-bound veins
and massive sulphide deposits, frequently asso-
ciated with *galena in *hydrothermal veins, and
in *limestones where it occurs by *replacement,
commonly with *pyrite, *pyrrhotite, and *mag-
netite; dissolves in concentrated nitric acid with
the separation of sulphur.
sphene (titanite) A *nesosilicate CaTiSiO4
(O,OH,F); sp. gr. 3.45–3.55; *hardness 5; *crys-
tals wedge-shaped, occasionally *massive;
brown, grey, reddish brown, yellow, or black;
*monoclinic; *adamantine to *resinous *lustre;
occurs as a primary *accessory mineral in *calc-
alkaline *igneous rocks and alkaline igneous
rocks in which it may occur as a major constitu-
ent along with *apatite, *nepheline, and *aegirine.
549
It is common in *contact metamorphosed
*limestones, particularly *skarns.
sphenoid A wedge-shaped, four-faced,
*closed form, normally occurring in the *tetrag-
onal or *orthorhombic *crystal systems, but with
a special form (the ‘monoclinic sphenoid’, or
‘dihedron’) occurring in the *monoclinic sys-
tem. The terminology for sphenoidal forms
is complex and inconsistent, although in gener-
al the *crystallographic axes emerge at the cen-
tre of the edges where pairs of triangular faces
meet.
Sphenopsida (horsetails) Class of the *Pter-
idophytina that first appeared in the *Devonian
and reached the peak of its abundance and
diversity during the *Carboniferous, forming a
major component of the coal-swamp vegeta-
tion. Sphenopsids are characterized by jointed
stems with whorls of leaves and branches borne
at the joints (or nodes). The internodal part of
the stem is vertically ridged and *spores are
produced in rings of sporangia arranged in
cones, usually at the tips of the fertile shoots.
The only living genus, Equisetum, is a compar-
atively small plant (different species ranging be-
tween 4 or 5 cm and 12 m), but one of the best-
known fossil genera, Calamites, included tree-
like forms that grew up to 30 m in height. An-
other common fossil sphenopsid, Sphenophyl-
lum, was a slender plant with a ribbed stem only
1–7 mm in diameter but up to several metres
in length, that probably scrambled over other
vegetation. See also archaeocalamites radia-
tus; calamites cistiiformes; equisitites
hemingwayi.
sphericity An expression of how closely the
shape of a *grain resembles the shape of a
sphere. Sphericity can be determined by exam-
ining the relation between the long (L), inter-
mediate (I), and short (S) axes of the particle,
the maximum projection sphericity, C, being
given by the expression C = 3√(S 2/LI). For a
perfect sphere, C = 1. Values less than one
relate to increasingly less spherical shapes. See
also particle shape; roundness index.
spheroidal oscillation See free oscilla-
tion.
spheroidal weathering (onion weather-
ing) The development of concentric shells of
normally chemically weathered material in the
outer zone of a joint-bounded mass of rock. The
spheroidal or onion-skin appearance results
from enhanced *weathering at *joint intersec-
spiders
tions together with the expansion resulting from
chemical change.
spherule A small spherical particle. *Glass
spherules resulting from impact-induced melt-
ing or volcanic *fire-fountaining are common in
the lunar *regolith. A typical diameter is 100 mm.
Nickel–iron spherules, usually less than 30 mm
in diameter, derived from the impacting *mete-
orite, are common in impact glasses.
spherulite (adj. spherulitic) A spherical to
ellipsoidal aggregate of radiating, fibrous crys-
tals, usually *quartz and *alkali feldspar, found
in glassy or *felsitic, *aphanitic *groundmasses
of *igneous rocks. Spherulites range in diameter
from less than 1 mm to about 1 m and are
formed by the devitrification of quenched glassy
igneous rocks which are usually silicic in com-
position.
spicular chert A very fine-grained siliceous
*sedimentary rock, the *silica originating from
the accumulation of sponge (*Porifera) *spic-
ules. Sponge spicules can be an important
source of *biogenic silica in shelf-sea environ-
ments. See chert.
spicule A small needle or spine.
spiculite A *sedimentary rock or *sediment
composed largely of sponge (*Porifera) *spic-
ules.
spider diagram A useful plot, used in *igne-
ous *petrology to show variations between two
rocks or rock types for a wide range of elements.
Usually, one rock is a standard type, e.g. a *mid-
oceanic-ridge basalt or a *carbonaceous chon-
drite meteorite. Data for the test rock are ‘nor-
malized’ to the standard by dividing the
abundance for each element by the abundance s
in the standard and plotting the quotient, usu-
ally in order of atomic number. Elements which
have the same abundance in the test rock as in
the standard yield a quotient of 1; if the two
compositions were identical the plot would be
a straight line through 1 on the y axis. Elements
more abundant in the test rock yield numbers
greater than 1; those less abundant yield num-
bers less than 1. By connecting the points plot-
ted by a single line, a spidery diagram of
peaks and troughs is obtained which illustrates
immediately systematic differences in composi-
tion, e.g. relative enrichment in *incompatible
elements.
spiders See chelicerata.
 spike
spike A solution (liquid or gaseous) containing
a known concentration of a particular element
whose isotopic concentration has been changed
by the enrichment of one of its naturally occur-
ring *isotopes. The spike is used in *isotope
dilution analysis, being mixed in known propor-
tions with the sample solution, prior to isotopic
determination by means of a mass spectrometer
(see mass spectrometry).
spilite A low-grade *metamorphic rock com-
posed of *albite, *chlorite, *actinolite, *sphene,
and *calcite, with or without *epidote, *prehnite,
and laumonite, and formed by sea-floor *meta-
somatism of *mid-oceanic-ridge basalts. Sea
water circulating through the *oceanic crust is
heated by the cooling *basalt *dykes and *lavas
and reacts with them, introducing sodium and
water into the rock system and converting the
basalt *mineral assemblage into a typical spilite
assemblage.
spilling breaker (surf wave) Overstee-
pened wave in which the unstable top of the
wave spills down the front of the wave-form as
it advances into shallower water. Consequently
it gradually diminishes in height until it moves
up the beach as *swash.
Spilling breaker
spillway General term for a *glacial drainage
channel cut by water during glaciation, and
normally including three varieties: (a) channels
cut by water escaping from a glacially im-
pounded lake (see overflow channel); (b)
s channels cut by meltwater released from a de-
caying *glacier (see meltwater channel); and
(c) channels cut by a stream deflected by an
advancing glacier. Impressive examples were
developed in central Europe (the Urstromtäler
of northern Germany) when the Scandinavian
*ice sheet diverted streams flowing north from
the southern highlands.
spinal column See vertebra.
spindle bomb See volcanic bomb.
spinel Important group of non-silicate mineral
*oxides, including the subgroups spinel series,
*magnetite series, and *chromite series. Mem-
bers of the spinel series have the general formu-
550
la XAl2O4, where X = Mg in spinel, X = Fe2+ in
hercynite, X = Zn in gahnite, and X = Mn in
galaxite. Complete *solid solution exists between
all four *end-members and also magnesiochro-
mite (MgCr2O4); spinels with appreciable Fe2+
(Mg:Fe = 1:3) are called pleonaste and those
with Fe2+ and Cr3+ are called mitchellite; sp. gr.
3.5–4.1; *hardness 7.5–8.0; spinel is dark green
and hercynite is dark bluish-green; all occur as
small octohedra. Unlike chromite, which occurs
in ultramafic (see ultrabasic) *igneous intru-
sions, spinel may occur in metamorphic *schists
and *gneisses with *sillimanite, *garnet, and
*cordierite. In *contact metamorphosed impure
*limestones spinel occurs with *chondrodite,
*olivine, and *orthopyroxene, and in *emery de-
posits it occurs with *corundum. Spinel may de-
velop in residual aluminous *xenoliths enclosed
in *basic magmatic rocks. Spinel is found in *al-
luvial deposits and gem quality spinel also oc-
curs. Hercynite occurs in metamorphosed
*laterites; gahnite in *granite *pegmatites; and
galaxite in manganese vein deposits.
spinifex texture An array of criss-crossing
sheafs of subparallel, blade- or plate-like, skele-
tal, magnesium-rich *olivine or aluminous *py-
roxene, between which is found a finer-grained
aggregate of devitrified *glass, skeletal pyroxene,
and skeletal *chromite. The *texture is usually
found as the product of extreme *undercooling
of magnesium-rich *komatiite *lava.
spire In the shell of a gastropod (*Gastropoda),
all the *whorls other than the body whorl.
Spiriferida (spiriferids) (class *Articulata)
Order of *Brachiopoda, whose members have
spiral brachidia, *punctate or *impunctate bi-
convex shells, and a large body cavity. They
first appeared in the Middle *Ordovician, and
are last known from the Lower *Jurassic.
spiral
brachidium
Spiriferida
spiriferids See spiriferida.
spissatus From the Latin spissatus meaning
‘thickened’, a species of *cirrus cloud which has
sufficient thickness to appear grey even when
551
the cloud is between the Sun and the observer.
See also cloud classification.
spit Elongated accumulation of sand or gravel
projecting from the shore into a water body.
*Longshore drift of material is usually responsi-
ble for the development of a spit.
splanchnocranium See cranium.
splay fault One of a series of branching *syn-
thetic faults near the termination of a major
fault which spread the displacement over a
large area.
splendent (specular) Applied to the *lustre
of a *mineral if it reflects light intensely to give a
bright, shining surface. The reflectivity may be
related to the high *refractive index of the min-
eral (e.g. in *gemstones).
SP method See spontaneous-potential
method.
spodic horizon Subsurface *soil horizon in
which organic matter together with aluminium
and often iron compounds have accumulated
amorphously. It is a *diagnostic horizon in the
*USDA *soil taxonomy.
Spodosols Order of soils in which subsurface
*soil horizons contain amorphous materials
comprising organic matter and compounds of
aluminium and often iron that have accumulat-
ed illuvially. Such soils form in acid material,
mainly coarse in texture, in humid, cool to tem-
perate climates.
spodumene Unusual, lithium-bearing *py-
roxene, LiAlSi2O6; sp. gr. 3.0–3.2; *hardness
6.5–7.0; *monoclinic; usually greyish-white,
often with a greenish or yellowish-green tinge,
occasionally violet, transparent to translucent;
vitreous *lustre; crystals *prismatic, often striat-
ed, etched, and corroded, also occurs *massive
and *columnar; *cleavage perfect prismatic
{110}, parting {100}; typically occurs in lithium-
rich *granites and *pegmatites, associated with
*lepidolite, *tourmaline, and *beryl. The green
variety (hiddenite) and the lilac variety (kunzite)
are used as *gemstones, otherwise it is an *ore
mineral of lithium.
spondylium Curved platform for muscle
attachment in the *shell beak region of some
brachiopods (*Brachiopoda).
sponges See demospongea; porifera.
Spongiaria See porifera.
spotting
spontaneous potential See self-
potential sonde.
spontaneous-potential method (self-
potential (SP) method) A method which
measures the naturally occurring potential
differences between two *non-polarizable elec-
trodes. It is often used in exploration for massive
*sulphide and *graphite *ore bodies.
sporangium See spore.
spore A propagative plant body consisting of a
gametophyte enclosed in a non-cellular coat.
Spores are enclosed within a capsule (sporangi-
um) and are produced in groups of four (tet-
rads) when the parent cell divides meiotically.
In more primitive plants the spores are
identical (isospore) and the condition is called
‘homospory’. In more advanced, vascular
plants spores of two sizes are produced and
the condition is called ‘heterospory’. Small,
male microspores are contained within a micro-
sporangium; larger, female megaspores within
megasporangia. Where spores occur in tetrads
the contact surfaces produce a ‘trilete’ mark
on each of the four spores, marking the point
for the germination of the prothallus. Less
commonly, two contact surfaces are produced,
resulting in a ‘monolete’ marking. Spores which
were probably produced singly are ‘alete’, with
no obvious marking.
sporinite See coal maceral.
SPOT (Système Probatoire d’Observation de la
Terre) A series of French observation satellites,
the first launched in 1986 by the Centre Nation-
al d’Études Spatiales (CNES) in collaboration
with the Belgian scientific, technical, and cul-
tural services, and Swedish National Space
Board (SSTC and SNSB, respectively), which
transmits data yielding monochrome, stereo-
scopic images with a 10 m resolution, superior s
to those from *Landsat. SPOT 4, launched on
24 March 1998, is in a Sun-synchronous orbit at
a height of 822 km; it completes each orbit in
101 minutes and crosses the same surface area
every 26 days. SPOT 5, launched on 4 May 2002,
is in an identical orbit.
A
 A joint CNES, SNSB, and SSTC mission to
provide high-level imagery of the Earth’s
surface.
spotting Dark-coloured, rounded areas, up
to 2 mm in diameter and sometimes larger,
found on the surface of *slaty cleavage in low-
to medium-grade contact *metamorphic rocks
 spread
(see contact metamorphism) of pelitic com-
position. Many spots are *graphite-rich, having
formed by metamorphic aggregation from or-
ganic material originally disseminated through
the starting sedimentary *shale. Rocks may also
have a spotty appearance when *andalusite is
beginning to appear in contact-metamorphosed
*pelites.
spread A pattern of *geophone *groups
used simultaneously to record data from a sin-
gle *shot. Examples of spreads include in-line,
offset, interlocking, L-spread, reversed, split-
spread, and T-spread. See array.
spreading rate The rate, usually in tens of
millimetres a year, at which two adjacent litho-
spheric *plates are separating. The spreading
rate varies along a *constructive margin and is
at a maximum of 90 from the *pole of rotation.
