Spatial Data Structures

SPATIAL DATA STRUCTURES

• All (computer) data files are one of two
types:

• ASCII: easily read, edited, but bulky

• Binary: require software to read, more

compact than ASCII.
 Raster & Vector

• Vector data are based on features and have x

and y coordinates
You are able to ask questions such as: What are
the characteristics of this feature ?
• Raster data is based on pixels, with a grid like
system of rows and columns.
We can ask questions such as: What is at this
location ?
 Raster Structures
• A raster dataset includes header information (which may
be a separate file, or at the start of the data file); it
includes information on:
• number of rows and columns.
• pixel size (square), format (ascii, binary; compressed).
• X and Y coordinate of upper left and lower right corners.
• one value per pixel (0-1), 0-255 (8 bit), 0-65536 (16 bit),
row by row.
• more compact types: quadtree, run length encoding.
• pixel size and edges should be in round values, e.g. 10,
25, 250, 1000 metres.
• Number of pixels depend on scale and complexity
 Column Row

4,0

00 10

01 11
 Vector Structures
• Features are coded as points, arcs and
polygons.
• Defined by single points, connected
nodes, and arcs.
• Number of features (arcs and vertices)
depends on scale and complexity.
• Vector files contain information attached
to features .
 VECTOR TOPOLOGY
• Topology is the spatial relationships between geographic
features. It is not to be confused with topography, the form of the
land.
– The Components of Topology
– Topology has three
Fundamental Components:
• a. Connectivity:
Arcs are connected to others (at nodes). This identifies possible
routes and networks, such as rivers and roads, via the lists of arcs
and nodes in the database.
• b. Containment:
An enclosed polygon has a measurable area; lists of arcs define
boundaries and closed areas.
• c. Contiguity:
The adjacency of polygons can be determined by shared arcs.
 Arc Node topology

Node Topology: Arc Topology:

Polygon Topology:
connectivity contiguity
Area
Left & Right
Polygon Arcs Node Arcs Arc
Polygons
a1 A D
A a1, a2, a3 1 a1, a2, a6 a2 A B
B a2, a5, a6 2 a2, a3, a5 a3 A C
C a3, a4, a5 3 a1, a3, a4 a4 C D
D a1, a4, a6 4 a4, a5, a6 a5 B C
a6 B D
 Advantages and Disadvantages of raster and vector data models

RASTER MODEL VECTOR

MODEL

Advantages
Disadvantages
- simple data structure - compact
data structure
- easy and efficient overlaying - efficient for
network analysis
- compatible with RS imagery - efficient
projection transformation
- high spatial variability is efficiently - accurate map output
represented
- simple for own programming
- same grid cells for several attributes
Disadvantages Disadvantages
- inefficient use of computer storage - complex data
structure
- errors in perimeter, area, and shape - difficult overlay operations
- difficult network analysis - high spatial