Some authors use ‘spreading rate’ when ‘half
spreading rate’ (i.e. the rate of movement of a
plate from the relevant *ridge) would be more
accurate.
spreiten (sing. spreite) From the German
spreiten, meaning ‘to spread out’ or ‘to extend’,
sedimentary *laminae that result from the be-
haviour of an animal during feeding, excava-
tion, or locomotion. They may be U-shaped,
sinuous, blade-like, or spiralled, and they are
always repeated over a small area. They reflect
the intensive working of *sediment for food.
Well-defined spreiten are associated with *Di-
plocraterion, *Rhizocorallium, and Daedalus. In
the latter they are arranged spirally around a
single trunk. See fugichnia.
Spriggina See ediacaran fossils.
spring A flow of water above ground level that
occurs where the *water-table intercepts the
s ground surface. Where the flow from a spring
is not distinct (i.e. it does not give rise to obvious
trickles) but tends to be somewhat dispersed,
the flow is more correctly termed a ‘seep’. The
reappearance of surface water that had been
diverted underground in a *karst region is a
type of spring known as a ‘resurgence’. A
major variety is the ‘Vauclusian spring’, named
after the Fontaine de Vaucluse, southern
France, and descriptive of the upward emer-
gence of an underground river from a flooded
*solution channel.
spring balance A weighing scale, consisting
of a pan suspended below a vertical spiral
spring, used to measure the weight and often
the density of rocks and minerals. When a spec-
552
imen is placed on the pan the spring stretches
along a calibrated scale and a pointer indicates
the weight. The Jolly balance (see density de-
termination) is a spring balance.
Springerian See chesterian.
spring sapping A set of geomorphological
*processes that erode a hillslope around the
site where a *spring emerges. The processes
may include the collapse of saturated material,
surface stream *erosion, and *chemical weath-
ering. It occurs towards the bases of *chalk es-
carpments in southern England, where its effect
may have been enhanced by frost activity under
former *periglacial conditions.
spring tide *Tide of greater range than the
mean range; the water level rises and falls to the
greatest extent from the mean tide level. Spring
tides occur about every two weeks, when the
Moon is full or new. Tides are at their maximum
when the Moon and the Sun are in the same
plane as the Earth. Compare neap tide.
s-process See slow-neutron process.
SPS A satellite positioning system that uses
interaction-geostationary and low, short-period
satellite passes to determine the location of sta-
tions on the Earth’s surface. See global posi-
tioning system.
spur A ridge that descends towards a valley
floor from the higher ground above. It may be
due to an outcrop of resistant rock, or it may
develop on the concave side of a winding
stream as a result of incision.
squall Short-lived storm with strong winds,
which increase by up to 50% to at least 16
knots (30 km/hr) for two minutes before dying
away again. It may include thunder and heavy
precipitation. See also line squall; squall
line.
squall line A series of very vigorous *cumu-
lonimbus clouds that merge to form a continu-
ous line, up to 1000 km long, that advances at
right angles to the line, bringing severe *squalls
associated with thunderstorms and sometimes
triggering *tornadoes. Squall lines usually devel-
op along a *cold front from which they become
detached, advancing ahead of the front.
square array An *electrode configuration in
which the *current and *potential electrodes are
positioned at the four corners of a square of side
a. Its *geometric factor is Kg = 3.41pa metres.
553
squeeze-up The extrusion of a small volume
of viscous *lava from a crack or opening on the
solidified surface of a lava flow, in response to
the pressure of fluid lava within the flow interi-
or. Squeeze-ups are generally bulbous or linear
in form, range from a few centimetres to several
metres in height, and may have vertical grooves
down their length.
squeezing ground Weak ground, such as
*clay, which has deformed under surrounding
loads and has been squeezed into an *excava-
tion as a result of overstressing.
Sq variation See diurnal variation.
SSI See solid-state imaging camera.
SSS See standard stratigraphic(al) scale.
stability 1. Atmospheric condition in which
air that is forced to rise tends to return to its pre-
existing level in the absence of the uplifting
force. If the *adiabatic *lapse rate of uplifted air
is greater than the *environmental lapse rate,
then the vertically displaced air will become
colder than the surrounding air and as its den-
sity increases it will tend to sink back. See also
instability. 2. In engineering, the resistance of
a structure to collapse or sliding, dependent
upon the *shearing strength of the material.
3. In geochemistry, the state of equilibrium to-
wards which a system will move from any other
state under the same conditions. 4. In thermo-
dynamics, the condition when a slight distur-
bance of temperature, pressure, or composition
does not result in the appearance of a new
*phase.
stability field Range of temperature and
pressure within which a particular mineral or
mineral assemblage is stable.
stable isotope Any naturally occurring, non-
radiogenic *isotope of an element. Many ele-
ments have several stable isotopes.
stable-isotope studies Study of non-ra-
diogenic isotopic ratios of selected elements,
e.g. *D:H, 18O:16O, 32S:34S, which are fractionat-
ed in different proportions during different geo-
logic processes (see isotope fractionation).
Thus natural waters may be ‘fingerprinted’ by
reference to their D:H and 18O:16O ratios as
being of *meteoric, magmatic, or metamorphic
origin; sulphur in *sulphide *ores may be
characterized as *sedimentary or *igneous by
reference to its 32S:34S ratio. See also oxygen-
isotope analysis; oxygen-isotope ratio.
stage
stack 1. Pillar or block of rock, with near-ver-
tical sides, standing adjacent to a present or
former sea cliff. Typically it has been isolated
from the main cliff by wave erosion concentrat-
ed along steeply inclined *joints or *faults.
2. The product of *stacking. A ‘brute’ or ‘final’
stack is the end product of the standard proces-
sing of seismic-*reflection data; the data can be
processed further, e.g. by migration programs to
produce a ‘migration’ stack.
stacking The summing of traces from a vari-
ety of *seismic records to increase the signal-to-
*noise ratio and enhance coherent signals into a
composite record (a *stack). See also common-
depth-point stack; vertical stacking.
stacking fault An abnormality in the ar-
rangement of the rows of atoms affecting the
structure of a *crystal (e.g. *crystal twinning),
caused by changes in the physical and chemical
conditions of its immediate surroundings while
it was growing.
stacking velocity In seismic investigations,
the velocity determined from normal *moveout
measurements using *common-depth-point
gathers prior to *stacking.
stade (stadial in continental-European
usage) A term that is difficult to define with
precision, but which refers to a single period of
increased cold or advancing ice, which forms a
subdivision of a cold *stage within the overall
division of a glacial period into periods of cold
interspersed with warm, or warmer, periods.
stadial See stade.
staff gauge A graduated pole or board
placed in or beside a water course, from which
it is possible to measure directly the height of
the water surface relative to a known datum
elevation. s
stage 1. The elevation of the water surface of a
river with reference to a fixed datum level.
Hence ‘rising’ and ‘falling’ stages.
2. The major subdivision of a *series. A stage
is the fourth order unit in chronostratigraphy,
the equivalent of *age in terms of geologic time
units. It refers to the body of rock accumulated
during one age unit. When used formally the
initial letter of the term is often capitalized, e.g.
*Frasnian Stage.
3. In palaeoclimatology, a climatic, and partly
geologic–climatic, term usually defined by a se-
ries of *sediments or a sequence of *fossil as-
semblages and named at a type locality. For
example, the *Hoxnian (a temperate stage) is
 stage hydrograph
named for organic *interglacial deposits at
Hoxne, Suffolk, England.
4. The degree of development of a land-form
or landscape over time, and which traditionally
has been described by the terms ‘youthful’, ‘ma-
ture’, and ‘old age’ (see davisian cycle). The
recognition of such stages implies an orderly
evolution and this is now seen as unlikely for
many parts of the Earth’s land surface.
5. The part of a microscope on which the
specimen to be examined is placed. Normally
it is flat and may be fixed, as in biological or
metallurgical microscopes, or rotating with a
360 calibrated scale as in geologic micro-
scopes. Transmitted-light microscopes have a
hole in the centre of the stage through which
light passes up to the observer from below.
*Reflected-light microscopes have an incident
light system, whereby light is directed on to
the stage from above and is reflected from the
specimen to the observer.
stage hydrograph See hydrograph.
Stagnosols Soils related to *Luvisols that
occur mainly in humid temperate regions of
western and central Europe. They have reduc-
ing conditions within 50 cm of the surface and
strong mottling in 50% of the reducing layer that
develops under temporary saturation. The top-
soil may be bleached and *concretions may
occur in the subsoil. They are a soil group in
the *World Reference Base for Soil Resources.
stains and staining techniques Various
chemical staining techniques are used to iden-
tify *minerals. The procedure followed is to etch
the specimen, and then to expose it to a range of
organic and/or inorganic compounds which
form distinctive coloured complexes with cer-
tain minerals. *Feldspars can be identified by
s etching with hydrofluoric acid and then treating
with sodium cobaltinitrate, barium chloride,
and potassium acid rhodizonate. *Plagioclases
stain red and K-feldspars are stained yellow
after this treatment. For *carbonates, a range of
stains, including alizarin red S, Feigl’s solution,
potassium ferricyanide alizarine cyanic green,
and titan yellow are used. A number of staining
combinations allow the differentiation of *cal-
cite, high-Mg calcite, *dolomite, *anhydrite, and
*gypsum.
stalactite Elongated body of *dripstone des-
cending from the roof of a cave in a *karst
environment. It is produced by *calcite *precip-
itation as excess carbon dioxide diffuses from
water droplets entering a cave environment.
554
stalagmite Pinnacle of *dripstone rising from
the floor of a cave in a *karst environment. It is
produced by the *precipitation of *calcite as
excess carbon dioxide diffuses when water
droplets strike the floor.
Stampian See rupelian.
standard deviation A measure of the nor-
mal variation within a set of data. In any given
measurement, two-thirds of the samples fall
within one standard deviation on either side of
the mean, 95% between two standard devia-
tions, and so on; the proportion falls off sharply
because of the bell-curve effect. The standard
deviation is calculated as the root-mean-square
deviation.
Standard Global Chronostratigraphic
Scale (SGCS) See standard stratigraphic (al)
scale.
standard mean open water See smow.
Standard Stratigraphic Scale (Standard
Stratigraphical Scale) (SSS; Standard Global
Chronostratigraphic Scale, SGCS) Globally stan-
dardized *stratigraphic scale whose *chronos-
tratigraphic units will ultimately all be
delimited by *boundary stratotypes.
standing wave Type of wave in which the
surface oscillates vertically between fixed points
called ‘nodes’, without any forward progression.
The crest at one moment becomes the trough at
the next and so on. The points of maximum
vertical rise and fall are called ‘antinodes’.
At the nodes particles show no vertical motion
but exhibit the maximum horizontal motion.
Standing waves may be caused by the meeting
of two similar wave groups that are travelling in
opposing directions. See seiche.
stand of the tide Period at high or low
water during a tidal cycle when there is little or
no change in the height of the *tide. The water
level is almost stationary and the tidal currents
fall away to zero velocity before reversing.
stannite Comparatively rare mineral,
Cu2FeSnS4; sp. gr. 4.3–4.5; *hardness 3–4; *te-
tragonal; steel-grey with an olive-green tinge
on fresh surfaces, which become yellowish on
exposure; black *streak; *metallic *lustre; crys-
tals rare, *cubes or *tetrahedra, but normally
the grains are irregular or *massive; occurs in
*hydrothermal tin-*ore deposits and in associa-
tion with *cassiterite, *chalcopyrite, and *wol-
framite, also in stanniferous *sphalerite–
555
*galena ores, and associated with sphalerite,
*pyrrhotite, and galena.
stapes In *Mammalia, the inner auditory ossi-
cle of the ear, stirrup-shaped because it is
pierced by an artery. It is derived from the hyo-
mandibular bone in fish, which connects the
cranium and the upper jaw.
star dune A complex *aeolian *dune form
characterized by a series of slip faces radiating
about a central point, producing a rough star
shape. Such dunes are the product of highly
variable wind directions and thus have a highly
variable palaeocurrent pattern preserved in the
dune cross-bedding (see cross-lamination).
arrows indicate
wind direction
Star dune
Stardust A *NASA mission to return coma
samples from comet *Wild 2. Launched in
1999, it reached the comet in January 2004.
A
 A NASA mission launched in 1999 to study the
comet Wild 2 and to return samples to Earth.
star pair (binary star; double star) Binary
stars are among the commonest stellar systems
in our galaxy, accounting for about 50% of all
stars. They consist of two stars in orbit around
their common centre of gravity. Those which
can be resolved by telescope are referred to as
visual binaries. Spectroscopic binaries comprise
star pairs too close to be resolved visually, but
which exhibit *Doppler shifts in spectral lines
because of varying velocities of the two stars in
the line of sight. Other stars reveal the presence
of an invisible companion by changes in their
*proper motion. Double stars appear to be visu-
ally close to each other, but may be at vastly
different distances from the observer.
star phylogeny In a *phylogenetic tree,
the occurrence of a multifurcation with many
short branches connected at the *internal node.
Such topologies are often inferred to represent
staurolite
a recent population expansion event from a
common ancestor (the founder lineage). This
is often seen in populations which have under-
gone a *founder effect.
star twinkling See atmospheric shimmer.
stasigenesis Situation in which an evolution-
ary lineage persists through time without split-
ting or otherwise changing. So-called ‘*living
fossils’ are examples of stasigenesis.
stasis Period of little or no evolutionary
change; the ‘equilibrium’ that alternates with
‘punctuations’ in the theory of *punctuated
equilibrium.
Statherian The final period of the *Palaeo-
proterozoic era that began 1800 Ma ago and
ended 1600 Ma ago, both its beginning and
end being defined by fixed dates. The Statherian
followed the *Orosirian period and was followed
by the *Calymmian period, marking the start of
the *Mesoproterozoic era.
static correction (statics) A correction
applied to geophysical data, especially seismic
data, to compensate for the effect of irregular
topography, differences in the elevation of
*shots and *geophones relative to a datum,
low-velocity surface layers (weathering correc-
tion), and the horizontal geometry of shots and
receivers (geophones or *hydrophones), or any
correction which applies to the geometry of the
source and receiver(s). A static correction pro-
vides some form of direct-current shift (e.g. in
seismic-*reflection surveys), usually a time ele-
ment added to or subtracted from the travel
times, in contrast to a dynamic correction
which involves an operation on the data. See
elevation correction; moveout.
statics See static correction.
stationary front Condition in which the
s
frontal boundary between cold and warm air is
stationary, or moves slowly and erratically, with
air on either side of the front moving approxi-
mately parallel to the front.
station frequency See sampling fre-
quency.
station interval See sampling interval.
staurolite A member of the *nesosilicates
and an important metamorphic *index
mineral with the approximate composition
(Fe2+,Mg)2(Al,Fe3+)9O6[Si4O16](O,OH)2; sp. gr.
3.74–3.85; *hardness 7.5; *monoclinic; *crystals
*prismatic; shades of brown; occurs in regionally
 steady flow
metamorphosed *schists and *gneisses, such as
iron-rich *pelites, with a high Fe3+/Fe2+ ratio
at moderate grades of *metamorphism and in
association with *garnet (*almandine) and
*kyanite; it may develop from *chloritoid as the
metamorphic grade increases.
steady flow The condition in which flow
velocities do not vary with time. This is applica-
ble to both *groundwater and channel flows. In
respect of flow to a pumped well, it is some-
times called ‘equilibrium’ flow. Non-steady
(unsteady or transient) flow changes its velocity
and/or direction with time.
steam fog See arctic sea smoke.
steatite See talc.
S-tectonite See shape fabric.
Stefan–Boltzmann law The law stating
that energy radiated from a *black body is pro-
portional to the fourth power of its *absolute
temperature.
Stegosauridae Suborder of quadrupedal,
*ornithischian *dinosaurs, mainly *Jurassic in
age, characterized by a double row of plates
and spines along the back and tail.
steinkern See fossilization.
Steinmann trinity *Spilites, *serpentine
rocks, and radiolarian *cherts, which, as
G. Steinmann observed in 1905, often occur
together in mountains such as the Alps, com-
prising rocks formed as deep-sea sediments.
stem group In *cladistic analysis, those taxa
descended from the point where an ancestral
taxon split into two *sister groups to the point at
which a further split gave rise to an extant
*crown group.
s the surface of a sphere are represented on a
stem reptiles See cotylosauria; captorhi-
nomorpha.
Stenian The final period of the *Mesoproter-
ozoic era, which began 1200 Ma ago and ended
1000 Ma ago, both its beginning and end being
defined by fixed dates. The Stenian followed
the *Ectasian period and was followed by the
*Tonian period, marking the start of the *Neo-
proterozoic era.
Steno, Nicolaus (Nicolaus Niels Stensen
Stenonis) (1638–87) A Danish physician who
moved to Florence in 1665. He opposed the
prevailing idea that *fossils grew within the
Earth, proposing instead that they were organic
556
relics of an earlier period. Steno also distin-
guished between fossils and inorganic remains
such as crystals. He had some conception of
stratigraphy, describing strata in Tuscany as
being formed sequentially.
stenothermal Unable to tolerate a wide
range of temperature.
stenotopic Able to tolerate only a narrow
range of several factors.
Stensen, Niels See Steno (stenonis),
Nicolaus.
step faulting The faulting process in which
separate *fault blocks are downthrown system-
atically in one direction, forming a stepped
sequence.
Stephanian The uppermost *series in the
*Silesian (Upper *Carboniferous) of Europe,
underlain by the *Westphalian, dated at
306.5–299 Ma and roughly contemporaneous
with the uppermost *Moscovian, *Kasimovian,
and *Gzhelian Series. Originally, the lower part
of the Stephanian was known as Westphalian E.
Stephano (Uranus XX) A lesser satellite of
*Uranus with a radius of 16 km and a visual
*albedo of 0.07.
stepout See moveout.
steptoe A type of *kipuka named after Steptoe
Butte (itself named after Lt. Col. Edward Step-
toe, 1815–65), in Washington State, USA. It is an
isolated hill of older rock that protrudes above
an extensive *lava field.
stereogram The two-dimensional plot of a
*stereographic projection, in which points on
*plane of projection, as points on the Earth’s
surface might be projected on to a plane repre-
senting a slice through the equator by joining
these points to either the N. or S. poles. If the
plane of projection (equatorial plane) is con-
structed with *great circles and *small circles
drawn at 2 intervals and with an overall diam-
eter of about 20 cm, it is called a ‘Wulff stereo-
graphic net’. If it is graduated at 10 intervals
and includes small circles concentric to the
*primitive circle and radii representing vertical
great circles, it is called a ‘Federov net’. Plotting
is done on a sheet of tracing paper laid over the
printed net and pivoted about a pin at its centre.
stereographic net See stereogram.
557
stereographic projection A two-dimen-
sional graphic representation of a three-
dimensional solid object, in which the angular
relationships of lines and planes of the object
are drawn in terms of their relationship to the
*great circle formed by the intersection of the
equatorial plane with the surface of an imagi-
nary sphere in which the object is contained.
Stereographic projections are used widely in
structural geology and *crystallography.
stereom (stereome) In *Echinodermata, a
mesh, mainly of magnesian *calcite, from
which the skeleton is constructed. In *Scleracti-
nia, a secondary structure, composed of bun-
dles of *aragonite crystals arranged transversely,
that thickens and strengthens the *epitheca.
stereonet A two-dimensional, circular repre-
sentation of a sphere in which the lines of lon-
gitude and latitude form a system of coordinates
(a ‘net’), on which projections of *great and
*small circles occupy the equatorial plane of a
reference sphere. Two types of stereonet are
used in the analysis of structural data: an
equal-angle net (Wulff net); and an *equal-area
net (Schmidt–Lambert net), which is the net
preferred for the contouring of data and the
evaluation of clusters of data suggesting pre-
ferred orientations.
stereophotography The taking of two pic-
tures (stereo pairs), e.g. of a landscape or *fossil,
from slightly different angles so that when the
two images are viewed through a *stereoscope a
three-dimensional image is produced, giving
greater detail than an ordinary photograph.
stereoptic vision The perception of depth
and three dimensions accompanying binocular
vision resulting from differences in *parallax
producing different images on the retina of
each eye.
stereoscope An optical device which allows a
pair of overlapping, two-dimensional photo-
graphs to be examined with three-dimensional
(*stereoptic) vision, thus permitting more
detailed interpretation.
Steropodon The earliest Australian mam-
mal, a monotreme known only from opalized
jaws and teeth found in *Cretaceous deposits at
Lightning Ridge, central Australia (the name is
from the Greek sterope, meaning ‘lightning’).
The pattern of the molar teeth suggests that
monotremes may be derived from Theria and
not from a separate protomammalian stock.
stipe
Stettin An end *moraine and a variety of *sed-
iments occurring in Poland and European Rus-
sia. Its stratigraphic position is uncertain but it is
probably equivalent to the early *Weichselian or
*Rodebaek.
stibnite (antimonite, antimony glance)
One of the main *ore minerals for antimony,
with the formula Sb2S3; sp. gr. 4.6; *hardness
2.0–2.5; *orthorhombic; normally lead-grey
with a bluish tarnish; *metallic *lustre; crystals
*prismatic, columnar, *acicular, and vertically
striated; perfect lengthwise *cleavage {010},
imperfect {100}, {110}; occurs mainly in hydro-
thermal deposits, at the low-temperature
end, often forming sheet-like bodies, associated
with *fluorite, *quartz, and *barite, and with
sulphides of lead, zinc, and other metals.
stick-slip A discontinuous, jerky pattern of
movement along a *fault plane, which is
thought to be consistent with *earthquake phe-
nomena.
Stigmaria The *form-genus for the under-
ground axes of Lepidodendrales (*Carbonifer-
ous).
Stille, Wilhelm Hans (1876–1976) A Ger-
man geologist from the Universities of Göttin-
gen and Berlin, Stille’s main work was in the
field of *orogeny. He believed that mountain
building occurred in phases and that the conti-
nents were formed from the accretion of moun-
tain belts around ancient *cratons.
stillstand A period of geologic time charac-
terized by unchanging sea levels, i.e. a state
neither of *regression nor *transgression.
stilpnomelane A *phyllosilicate (sheet sili-
cate) similar to *biotite with the formula (K,
Na,Ca)0–1.4 (Fe2+,Fe3+,Mg,Al,Mn)5.9–8.2 [Si8O20]
(OH)4(OH,F)3.6–8.5; sp. gr. 2.59–2.96; *hardness s
3.0–4.0; properties similar to those of biotite;
found in metamorphosed iron- and manga-
nese-rich sedimentary deposits and in some
glaucophane schists.
stipe A branch of a rhabdosome (graptolite
colony, see graptolithina). A stipe or stipes
originate(s) from an initial conical cup (*sicula).
The number of stipes can range from one to as
many as 64. Their attitudes also vary. In the
primitive condition the stipes hang downwards
from the sicula and are said to be ‘pendent’.
If they grow out horizontally from the sicula
they are ‘horizontal’; if they grow upwards
along the nema they are ‘scandent’; if they
are straight and grow downwards they are
 stishovite
‘declined’; if they are curved and slope down-
wards they are ‘deflexed’; if they are straight and
grow upwards and outwards they are ‘reclined’;
and if they are curved and grow upwards and
outwards they are ‘reflexed’.
stishovite A high-density form of crystalline
silica (see also quartz) with the same formula
SiO2, but formed at pressures greater than 10
GPa; discovered at some *meteorite impact
sites, but rarely in terrestrial rocks; sp.gr. 4.3;
minerals possessing a similar atomic lattice
may exist in the Earth’s upper *mantle.
stock *Igneous *intrusion, approximately cir-
cular in plan, that has steep contacts with the
*country rocks and a surface area of 20 km2 or
less.
stockwork Mineral deposit formed of a net-
work of small, irregular *veins so closely spaced
that it may be mined as a unit.
Stokes’s law A law describing the rate at
which suspended particles settle, formulated in
1845 by the physicist Sir George Gabriel Stokes
(1819–1903). The settling velocity (V) in cm/s is
calculated by V = CD2, where C is a constant
related to the density and viscosity of the fluid
and the density of the suspension and D is
the diameter of the particles (assumed to be
spheres) in cm.
stolon In colonial invertebrates, the stalk-like
structure by which individuals are attached to
the substrate.
stolotheca One of the three types of grapto-
lite (*Graptolithina) *thecae, which encloses the
main *stolon and the earliest parts of the daugh-
ter stolotheca (the authotheca, and *bitheca).
stomodeum See anthozoa.
s low-pressure systems. ‘Storm-force winds’ are,
-stone Suffix for many different kinds of lithi-
fied *sediments, e.g. *siltstone, *limestone,
*sandstone, *grainstone, *packstone, and *iron-
stone.
stone canal In *Echinodermata, a canal with
walls strengthened by calcareous matter, which
connects the *madreporite with the water-
vascular system.
stone circle See patterned ground.
stone garland See patterned ground.
stone net See patterned ground.
stone polygon See patterned ground.
558
stone steps See patterned ground.
stone stripes See patterned ground.
stony-iron meteorite (siderolite) Rela-
tively rare *meteorite type with approximately
equal quantities of nickel–iron and basic *sili-
cates, usually *pyroxene and *olivine.
stony meteorite (asiderite) *Meteorite
type consisting mainly of rock-forming *silicates
(*olivine, *pyroxene, and *plagioclase) with
some nickel–iron; more than 90% of meteorites
seen to fall are of this type. Stony meteorites
are referred to as *chondrites or *achondrites,
depending on the presence or absence of
*chondrules.
stoop and room See pillar and stall.
stoping 1. The method of emplacement of an
*igneous *intrusion in which percolating
*magma detaches blocks of *country rock
which sink, allowing the magma to move
upwards. 2. In underground mining, the break-
ing and removal of rock in an *ore body.
storage coefficient (storativity) The vol-
ume of water given up per unit horizontal area
of an *aquifer and per unit drop of the *water-
table or *potentiometric surface. It is a dimen-
sionless ratio and always less than unity. In un-
confined aquifers it is equal to the specific yield
(see specific yield (2)), but in confined aqui-
fers the storage coefficient depends on elastic
compression of the aquifer, and is usually less
than 103.
storativity See storage coefficient.
storm Common term for gales, squalls, rain-
storms, or thunderstorms. It is used specifically
for conditions associated with the active areas of
by definition, strong gales or winds, with speeds
exceeding 30 m/s. See appendix c: the beau-
fort scale of wind strength.
storm beach Accumulation of coarse beach
sediments built above the high-water mark by
storm action. Gravel, shell debris, and other
coarse materials are thrown into ridge or bank
structures by waves during heavy storms.
storm bed A bed of *sediment deposited by a
storm event. Storm beds are usually the product
of shallow marine wave activity, and are often
referred to as ‘event deposits’, that is, they are
the product of a short-lived, high-energy, sedi-
mentary environment.
559
storm deposit See tempestite.
storm surge Rise or piling-up of water during
a storm, as a result of wind stresses acting on the
surface of the sea and of atmospheric-pressure
differences. If a storm surge occurs at the time of
highest *spring tides, flooding of coastal areas
may result, as happened in Holland and East
Anglia, England, in 1953.
storm wave-base The sea depth, typically
15–40m, above which the sea bed is affected by
waves that occur during storms. During storms,
sand is eroded and deposited as *hummocky
cross-bedding. Compare fairweather wave-
base.
stoss Describes the side of a sloping surface
that faces into the flow of ice, water, or wind.
stoss and lee Terms referring to the up-*gla-
cier and down-glacier slopes respectively of a
rocky obstacle that has been glaciated. The stoss
slope is smoothly abraded, the lee slope roughly
plucked. A landscape dominated by such fea-
tures is said to have ‘stoss-and-lee topography’.
stoss-and-lee topography See roche
moutonnée; stoss and lee.
Strahler climate classification A system
for describing climates, devised in 1969 by A. N.
Strahler, in which world climates are related
to the main *air masses that produce them,
as: (a) equatorial/tropical air masses, producing
low-latitude climates; (b) tropical and polar air
masses, producing mid-latitude climates; and
(c) polar and arctic air masses, producing
high-latitude climates. Subsets of these are
based on variations in temperature and *precip-
itation to give 14 regional types, plus upland
(highland) climates which are regarded as a
separate category. See also köppen climate
classification; thornthwaite climate clas-
sification.
straight extinction (parallel extinction)
In optical *mineralogy, the phenomenon
which occurs when the *vibration direction of
the light ray is parallel to the *crystal face or
*cleavage traces within the mineral. As the min-
eral *thin section is rotated between *crossed
polars, the vibration direction is brought paral-
lel to the plane of the *polarizer. The light passes
through the polarizer and is eliminated by the
*analyser. *Extinction occurs four times in a
360 rotation of the mineral.
strain The dimensional change in the shape or
volume of a body as a result of an applied *stress
strain rate
or stresses. Strain is the ratio of the altered
length, area, or volume to its original value,
and may be *homogeneous or *inhomoge-
neous, and involve distortion, *dilation, and
rotation. See hooke’s law; poisson’s ratio;
pure shear; simple shear; shear modulus.
strain ellipse A two-dimensional figure used
to describe the magnitude and orientation of
the maximum and minimum *principal strain
axes x and z when a reference circle of unit
radius is deformed by *homogeneous strain.
strain ellipsoid A three-dimensional version
of the *strain ellipse which describes the mag-
nitude and orientation of the maximum, inter-
mediate, and minimum *principal strain axes
when a reference sphere of unit radius is de-
formed by *homogeneous strain.
x x
z z
y y
Strain ellipsoid
strain gauge A device for measuring *strain.
strain marker A natural object whose origi-
nal geometry is known and from which the
magnitude and orientation of the *principal
strain axes may be determined after deforma-
tion. Many objects have been used, e.g. *fossils
(*crinoids, *belemnites, *corals, *ammonites,
*brachiopods, and *trilobites), rock *textures
(i.e. *ooids), *conglomerate pebbles and *clasts, s
single crystals (e.g. *feldspar *megacrysts), spots
in *contact aureoles, volcanic *lapilli, *spheru-
lites, and *xenoliths.
strain parallelepiped The three-dimen-
sional shape produced when a small cube of
unit dimensions is deformed.
strain rate The rate of change of the size and
shape of a body under an applied *stress. The
duration of the stress is very important in deter-
mining strain behaviour. Most geologic strain
rates are relatively low, with stresses applied
over millions of years, leading to a great reduc-
tion in yield strength. Evidence for geologically
high strain rates is provided by *pseudotachylite
 strain–slip cleavage
glasses whose formation results from ‘instanta-
neous’ frictional melting during deformation.
strain–slip cleavage A term synonymous
with *crenulation cleavage, but which some
authorities (e.g. C. McA. Powell, 1979) have
suggested should not be used in cleavage
descriptions, owing to the implications it carries
of the mode of origin.
strain–time diagram A diagram which
illustrates a change in *strain over time for a
given *stress. Strain–time diagrams are used
to delimit fields of *elastic behaviour, viscous
behaviour and *failure, and fields of *primary,
*secondary, and *tertiary creep.
strandflat A *shore platform, up to 60 km
wide, found along the coasts of Greenland,
Iceland, Norway, and Spitzbergen. It may be
the result of combined glacial and marine
processes.
strandline The shoreline of a marine or
*lacustrine environment. The term is applied
most commonly to ancient shorelines. The de-
velopment of a strandline requires that the rel-
ative positions of land and water remain stable
long enough for features to form. Subsequent
displacement may be caused by a change in the
level of the water or of the land.
strandplain A linear accumulation of *sand
or *gravel that lies parallel to a coast, forming
the commonest type of *beach.
strata See stratum.
strath terrace A *river terrace that is cut
into bedrock and is covered by only a thin
layer of sediment.
stratified sampling See sampling
s methods.
stratiform deposit A mineral deposit that is
*concordant with *bedding; usually in sheets
but it may be ribbon-like.
stratiformis From the Latin stratus meaning
‘flattened’ or ‘spread out’ and forma meaning
‘appearance’, a species of cloud consisting of an
extensive level sheet or layer, found in *altocu-
mulus, *stratocumulus, and sometimes *cirro-
cumulus. See also cloud classification.
stratigraphic See stratigraphy.
stratigraphic column 1. A succession
of rocks laid down during a specified interval
of *geologic time. The phrase ‘the stratigraphic
560
column’ often refers to the whole sequence
of *strata deposited throughout geologic time.
2. A simplified columnar diagram relating a
succession of named *lithostratigraphic units
from a particular area to the subdivisions of
geologic time.
stratigraphic correlation Geologic study
concerned with establishing geochronological
relationships between different areas, based
on geologic investigations of many local succes-
sions.
stratigraphic cross-section A section,
usually with the vertical scale considerably
exaggerated with relation to the horizontal
scale, that is designed to show the thicknesses
and stratigraphic relationships of successions of
named *lithostratigraphic units. For simplicity,
the upper part of one of the units is restored to a
horizontal position and topography is ignored.
Items such as *facies changes, *interdigitating of
units, *unconformities, and breaks in succes-
sion are shown. The units and their boundaries
are related to the subdivisions of *geologic time.
stratigraphic nomenclature The naming
of *stratigraphic and *geologic-time units ac-
cording to established practices and principles.
*Formal naming of a stratigraphic unit occurs
when the unit is first proposed and described
from a type section (see stratotype), which acts
thereafter as the standard reference for that
unit. Ideally, the name given is binomial, and
in the case of *chronostratigraphic and *lithos-
tratigraphic units consists of a preceding geo-
graphic name taken from the *type locality (plus
lithological description where appropriate), fol-
lowed by the name of the unit, e.g. Ludlow
Series and Elk Point Group. The names of *bio-
stratigraphic units consist of the name of the
characteristic *fossil plus the relevant unit
term, e.g. Monograptus uniformis Range zone.
The name chosen for a stratigraphic unit should
be unique to that unit. When used as a proper
name, as above, the initial letters are often cap-
italized. Except in very special circumstances
the first formal name given has priority and is
adhered to. In practice many well-known units,
e.g. Coal Measures, Millstone Grit, were named
long before the present conventions were estab-
lished, and to avoid confusion these names are
preserved in their original form. Geologic-time
units generally take their preceding name
from that of the corresponding chronostrati-
graphic unit, plus the name of the unit (*period,
*epoch, *age, etc.), e.g. the *Jurassic Period,
from the Jurassic System (named after the
561
*type area in the Jura Mountains). The names
of *eons and *eras (e.g. *Phanerozoic Eon,
*Mesozoic Era) were proposed independently,
so that the names for the corresponding
*eonothems and *erathems are derived from
the time units. See also informal.
stratigraphic reef A name proposed in
1970 by R. J. Dunham to describe a *reef that
comprises only a thick mass of pure or nearly
pure *carbonate rock. Compare ecologic reef.
stratigraphic scale A general term to
denote a timescale that incorporates both the
traditional elements of the *geologic time-scale
as it has evolved over the last century and a half,
and, as they are agreed, the reference points of
an ideal and globally standardized *chronostra-
tigraphic scale that is defined by *boundary
stratotypes. The ideal, globally standardized
stratigraphic scale has been termed both the
*Standard Stratigraphic Scale (SSS), and the
*Standard Global Chronostratigraphic Scale
(SGCS). W. B. Harland (1978) has suggested
that, for clarity, the older geologic timescale,
which evolved through the designation of type
sections (see stratotype) and is gradually being
superseded, should be referred to as the Tradi-
tional Stratigraphic Scale (TSS). A local strati-
graphic scale, from which a standard reference
point might be selected later, is termed a
Regional Stratigraphic Scale (RSS).
stratigraphic trap (lithologic trap) Oil or
gas trap resulting from lithologic variations, e.g.
interbedded lenses of *sands and *silts in a del-
taic environment. See delta; natural gas;
petroleum. Compare anticlinal trap; fault
trap; reef trap; structural trap; uncon-
formity trap.
stratigraphic unit A body of rock forming
a discrete and definable unit. Such units are
determined on the basis of their lithology
(*lithostratigraphic units), or their *fossil con-
tent (*biostratigraphic units), or their time
span (*chronostratigraphic units). It is unlikely
that any rock succession will form a unit that
accords with all three categories of classifica-
tion. All stratigraphic units are defined by a
*type section. *Geologic-time units are abstract
concepts, not actual rock sequences, so do not
class as stratigraphic units.
stratigraphy 1. The branch of the geologic
sciences concerned with the study of stratified
rocks in terms of time and space. It deals with
the correlation of rocks from different localities.
Correlation methods may involve the use of
stratosphere
*fossils (*biostratigraphy), rock units (*lithostra-
tigraphy), or *geologic-time units or intervals
(*chronostratigraphy). 2. The relative spatial
and temporal arrangement of rock strata.
stratocumulus From the Latin stratus mean-
ing ‘flattened’ or ‘spread out’ and cumulus
meaning ‘heap’, a genus of low clouds com-
posed of patches, sheets, or layers of grey to
whitish appearance, always with dark patches,
rolls, or rounded masses, which are not fibrous.
See also cloud classification.
stratomere A general term for any *chronos-
tratigraphic unit within the Stratomeric Stan-
dard hierarchy. See chronostratigraphy.
stratopause The level that marks the maxi-
mum height of the *stratosphere, at around 50
km. After high temperatures in the upper strato-
sphere (about 0  C at the stratopause) temper-
ature decreases with increasing altitude in the
*mesosphere above. See also atmospheric
structure.
stratophenetic classification See stra-
tophenetics.
stratophenetics (stratophenetic classifi-
cation) In *cladistics, a method for determining
the evolutionary relationships among organ-
isms that exist only as fossils. It is based on
quantitative assessments of morphological (i.e.
phenetic) similarities and geologic age (derived
from stratigraphy).
stratosphere The atmospheric layer above
the *troposphere, which extends on average
from about 10 to 50 km above the Earth’s sur-
face. The stratosphere is a major stable layer
whose base is marked by the *tropopause, and
where temperatures overall average approxi-
mately -60  C. Temperature in the lower strato- s
sphere is isothermal but increases markedly in
the upper part, to reach a maximum of about
0  C at the *stratopause. High stratospheric tem-
peratures result from absorption of ultraviolet
radiation (0.20–0.32 mm wavelengths) by ozone
concentrated at 15–30 km. Due to the very low
air density, even the small amount of ozone
concentrated in the upper stratosphere is
extremely effective in absorbing radiation, thus
giving high temperatures at 50 km. The isother-
mal condition at the base of the stratospheric
inversion layer creates stability, which generally
limits vertical extensions of cloud and leads to
the lateral spreading of high *cumulonimbus
cloud with characteristic anvil heads. See also
atmospheric structure.
 stratotype
stratotype (type section) An actual rock
succession, chosen at a particular locality (the
*type locality) to act as the standard comparison
for all other *chronostratigraphic or *lithostrati-
graphic units of its ilk. Generally, the type
section of a *stratigraphic unit should be the
rock succession originally so designated and
described (the *holo-stratotype), but circum-
stances may require amendment (see lectos-
tratotype; neostratotype), or amplification
(see parastratotype; hypostratotype). How-
ever, although many similar sequences may
exist, only a single stratotype at any onet ime
can act as the standard. See also boundary-
stratotype; composite-stratotype; compo-
nent-stratotype; type area.
strato-volcano (composite volcano) *Vol-
cano built up of layers of *lava alternating with
beds of *ash and other *pyroclastics and with
material eroded from higher slopes of the cone.
Many of the world’s highest volcanoes are of
this type, and include Mt Fuji (Japan) and Mt.
Egmont (North Island, New Zealand).
stratum (pl. strata) Lithological term applied
to rocks that form layers or beds. Unlike ‘bed’,
‘stratum’ has no connotation of thickness or
extent and although the terms are sometimes
used interchangeably they are not synonymous.
stratus From the Latin stratus meaning ‘flat-
tened’ or ‘spread out’, a genus of low clouds of
flat, uniform base and of grey appearance,
through which the Sun may be outlined clearly
when the cloud is not too dense. When stratus
forms at surface level it is called *fog. See also
cloud classification.
streak The colour of a mineral when in the
form of powder, which is usually produced by
scratching the solid mineral on an unglazed
s porcelain plate (streak plate). The colour may
be different from the mineral’s colour in mass.
streak lightning An electric discharge with
a branching appearance of the main channel. It
may flash between cloud and air or between
cloud and ground.
streak plate See streak.
streamer A long (up to several kilometres)
tube containing a number (sometimes many
hundreds) of *hydrophones and filled with oil,
designed to be towed by a ship, and used in
marine *seismic surveying. It may be balanced
to give it neutral buoyancy or have depth con-
trollers to maintain it at a constant depth. Com-
562
pass devices are attached at intervals to monitor
the *feather angle of the cable.
stream flood See flash flood.
stream grade See grade.
streamline 1. In a flowing fluid, a hypothet-
ical line which indicates the local direction of
flow. See also hydraulic gradient; potentio-
metric surface. 2. A shape which allows a
body to offer minimum resistance to a fluid
through which it moves; to impart such a
shape to a body.
stream order Measure of the position of a
stream (defined as the reach between succes-
sive tributaries) within the hierarchy of the
*drainage network. A commonly used approach
allocates order ‘1’ to unbranched tributaries, ‘2’
to the stream after the junction of the first trib-
utary, and so on. It is the basis for quantitative
analysis of the network.
1
1 1
1 1
1
1 2
2 1
2
1
3
1
4
1
2
3 1
2 2
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
Stream order
stream power The rate at which a stream
can do work, especially the transport of its load,
and measured over a specific length. It is largely
a function of channel slope and discharge and is
expressed by Ω = gQs, where Ω is the power, g is
the specific weight of water, Q is the discharge,
and s is the slope. Streams tend to adjust their
flow and channel geometry in order to mini-
mize their power (see least-work principle).
stream-sediment analysis (river-
sediment analysis; drainage-sediment
survey) A technique used in geochemical ex-
ploration and analysis, in which semi-mobile
and immobile elements are measured from
river or stream sediments, although under
some circumstances highly mobile elements,
e.g. molybdenum, may be used. Anomalies in
sediments are not always accompanied by
anomalies in the water, there may be seasonal
563
variations in the composition of stream water,
and it is easier to collect, carry, and store sedi-
ment samples than water samples. Anomalies
may occur in the active sediment and in the
banks and *flood plains, so sampling of any of
these can give satisfactory results. Immobile el-
ements are determined by total-metal analysis;
mobile and semi-mobile elements by total- or
cold-extractable metal analysis.
stream terrace See river terrace.
stress A measure of the intensity of a force (F)
acting upon a body as a function of its area (A),
such that stress = F/A, in units of N/m2. Stress
can be resolved into two important compo-
nents. Compressive (tensile) stress (s) acts nor-
mal to the surface (see normal stress) and
changes the volume of the body; *shear stress
(t) acts parallel to the surface and changes the
shape of the body. See also strain.
stress axial cross Three mutually perpendic-
ular *stress axes whose lengths are proportional to
the magnitudes of the principal stresses they rep-
resent. The maximum (s1) and minimum (s3)
principal-stress axes define the stress ellipse; the
addition of the intermediate (s2) principal-stress
axis defines the stress ellipsoid.
stress difference (sd; differential stress)
The simple difference between the greatest and
least principal stresses, and used in the con-
struction of *Mohr stress diagrams. The diame-
ter of a Mohr stress circle represents the stress
difference for a given combination of s3 and s1
(see stress axial cross). In *stress–strain dia-
grams the stress axis is given as sd and is usually
plotted against percentage *strain. See princi-
pal-stress axes.
stress field The spatial change in the orien-
tation of *stress throughout a body of material,
as opposed to the simple stress at a point. A
stress field is represented as a grid of *stress
trajectories which may or may not be superim-
posed.
stress meter Instrument for measuring pres-
sure changes in rocks that result from mining
operations. The stress meter has a steel shaft
with a groove containing glycerine. When pres-
sure is exerted the glycerine is squeezed on to a
diaphragm which pushes a strain gauge to mea-
sure the movement.
stress–strain diagram A diagram which
illustrates the change in *strain under an
applied *stress, usually as a function of the
progressive change in temperature, pressure,
strike
and *strain rate. The percentage strain is plotted
on the x axis, and differential stress (the differ-
ence between the maximum (s1) and minimum
s3) *principal-stress axes) on the y axis.
stress trajectory A line showing the contin-
uous change in the orientation of a principal
*stress throughout a body. Although trajectories
may curve, their intersections with other princi-
pal stresses remain perpendicular.
stretch In *strain and *stress analysis, a mea-
sure of the extent by which an object of known
dimensions has lengthened, expressed as the
ratio of the new length to the old.
strewnfield An area which is associated with
a specific group of *tektites and microtektites
that can be distinguished according to their
age and chemical composition, and which
probably represents a particular impact event.
Four major strewnfields are known: the Austral-
asian (formed 0.7 Ma ago), which is the largest
and covers an area of about 5  107 km2 around
Australia and South-east Asia; the Ivory Coast
(formed 1.3 Ma ago) covering an area at least
4  106 km2 around and off the coast of W.
Africa; the Central European (formed 14 Ma
ago) without proven associated microtektites
as yet; and the N. American strewnfield (formed
34 Ma ago) forming a belt stretching across
the Pacific from Southeast Asia to the western
Atlantic, and of unknown latitudinal extent.
striation Narrow groove or scratch cut in
exposed rock by the abrasive action of hard
rock fragments embedded in the base of a slid-
ing *glacier. Striation provides a useful clue
to the direction of ice movement in formerly
glaciated areas.
strike 1. (noun) The compass direction of a
horizontal line on an inclined plane. (verb) To s
lie in the direction of such a line. 2. (noun) The
discovery of an economically valuable source of
a mineral. (verb) To make such a discovery.
strike
Strike
 strike fault
strike fault A *fault which strikes parallel
with the *strike of the layering (i.e. *bedding or
*cleavage) in adjacent rocks.
strike ridge An elongated hill developed
along the *strike of a bed that is more resistant
than its adjacent strata. See also cuesta.
strike-slip fault (wrench fault, tear fault,
transcurrent fault) A *fault in which the major
displacement is horizontal and parallel to the
*strike of a vertical or subvertical *fault plane.
Movements along such a fault may be *dextral
or *sinistral. Localized zones of deformation due
to pressures and tensions across the fault occur
at bends in the fault strike and give rise to the
formation of pull-apart basins and *grabens,
which are rhombic in shape. *Flower structures
are also recognized features of such regimes.
There are certain geometrical similarities be-
tween strike-slip faults and *transform faults,
but also significant differences (e.g. displace-
ment along the fault plane is equal and unlim-
ited in a transform fault but not in a strike-slip
fault). See transpression; transtension.
strike stream See subsequent stream.
strike valley See subsequent stream.
string 1. (flyer) Up to ten *geophones which
are connected together permanently but have
only one lead on to the seismic cable. 2. (drill
string) The rods (flights) and tools from the drill
collar to the *bit which, when connected togeth-
er, enable a *borehole to be drilled.
strip mining See open-cast mining.
stromatactis A series of elongated cavities,
with curved or irregular tops and flat bases,
filled with *calcite *cements. Stromatactis cavi-
ties occur most commonly in carbonate and
s *mud mounds. They were originally believed
to be of organic origin, but currently they are
thought to result either from the dewatering of
*lime muds or from the development of cavities
beneath local cemented crusts on the sea floor.
Stromatocystites walcotti The earliest
known representative of the echinoderm (*Echi-
nodermata) group the Edrioasteroidea. It had
a pentagonal shape with five distinct ‘arms’ ap-
parent on the surface of a flexible, many-plated
*test. It existed during the Lower *Cambrian.
stromatolite A laminated, mounded struc-
ture, built up over long periods of time by suc-
cessive layers or mats of *cyanobacteria that
trapped sedimentary material. Stromatolites
564
are found in shallow marine waters in warmer
regions. Some are still in the process of being
formed, e.g. those in Shark Bay, Western Aus-
tralia; *fossil stromatolites dating from the
Early *Precambrian are also known, although it
is not certain that these were formed by cyano-
bacteria.
Stromatoporoidea Extinct group that has
been attributed to the *Hydrozoa, sponges
(*Porifera), foraminifera (*Foraminiferida),
*Bryozoa, or *algae, or regarded as a phylum
with no modern representatives. Stromatopor-
oids are calcareous masses built up of horizon-
tal layers (latilaminae) and vertical pillars. The
calcareous skeleton is called the *coenosteum.
The upper surfaces show a pattern of polygonal
markings and may have swellings (mamme-
lons) and stellate grooves (astrorhizae). They
are found in *limestones of *Cambrian to *Cre-
taceous age, often forming *reefs in *Ordovician
to *Devonian times.
Strombolian eruption A type of volcanic
activity which produces frequent, moderate
*eruptions. The *lava is basaltic, but sufficiently
viscous for entrapped gases to build up a pres-
sure which is released in continuous small
explosions. Lava, flung into the air, falls back
to build up a steep-sided cone of interbedded
*lava and *tephra. Lava flows are commonly
erupted through breaches in the flanks of the
cone. See volcano. Compare hawaiian erup-
tion; peléean eruption; plinian eruption;
surtseyan eruption; vesuvian eruption;
vulcanian eruption.
strontianite Mineral, SrCO3; sp. gr. 3.7;
*hardness 3.5–4.0; *orthorhombic; white to
pale green, grey, or pale yellow; white *streak;
*vitreous *lustre; crystals *prismatic or *acicular,
but also fibrous and *massive; *cleavage pris-
matic, good {110}; occurs in low-temperature
*hydrothermal veins, often in *limestone, and
in association with *celestite, *barite, and *cal-
cite; soluble, with effervescence, in dilute
hydrochloric acid. It is named after the type
locality of Strontian, Highland Region, Scotland.
strophic See hinge.
Strophomenida (strophomenids) (class
*Articulata) The largest order of brachiopods
(*Brachiopoda), now extinct, in which one
*valve is usually convex and the other flat or
concave. There is a straight *hinge line. The
*pedicle foramen is filled by one *plate in
each valve in adult shells, the *pedicle having
degenerated and been lost. Attachment is by
565
cementation of the pedicle valve, with or with-
out tubular spines from the valves. The *shell
structure is *pseudopunctate. Strophomenida
appeared in the Lower *Ordovician and became
extinct in the Lower *Jurassic. The order in-
cludes the *Carboniferous *Productus giganteus
(Gigantoproductus giganteus), the largest of all
brachiopods.
Strophomenida
strophomenids See strophomenida.
structural contour map A map on which
structural features, e.g. *folds, are represented
in three dimensions. The map is read in the
same way as a topographic contour map. The
contours are based on a single *horizon (e.g.
the top of a bed), the position of that horizon
being given with reference to a datum plane.
structural geology The study of the struc-
ture of rocks at all scales, and of the processes
producing those structures.
structural trap Trap formed by deformation
of porous and non-porous *strata as a result
of *folding, *faulting, etc., in which oil, gas,
or water may accumulate. See natural gas;
petroleum; porosity. Compare anticlinal
trap; fault trap; reef trap; stratigraphic
trap; unconformity trap.
structure grumeleuse A *texture in *lime-
stones, characterized by the presence of *micrite
clots completely surrounded by coarser,
granular, *calcite or *microspar. This structure
is thought to be produced by the selective
*recrystallization of the limestone, with larger
crystals growing at the expense of smaller ones.
Strutt, John William (Lord Rayleigh)
(1842–1919) A mathematician and physicist of
Cambridge University, Rayleigh worked on op-
tics, noble gases, wave mechanics, etc. In the
field of Earth science, he studied radioactivity
in rocks, and gave his name to a type of surface
earthquake wave. See rayleigh waves; ray-
leigh number; rayleigh scattering.
Sub-Boreal
Sturtian A stage in the late *Proterozoic, from
about 800 to 650 Ma ago (Int. Commission on
Stratigraphy, 2004).
Stylasterina (branched hydrocorals) (class
*Hydrozoa) Order of reef-building *Cnidaria
similar to *Milleporina, but without free medu-
sae. Stylasterina are known from the Upper
*Cretaceous to Recent.
stylolite An irregular, suture-like contact,
produced by pressure dissolution (see pressure
solution) of rock under deep burial condi-
tions. Stylolites are most commonly found in
*limestones, and may be picked out by the con-
centration of insoluble *clay residues along the
stylolite surface. Up to 40% of the original thick-
ness of a limestone sequence can be dissolved
through stylolitization.
stylolitization See stylolite.
sub- From the Latin sub meaning ‘under’ or
‘close to’, a prefix meaning ‘beneath’ or ‘lying
below’.
Sub-arctic current See aleutian current.
subarkose A *sandstone characterized by the
presence of less than 15% mud *matrix, with
between 5% and 25% of the *grains being *feld-
spar, and there being more feldspar than rock
fragments present. See dott classification.
Sub-Atlantic A colder, wetter climatic phase
which followed more continental *Sub-Boreal
times. The change from Sub-Boreal to Sub-
Atlantic conditions in Britain is roughly coinci-
dent with the transition from Bronze to Iron Age
cultures. The Sub-Atlantic marks a period of
renewed *peat growth on bog surfaces that in
late Sub-Boreal times were sufficiently dry
and humified to support heath vegetation, e.g.
Calluna vulgaris (ling, heather). This renewed s
peat growth gives a major recurrence surface,
the Grenz horizon, which in Britain defines the
Zone VIIb/Zone VIII (Sub-Boreal/Sub-Atlantic)
boundary of the standard pollen stratigraphy.
See pollen analysis; pollen zone.
subbase See pavement.
Sub-Boreal From Scandinavian evidence, a
cooler, drier, more continental climate phase
that followed the *Atlantic climatic optimum
(though with summers still warmer than those
at present). In Britain, clear evidence for climat-
ic change (e.g. differing *peat deposits) is lack-
ing, and the *Atlantic/Sub-Boreal boundary
is usually taken as the point of marked decline
 subcritical reflection
in elm pollen in the pollen stratigraphy (see
pollen analysis). The reason for the elm de-
cline (which, irrespective of elm species, is char-
acteristic of pollen chronologies throughout
Europe) has been the subject of much research.
Hypotheses range from colder climate to epi-
demic disease to anthropogenic causes. The
latter is linked to the selective use of elm as
fodder for stalled livestock, now thought to
have been a characteristic practice of Neolithic,
forest-dwelling peoples. In many pollen chro-
nologies this initial elm decline is followed
quickly by a general decline in tree pollen
caused by temporary forest clearance (‘land-
nam’) to provide land for slash-and-burn agri-
culture. The Sub-Boreal forms *Pollen Zone
VIIb, and lasted from about 5000 to 2800 BP.
subcritical reflection In *refraction survey-
ing, *seismic waves which are incident on the
refractor *interface at less than the *critical
angle of incidence and are weakly reflected to
the surface.
subduction The process of consumption of a
lithospheric *plate at convergent *plate margins.
See subduction zone.
subduction earthquake cycle A partly bounded by *crystal faces. The irregular
sequence of events that occurs when two collid-
ing *plates become locked along some section of
the subduction thrust (see subduction zone).
There is an interseismic period lasting for hun-
dreds of years during which the upper plate
is uplifted and shortened. Eventually, the accu-
mulated *stress exceeds the strength of the
fault and the locked region fails, triggering a
coseismic period, lasting a matter of minutes,
during which the upper plate simultaneously
subsides and extends horizontally, releasing
volcanic
s arc
marginal basin
e
on
fz
of
ni
Be
Subduction zone
566
the elastic *strain and causing a major earth-
quake.
subduction zone The zone, at an angle to
the surface of the Earth, down which a litho-
spheric *plate descends. Most present-day sub-
duction zones extend from *trenches on the
ocean floor, from where a zone of *earthquake
*hypocentres (called a *Benioff zone) extends, at
an angle ranging from near-horizontal to near-
vertical, to a depth of up to 700 km. Andesitic
*volcanoes form approximately 100 km above
the subducting slab, and the presence of andes-
itic volcanoes in the geologic record is regarded
as evidence of an ancient subduction zone and
thus of a *destructive plate margin.
subglacial See englacial.
subgrade See pavement.
subgroup A term that may be used for *for-
mal identification of a distinct and defined
assemblage of *formations within an already
named *group whose name is in use.
subhedral (hypidiomorphic) An *igneous
textural term applied to crystals which are only
parts of the crystal surface may be caused by
partial corrosion of the crystal or by partial in-
tergrowth with other crystals.
sublimate A solid substance that has con-
densed directly from a gas.
sublimation Direct evaporation from ice. In
meteorology, the term is also often applied to
the reverse process, in which water vapour
changes directly to the solid phase, a process
subduction trench bulge
complex
fore-arc basin
567
more correctly called *deposition. See also ab-
lation.
sublitharenite A *sandstone characterized
by the presence of less than 15% mud *matrix,
with between 5% and 25% of the *grains being
rock fragments, and there being more rock frag-
ments than *feldspar present. See dott classi-
fication.
sublittoral zone 1. In freshwater *ecosys-
tems, an alternative name for the limnetic zone.
2. The sea-shore zone lying immediately
below the *littoral (intertidal) zone and extend-
ing to a depth of about 200 m or to the edge of
the *continental shelf. Red and brown *algae are
characteristic of this area. Typical animals in-
clude sea anemones and corals on rocky shores,
and shrimps, crabs, and flounders on sandy
shores. The zone may alternatively be called
the subtidal zone. It is approximately equivalent
to the *circalittoral zone.
submarine canyon Deep, steep-sided val-
ley cut into the *continental shelf or slope,
whose axis slopes seaward at up to 80 m/km.
The development of submarine canyons is
thought to have originated through erosion by
*turbidity currents. However, few turbidity cur-
rents have been recorded from the submarine
canyons that have been studied.
submersible Underwater vehicle, used
for oceanographic investigation or offshore en-
gineering. These small submarines may be
manned or unmanned.
sub-metallic Applied to the *lustre of a min-
eral which is intermediate between *metallic
and *non-metallic. Varieties of *chromite or
*sphalerite may give a rather dull, metallic
appearance on occasions and might therefore
be described as sub-metallic. There is no
sharp distinction between ‘metallic’ and ‘sub-
metallic’.
sub-Plinian eruption See vesuvian erup-
tion.
subpolar glacier See glacier.
subsequent stream A stream that follows a
line of geologic weakness, such as the *outcrop
of a soft bed, a sequence of major *joints, a *fault
trace, or the axis of an *anticline. Such a stream
tends to extend headwards actively, and may
acquire further tributaries through the process
of *river capture. It is called a ‘strike stream’
when its trace follows that geologic *strike, and
the associated valley is called a ‘strike valley’.
subsurface flow
subsidence 1. A progressive depression of
the Earth’s *crust, which allows *sediment to
accumulate and be preserved. Subsidence is
caused by *mantle convection and by sediment
loading. The subsidence rate will control the
proportion of deposited sediment which will
be preserved in the subsiding area. Subsidence
rates in *sedimentary basins typically vary from
0.3 to 2.5 mm per year.
2. Sinking or settling of the ground surface
due to natural or anthropogenic causes. Surface
material with no free side is displaced vertically
downwards with little or no horizontal move-
ment.
3. Local sinking, due to underground mine
workings.
4. Downward movement of air, characteristi-
cally gentle (1–10cm/s) and often in large *anti-
cyclones, which is related to the *divergence in
lower layers near the ground surface. Subsi-
dence results from radiation cooling or from
convergence of air horizontally in the upper
*troposphere. It typically brings settled weather,
with evaporation of cloud drops by *adiabatic
warming in the subsiding *air mass, causing
cloudless skies above the friction layer near the
surface, so that in winter fog and low cloud may
prevail when moisture is sufficient.
subsoiling The breaking up of subsoils, usu-
ally because they are compacted, without in-
verting them. Subsoiling is usually performed
with a chisel-like device that is pulled through
the soil.
subsolvus granite An *igneous rock of gra-
nitic composition characterized by the presence
of two types of *alkali feldspar: a potassium-rich
type displaying perthitic (see perthite) texture;
and a sodium-rich type displaying antiperthitic
texture. Subsolvus granites have a high water
content, which depresses their liquidii suffi-
ciently to intersect the subsolidus *solvus s
surface and cause two extremes of feldspar
composition to crystallize from the *melt, in-
stead of one intermediate-composition feldspar
as in *hypersolvus granites.
subsolvus syenite See syenite.
substage A subdivision of a *stage. See
chronozone.
subsurface flow (interflow; through-
flow) The flow of water at a shallow depth
beneath the ground surface, that occurs when
rain falls faster than it can infiltrate downwards.
The subsurface flow re-emerges at the surface at
or near the base of ground slopes.
 subtidal
subtidal Applied to that portion of a *tidal-flat
environment which lies below the level of mean
low water for *spring tides. Normally it is cov-
ered by water at all states of the *tide. The word
is often used as a general descriptive term for a
subaqueous but shallow-marine depositional
environment.
subtractive primary colours The colours
cyan, magenta, and yellow, which can be sub-
tracted from white light to produce all other
colours. See also additive primary colours.
subtropical high Surface high-pressure cells,
especially prominent and persistent over oceans
at around 30 latitude in both hemispheres. The
*anticyclones develop below the *subtropical jet
stream from subsiding air. The development
tends to shift equatorward in winter and poleward
in summer. The high pressure is most strongly
developed in summer, when the highs frequently
block depressions travelling eastward. See also
azores high; bermuda high.
subtropical jet stream *Jet stream of sub-
tropical latitudes. The jet is related to a marked
temperature gradient in the upper *tropo-
sphere. The jet moves equatorward in winter
and is associated with subsiding air and settled
surface weather. In summer the jet moves pole-
ward. At the seasonal extremes it tends at times
to merge with the *polar-front jet, but it persists
throughout the year.
subzone Division of the fundamental unit
(*zone) used in *biostratigraphy. The demarca-
tion of a subzone is based on the *fossil subspe-
cies or assemblage contained within the rock
sequence studied.
sucrosic limestone See dunham classifi-
cation.
s Suess, Eduard (1831–1914) Professor of ge-
ology in Vienna, Suess published his important
work on structural geology, Das Antlitz der Erde
(‘Face of the Earth’), between 1833 and 1909.
He studied mountain building, especially the
Alps which he believed to have been formed in
a *geosyncline, which he named *Tethys. He
opposed the concept of *isostasy, arguing that
subsidence of the ocean floors had caused
what he termed ‘eustatic’ changes in sea level.
See orogeny; eustatic.
Suess wriggles Small oscillations, mostly
lasting 2–3 years, between the 14C determina-
tions and *dendrochronological age determina-
tions of the same piece of wood. These were
thought originally to be instrumental, but are
568
now considered to reflect genuine changes in
14
C productivity of uncertain cause.
suevite A *breccia of rock fragments in a *ma-
trix of *glass, found within *meteorite impact
craters near the site of impact. The shock
waves associated with the meteorite impact pro-
duce extremely high pressures and tempera-
tures in the rocks for a few microseconds. Near
the point of impact, these can brecciate the rock
and also melt it. When the melt chills after the
passage of the shock wave it produces the glass
component known as ‘*impactite glass’.
suffusion Spreading out of material on the
substratum.
Suisei A Japanese *JAXA mission to comet
*Halley, launched in 1985. It reached Halley on
8 March 1986 at a distance of 151 000 km and
was then redirected to comet *Giacobini–Zinner
and from there to comet *Temple–Tuttle. The
spacecraft ran out of fuel in 1991 and contact
with it was lost.
A
 A JAXA mission launched in 1985 to study
Halley’s Comet on its approach.
sulci See sulcus.
sulcus (pl. sulci) Latin for groove or furrow.
1. A complex region of parallel ridges and fur-
rows on a *satellite surface, particularly well
developed on Ganymede (e.g. Uruk Sulcus, an
area of bright, grooved terrain bordering Galileo
Regio).
2. A major, rounded depression on the longi-
tudinal mid-line of a brachiopod (*Brachiopoda)
shell. It usually occurs in the *ventral *valve and is
usually accompanied by a major, rounded, shell
elevation (fold) in the other valve.
3. See dinophyceae.
4. See pollen.
sulphates Group of non-silicate *minerals in
which the SO42- radical is in combination with
a number of metal *cations. Examples include
*barite (BaSO4), *celestite (SrSO4), *anglesite
(PbSO4), and *anhydrite (CaSO4). *Gypsum (Ca-
SO4.2H2O) is the most common of a number of
hydrated sulphates which also occur. Sulphates
are normally colourless or white, soft (*hardness
about 3), *massive or *earthy, but *tabular
when crystalline. They are low-temperature
minerals and occur as *gangue minerals in hy-
drothermal veins and as chemical precipitates
and *evaporites.
sulphides A group of *minerals in which the
element sulphur (S) is in combination with one
569
or more metallic elements. Simple sulphides
include the common *ore minerals *galena
(PbS), *sphalerite (ZnS), and *pyrite (FeS2).
Two metallic *cations may also be present, as
in *chalcopyrite (CuFeS2). More complex
combinations may also occur to give ‘double
sulphides’ or ‘sulpho-salts’ in which metallic
and metalloid or non-metallic elements are
present in combination with sulphur, e.g. *tetra-
hedrite (Cu12Sb4S13) and *enargite (Cu3AsS4 or
3Cu2S.As2S5).
sulpho-salts See sulphides.
sulphur, native Non-metallic element, S; sp.
gr. 2.0; *hardness 2.0; yellow; *massive, or *tab-
ular when crystalline; produced by *fumarole
volcanic activity and by hot springs, and recov-
ered commercially from bedded sedimentary
deposits associated with *gypsum and *salt
domes. Most sulphur is now obtained as a by-
product of oil-refining, since it is a common
contaminant of natural oil.
sumatra Regional squall, usually occurring at
night during the south-west monsoon, in the
Malacca Strait, accompanied by high winds
which veer (see veering) from southerly to
south-westerly and north-westerly. Extensive
*cumulonimbus cloud brings heavy rain, with
thunder and lightning.
Sun The central star (G spectral type) in the
*solar system, 696 000 km in radius, 333 000 
*Earth mass, 1 300 000  Earth volume, and
with a mean density of 1410 kg/m3. The equator
is inclined at 7.25 to the plane of the *ecliptic.
It is principally composed of hydrogen and he-
lium. The visible surface is the ‘photosphere’
(temperature 6000 K). The Si-normalized solar
abundances for the terrestrially non-gaseous el-
ements match those of the C1 *carbonaceous
chondrites.
suncracks See desiccation cracks.
Sundaland Name commonly given to the
unit composed of Malaya, Sumatra, Java, and
Borneo, with the intervening small islands;
these are linked by the shallow-water (less
than 200 m) Sunda shelf, which was exposed
during periods of low sea level in the *Pleisto-
cene.
Sundance Sea A shallow marine embayment
that extended over what are now Wyoming and
S. Dakota during the late *Callovian and
*Oxfordian. The southern edge of this sea (in
modern Colorado) was bordered by *tidal flats,
the marine connection being northwards
supercooled cloud
through the present-day mid-west and Canada.
The *sediments resulting from deposition in the
Sundance Sea are characterized by a rich am-
monite (*Ammonoidea) fauna (Quenstedtoceras
and Cardioceras), especially the Redwater Shale
Member of the Sundance *Formation.
sunshine recorder See campbell–stokes
sunshine recorder.
Sun-synchronous orbit A satellite orbit
that remains constant in relation to the Sun,
passing close to both poles and crossing the
meridians at an angle. The orbit, at a height of
about 860 km (one-seventh of an Earth radius),
takes about 102 minutes and carries the satellite
over a different swathe of territory at each
pass, so every point on the surface is overflown
every 12 hours, at the same solar times each
day. Compare geosynchronous orbit; see
also polar orbit.
sun-tan age See exposure age.
super- From the Latin super meaning ‘on top
of’, a prefix meaning ‘directly over’, ‘over’, or
‘above’.
super-adiabatic lapse rate A fall of tem-
perature with increasing altitude, which is
greater than the usual *dry adiabatic lapse rate;
it occurs in conditions of intense heating over
land or sea.
supercell A very large convection cell that
forms within a *cumulonimbus by the merging
of several smaller convective cells. Inside the
supercell air may rise at 45 m/s and the cell
may extend to a height of more than 16 km,
breaking through the *tropopause. Supercells
last much longer than ordinary convective
storm cells, because the warm updraughts rise
at an angle to the vertical and the cold down-
draughts associated with precipitation subside s
to the side of them, so the sinking cold air does
not chill the rising warm air, thereby suppres-
sing the vertical circulation. Supercells produce
extremely violent storms, and they can trigger
*tornadoes. See also mesocyclone.
supercontinent A continental mass which
includes several of the *cratons of the present-
day continents. The term is used of *Pangaea,
*Gondwana, and *Laurasia.
supercooled cloud Cloud containing
pure water droplets at temperatures consider-
ably below the nominal freezing temperature
of 0  C. With very pure water (i.e. free from
pollutants), in the absence of freezing nuclei,
 supercooling
supercooling of liquid drops can occur down to
around 40  C; *altocumulus cloud, for exam-
ple, is usually composed of water droplets at
temperatures well below 0  C. See also cloud
seeding.
supercooling (undercooling) The cooling
of a liquid to a temperature lower than its nor-
mal freezing temperature.
supercritical fluid See critical tempera-
ture.
supercritical reflection In *refraction sur-
veying, *seismic waves which are incident on
the refractor *interface at greater than the *crit-
ical angle of incidence and are strongly reflected
to the surface. Such waves travel with the *seis-
mic velocity of the first layer (therefore more
slowly than the refracted *head waves).
supergene enrichment (secondary en-
richment) Re-precipitation of sulphides and
oxides by descending acidic *groundwater
which has leached the surface zone of an *ore
deposit (see gossan); this upgrades the deposits
in situ, as in *porphyry copper ores.
supergroup A term that may be used for
*formal identification of an assemblage of relat-
ed and adjacent *groups, or related and adja-
cent *formations and groups.
superimposed drainage (epigenetic
drainage) A *drainage pattern that has been
established on an earlier surface (perhaps
conformable with the immediately underlying
strata, and standing well above the present
landscape). Subsequently the pattern was low-
ered by river incision so it now lies across geo-
logic structures to which it bears no relation.
superinterval The time between *hairpins
s on a palaeomagnetic apparent *polar wander
path, usually hundreds of millions of years.
superposition See law of superposition.
supersaturation The condition of air in
which the humidity is above the level required
for saturation at a given temperature (i.e. the
*relative humidity is greater than 100%). Super-
saturation results when the temperature of air
containing no *cloud condensation nuclei falls
below its *dew point. See also saturated air.
Supersaurus See sauropoda.
supplementary forms *Crystals whose
faces have developed in different positions
relative to their atomic structure but which
570
nevertheless have the same general *crystal
symmetry. They may be distinguished as ‘posi-
tive’ or ‘negative’ forms, or as ‘diploids’.
suppressed layer In *electrical *resistivity
depth sounding, a thin layer whose true resis-
tivity is intermediate between those of the layers
above and below it, so it may be masked and its
effects suppressed. It is analogous to the *hid-
den layer in *refraction seismology.
supra- From the Latin supra meaning ‘above’,
‘beyond’, or ‘earlier in time’, a prefix meaning
‘above’ or ‘in a superior position to’.
supraglacial See englacial.
supralittoral zone The seashore zone im-
mediately above the littoral fringe and beyond
the reach of tidal submergence, though affected
by sea spray.
supratidal Applied to that portion of a *tidal
flat which lies above the level of mean high
water for *spring tides. It is inundated only oc-
casionally by exceptional *tides or by tides aug-
mented by a *storm surge.
surf Breaking waves in the area between the
shoreline and the outermost limit of breaking
waves.
surface inversion A *temperature inversion
in the lower atmospheric layers, extending up-
wards from the Earth’s surface. The condition
results, for example, from radiation cooling of
the ground and the air above, or from *advec-
tion of warm air over cold surfaces.
surface runoff (overland flow, Hortonian
flow) The flow across the land surface of water
that accumulates on the surface when the rain-
fall rate exceeds the *infiltration capacity of the
*soil. The rate of infiltration, and therefore the
possibility of surface runoff, is determined by
such factors as soil type, vegetation, and the
presence of shallow, relatively impermeable,
*soil horizons. Saturated overland flow can
occur when a temporary rise of the *water-
table inhibits infiltration and causes flow over
the surface.
surface tension (g) Fluid surfaces may take
on the behaviour of a stretched elastic mem-
brane as a result of the tendency of a liquid
surface to contract. The surface tension of a
liquid is given as the tension across a unit length
of the fluid surface. Surface tension is tempera-
ture-dependent and is closely associated with
*capillarity.
571
surface wave A *seismic wave which propa-
gates along the surface of a medium rather than
through it, e.g. *Love waves and *Rayleigh
waves. Compare body wave.
surface wind The wind close to the Earth’s
surface, the velocity of which is usually mea-
sured at a standard height of 10 m. Surface-
wind velocity is reduced by the frictional effect
of the underlying surface. The actual wind is a
balance of *pressure-gradient force, *Coriolis
effect, and frictional effects.
surf wave See spilling breaker.
surge An expanded, turbulent, dilute flow of
gas and *pyroclasts. Three main types are cur-
rently recognized. *Base surges, which are cold
and wet, are generated during phreatomag-
matic or phreatic eruptions; ground surges,
which are hot and dry, are generated from the
head of pyroclastic flows; and ash-cloud surges,
which are also hot and dry, are generated from
the overriding gas and *ash cloud above pyro-
clastic flows.
Surtseyan eruption A high-energy volcanic
*eruption which occurs when sea or lake water
floods into the top of an active open vent, pro-
ducing an eruption column up to 20 km high
and pyroclastic *clasts with extreme fragmenta-
tion and moderate dispersal. The term was first
used to describe the activity at the new *volca-
no, Surtsey, which built up on the ocean floor
south of Iceland in 1963.
Surveyor A series of seven *NASA lunar land-
er missions that ran from 1966 to 1968. Sur-
veyors 1, 3, 5, 6, and 7 landed on the Moon;
Surveyor 2 crashed on the Moon and radio con-
tact with Surveyor 4 was lost.
A
 A NASA programme to land a series of probes
on the Moon.
survivorship curve Graphic description of
the survival of individuals in a population, from
birth to the maximum age attained by any one
member. Usually it is plotted as the logarithm
of the number of survivors as a function of age.
If a population has a constant mortality rate
the graph will be a straight line. The technique
may also be used to plot the survivorship of
whole populations, *species, genera, or higher
*taxa. See also cohort.
susceptibility, magnetic See magnetic
susceptibility.
Svecofennian
susceptibility meter An instrument for
measuring the *magnetic susceptibility of a
sample. It may be low field (less than 10 mT),
intermediate (10–100 mT), or high field (more
than 100 mT).
suspect terrane An area or region that is
suspected of being a *terrane, but whose
boundary *faults have not been identified.
suspended load The part of the total load of
a stream that is carried in suspension. It is made
up of relatively fine particles that settle at a
lower rate than the upward velocity of water
eddies. Its highest concentration is in the zone
of greatest turbulence, near the bed. It reaches a
maximum in shallow streams of high velocity.
suspension feeder An aquatic animal that
obtains food by straining particles that are sus-
pended in the water, usually by means of tenta-
cles bearing many cilia (see cilium). Animals
feeding near the sea surface feed mainly on
*plankton; those dwelling on the sea bed rely
more on *detritus drifting down from the more
densely populated surface waters.
sutural angle See suture.
suture 1. A linear belt of highly deformed
rocks, including tectonic *mélanges, lenses of
*ophiolites, deep-sea *sediments, and usually
*blueschists, which is interpreted as the bound-
ary between two collided continents or *island
arcs. The location of a suture between collided
masses has often led to controversy, and the
recognition that *collision zones are in some
cases a mosaic of jumbled, sliced, and rotated
*terranes has led to the realization that sutures
may be diffuse, rather than a narrow belt as was
formerly thought.
2. The line marking the junction between the
septa (see septum) and the external wall of a
cephalopod (*Cephalopoda) shell that is visible
s
when the shell has been preserved as an inter-
nal mould. In some cephalopods the suture
lines are simple curves but in ammonoids (*Am-
monoidea) the suture becomes crenulate;
bends in the suture line that point anteriorly
are called ‘saddles’, those pointing posteriorly
‘lobes’. In gastropods (*Gastropoda), the suture
is the line of junction between two *whorls of
the shell; the angle the line makes with the
horizontal is the ‘sutural angle’.
3. See cephalic suture.
Svecofennian A *stage of the Lower *Prote-
rozoic, from about 2600 to 2100 Ma ago, over-
lain by the *Gothian (equivalent to the Karelian
 Svecofennian orogeny
according to Van Eysinga, 1975) from the Baltic
Shield region.
Svecofennian orogeny An early to middle
*Proterozoic mountain-building episode that af-
fected the Baltic Shield, in what are now
Sweden and southern Finland, and that oc-
curred approximately 1900–1800 Ma ago, at ap-
proximately the same time as the *Hudsonian
and *Laxfordian orogenies.
Sveconorwegian orogeny See dalslan-
dian orogeny.
Svedberg unit (S) The unit of measurement
in which *sedimentation coefficients are
expressed. It is equal to 10-13 seconds, and is
written with no space between the number and
the symbol, e.g. 64S.
swale 1. A long, narrow depression, approxi-
mately parallel to the shoreline, between two
ridges on a beach. 2. A depression in otherwise
level ground. 3. A shallow depression in the
undulating surface of a ground *moraine,
caused by uneven deposition by the glacier.
swaley cross-bedding A form of *hum-
mocky cross-bedding in which there are few or
no hummocks, but *swales are preserved.
Swallow buoy See neutrally buoyant
float.
swallow hole See doline.
swallowtail twinning A type of *crystal
twinning in which one crystal divides into two
along a *twin plane, giving a twinned crystal in
the shape of a ‘V’ or swallowtail. The mineral
*gypsum may develop this twinned form.
swash The turbulent uprush of water that oc-
curs when a wave breaks on a beach. It is an
s important mechanism for transporting sand
and shingle landwards.
S-wave (secondary wave, shear wave,
transverse wave) An elastic *body wave in
which particles oscillate about a fixed point but
in a direction perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of the wave energy. S-waves cannot
travel through a fluid, since a fluid cannot sup-
port shear. In an *isotropic and homogeneous
medium, S-wave velocity (Vs) is given by: Vs =
√(m/r), where m is the *shear modulus and r the
density of the material. S-waves travel at about
half the speed of *P-waves in a given medium,
and can be polarized into SV- and SH-waves in
which particle motion is restricted to the vertical
and horizontal planes respectively. S-waves can
572
also be generated from the non-normal inci-
dence of P-waves on to an *interface, when
they are known as ‘converted waves’ and are
mostly SV-waves. S-waves can also be converted
into P-waves at an interface.
Swazian 1. An era of the Hadean eon, lasting
from 3900–3800 Ma. 2. S. African *stage of the
*Archaean, from about 4000 to 3000 Ma ago,
that includes the Onverwacht, Figtree, and Pon-
gola sequences of S. Africa.
sweepstakes dispersal route Term
coined by G. G. *Simpson in 1940 to describe a
possible route of faunal interchange which is
unlikely to be used by most animals, but which
will, by chance, be used by some. It requires a
major barrier that is occasionally crossed.
Which groups cross and when they cross are
determined virtually at random.
swell Long-period waves that have built up
sufficient energy to move away from the area
where wind stresses created them. The waves
assume a uniform pattern and move even
through areas where winds are weak or absent.
The longer-period waves move faster than
shorter-period waves, so the waves spread out
as they move away from the storm (dispersion).
Swell waves generated south of New Zealand
have been recorded arriving on the coast of
Alaska.
swelling coefficient The amount of swell-
ing pressure generated by the hydration of some
*clay minerals, or when water converts to ice. It
is measured by an *oedometer.
swirl An enigmatic, light-coloured marking on
a *satellite or planetary surface. Swirls have no
topographic relief. Examples are known from
*Mercury and the *Moon (Reiner Gamma).
They appear to be antipodal to major impact
structures. The Reiner Gamma swirl is associat-
ed with strong surface magnetization. It has
been suggested that some may be cometary
impact sites.
Sycorax (Uranus XVII) A lesser satellite of
*Uranus with a radius of 75 km and a visual
*albedo of 0.07.
syenite A *saturated, coarse-grained, *igneous
rock consisting of *essential *alkali feldspar and
*ferromagnesian minerals (*biotite, *horn-
blende, *arfvedsonite, *aegirine-*augite, and/or
aegirine) and *accessory *apatite, *zircon, and
iron oxides. The feldspar constitutes more
than 65% of the rock. Hypersolvus syenites are
characterized by one type of alkali feldspar,
573
usually potassium-rich and displaying perthitic
(see perthite) texture. Subsolvus syenites are
characterized by two types of alkali feldspar, a
potassium-rich type displaying perthitic texture
and a sodium-rich type displaying antiperthitic
texture. Syenites, which are the *plutonic equiv-
alents of *trachytes, are found as ring complexes
and as discrete *intrusions on the stable *conti-
nental crust and in the cores of some off-axis,
ocean-island *volcanoes.
syenodiorite See monzonite.
syenogabbro A coarse-grained *igneous
rock consisting of *essential *alkali feldspar, cal-
cium-rich *plagioclase, and *ferromagnesian
minerals (*augite and *biotite), and *accessory
*apatite. The two feldspar types are in equal
proportions. The rock is mineralogically half-
way between a *gabbro and a *syenite.
syenoids *Igneous rocks of *syenite affinity in
which *feldspathoidal minerals take the place of
*alkali feldspar. *Ijolite is a syenoid.
sylvite Mineral, KCl; sp. gr. 2.0; *hardness 2;
*cubic; colourless to white, but sometimes
shades of blue, yellow, or red; vitreous *lustre;
crystals usually *cubes, often in combination
with *octahedra; *cleavage perfect cubic; occurs
in bedded *evaporite deposits, but is one of the
last minerals to precipitate because of its solu-
bility in water; tastes much more bitter than
*halite. It is used extensively as a fertilizer.
symbiosis A general term describing the sit-
uation in which dissimilar organisms live to-
gether in close association. As originally
defined, the term embraces all types of mutual-
istic and parasitic relationships. In modern use
it is often restricted to mutually beneficial spe-
cies interactions.
symmetrical extinction In optical *miner-
alogy, the phenomenon which occurs when the
*vibration direction of the light bisects the an-
gles between two sets of *cleavages (as seen in
basal sections of *pyroxenes and *amphiboles).
A special form of symmetrical *extinction may
also occur in twinned crystals (see crystal
twinning) of *feldspar, and this may be used
to determine their composition.
symmetrical fold A *fold in which the limbs
are of equal length.
symmetrical trend See bow trend.
Symmetrodonta (infraclass *Pantotheria)
Extinct order of *mammals which lived during
synaeresis
the late *Jurassic and early *Cretaceous; they
may have appeared toward the end of the *Tri-
assic, making them among the earliest mam-
mals known. They had molar teeth with three
cusps arranged in symmetrical triangles. They
were very small and probably were predators.
They are believed to be ancestral to the marsu-
pial and placental mammals. See also marsu-
pialia; eutheria.
symmetry plane See crystal symmetry.
sympatric evolution The development of
new *taxa from the ancestral taxon, within the
same geographic range; it is geographically pos-
sible for interbreeding to occur between the
potential new taxa, but for some reason this
does not happen. Because of the difficulty of
envisaging what the reasons might be, until re-
cently few authorities accepted the reality of
sympatric evolution, except for certain special
kinds of organism; but recent studies have
shown that *chromosomal mutation can set up
a partial barrier to interbreeding, sufficient to
permit sympatric speciation.
sympatry The occurrence of *species togeth-
er in the same area. The differences between
closely related species usually increase (di-
verge) when they occur together, in a process
called character displacement, which may be
morphological or ecological.
Symphyla See myriapoda.
symplectic texture In *petrology, a *texture
characterized by the intergrowth of two *min-
erals that crystallized simultaneously. A rock
with such a texture is called a symplectite.
symplectite See symplectic texture.
symplesiomorphy The possession of a
*character state that is *primitive (*plesio- s
morphic) and shared between two or more
taxa. Shared possession of a symplesiomorph
character state is not evidence that the taxa in
question are related.
syn- From the Greek sun meaning ‘with’, a
prefix meaning ‘together’, ‘with’, or ‘resem-
bling’.
synaeresis The process of subaqueous
shrinkage of *clays by the loss of *pore water.
The loss of pore waters occurs either because
of the change in the volume of some *clay
minerals as a result of *salinity changes, or by
*flocculation of the clays. The shrinkage results
in the production of *synaeresis cracks.
 synaeresis cracks
synaeresis cracks Irregular, radiating, len-
ticular-shaped cracks, found on bedding sur-
faces and often resembling the form of a bird’s
foot. These cracks form by subaqueous shrink-
age rather than desiccation, and are therefore
not an indication of subaerial exposure.
Compare *desiccation cracks.
synapomorphy The possession of *apo-
morphic features by two or more taxa in com-
mon (i.e. the features are shared, derived). If the
two groups share a *character state that is not
the *primitive one, it is plausible that they are
related evolutionarily, and only synapomorphic
character states can be used as evidence that
taxa are related. *Phylogenetic trees are built by
discovering groups united by synapomorphies.
Synapsida (mammal-like reptiles) (class
*Reptilia) Subclass of reptiles which includes
the pelycosaurs (*Pelycosauria) and therapsids
(*Therapsida). The pelycosaurs appeared in the
Upper *Carboniferous and disappeared in mid-
*Permian times, displaced by the therapsids to
which they had given rise. The therapsids flour-
ished in the latter part of the Permian and in the
*Triassic, but dwindled to *extinction in the
early *Jurassic. The therapsids are the ancestors
of the *mammals, and share in common with
them a synapsid skull (i.e. a skull with one tem-
poral opening).
po
sq
sq = squamosal
s po = post orbital
Synapsida
synclinal ridge An elongated hill underlain
by a *syncline whose axis trends parallel with it.
Its upstanding nature may result from the
relative strength of a compressed downfold
compared with the tension-induced weakness
of adjacent *anticlines, but other explanations
have been proposed. See also inverted relief.
syncline A basin or trough-shaped *fold
whose upper component *strata are younger
than those below.
synclinorium A regional synformal structure
(see synform) which consists of a series of
574
smaller, higher-order *anticlines and *synclines,
some of which may be small enough to be
viewed in *outcrop.
syneresis cracks See desiccation cracks.
synform A basin or trough-shaped *fold
whose younger *strata may be above or below
older ones.
syngenetic ore An *ore deposit formed si-
multaneously with the host rock and by similar
processes, e.g. bedded *ironstone, *magmatic
segregation deposits.
synkinematic See synorogenic.
synneusis The drifting together and mutual
attachment of crystals suspended in a *magma.
*Phenocrysts may cluster together in this man-
ner to form *glomeroporphyritic aggregates.
synodic month The average time between
successive new *Moons, which is equal to 29
days, 12 hours, and 44 minutes. This period
is curiously correlated with the average length
of the human female menstrual cycle (29.5
days), while the average length of human preg-
nancy (266 days) equals nine synodic months
(265.8 days).
synoptic meteorology The presentation of
the current weather elements of an extensive
area at a particular time. Sea-level and upper-
level synoptic charts display weather conditions
by symbols at selected synoptic stations. ‘Syn-
optic’ is from the Greek sunoptikos, meaning
‘seen together’.
synorogenic (synkinematic; syntectonic)
Applied to a process or event (e.g. *recrystalliza-
tion of *metamorphic rock, or the emplacement
of *plutons) which occurs at the same time as
deformation. Synorogenic *sediments need not
show contemporaneous deformation, though
the sedimentation will be the result of deforma-
tion and uplift in the *orogenic belt. Many au-
thors use ‘synkinematic’, ‘syntectonic’, and
‘synorogenic’ interchangeably; others restrict
‘synkinematic’ to rocks showing evidence of de-
formation which happened simultaneously with
their formation (e.g. rotated *porphyroblasts in a
metamorphic rock). ‘Synorogenic’ is often re-
stricted to events or processes which happen
simultaneously with a major phase in *orogeny.
synrhabdosome An association of graptolite
(see graptolithina) rhabdosomes (colonies)
that are radially arranged. They appear to be
life associations.
575
synroc A synthesized substance that has been
proposed as a medium for the long-term dis-
posal of *radioactive waste. The waste would
be mixed with the synroc ingredients and the
mixture would set hard.
A
 Explains and describes synroc wasteform.
synrock An artificially produced substance,
based on petroleum, and used for protection,
*grouting, etc.
synsacrum In birds, a structure in the pelvic
girdle formed by the fusion of certain vertebrae.
syntaxial growth A mineral *cement which
has grown around a *grain in such a way that
the *crystal overgrowth is in *optical continuity
with the grain.
syntectonic See synorogenic.
syntexis A general term applied to the process-
es of *magma-rock reactions. *Anatexis and *as-
similation can be regarded as end-products of the
various process of syntexis. These might include
fracturing of *country rock during intrusion, en-
gulfing of country-rock *xenoliths in the magma,
and thermal and/or fluid infiltration of xenoliths
to initiate melting or solid-state reaction.
synthem A major *stratigraphic unit that is
*unconformity-bounded.
synthetic-aperture radar A *real-aperture
radar system used for high altitude and satellite
*remote sensing. A long antenna is stimulated
resulting in a high resolution in the *azimuth
direction by using a *Doppler shift effect to
identify *backscattered waves returning from
ahead and behind the platform.
synthetic fault A *fault whose sense of dis-
placement is the same as that of the main zone
of faulting when seen in vertical section. In an
extensional regime (see extension), a synthetic
fault mimics the displacement of a *listric fault
by forming in the active *hanging wall.
synthetic seismogram A *seismic record
which can be modelled for a layered structure
where the individual *formation velocities and
thicknesses are known (e.g. from *borehole
logs). It can then be compared with an observed
*seismogram to test geologic interpretations
and geophysical models.
synthetic thrust A *thrust whose sense of
displacement is in the direction of the major
thrust, but which may occur progressively
systems tract
in the *footwall or *hanging wall. A *backthrust
in this sense is an antithetic thrust. See anti-
thetic fault.
syntype All specimens in a type series in
which no *holotype was designated.
Syringopora fischeri One of the last repre-
sentatives of the stony, colonial corals belonging
to the subclass *Tabulata; they flourished during
the Upper *Palaeozoic and are known from the
Upper *Permian of Germany. At the end of the
Permian both tabulate and *rugose corals be-
came extinct.
system 1. The chronostratigraphic equivalent
of the time unit *period. Systems are subdivided
into *series, and together several systems consti-
tute an ‘*erathem’. When used formally the initial
letter of the term is often capitalized, e.g. the
*Devonian System.
2. In *geomorphology, a natural arrangement
of interrelated objects or variables, the whole
possessing properties that make it greater than
the sum of the individual parts. It normally
possesses stability, expressed by a balance be-
tween the input and output of energy and mat-
ter. This equilibrium may be upset by internal
or external change. If the change is modest, the
system quickly regains equilibrium; if it is ex-
treme, a new equilibrium is established. A hill-
slope, for example, receives *precipitation and
exports water, slope debris, and the products of
*weathering. The form of the profile represents
a balance between input and output. A land-
slide, perhaps induced by an increase in precip-
itation, would destroy this equilibrium, and in
due course a new balance would be established.
Several varieties of system are recognized. See
cascading system; control system; morpho-
logical system; process-response system.
systematic errors See errors.
s
systematic sampling See sampling
methods.
Système Probatoire d’Observation de
la Terre See spot.
systems tract In *sequence stratigraphy, a
three-dimensional depositional unit, defined by
its boundaries and internal geometry. Three sys-
tems tracts commonly occur within a single cycle
of sea-level changes: the *highstand (or highland)
systems tract, *lowstand (or lowland) systems
tract, and, between them, the *transgressive sys-
tems tract. See also regressive systems tract.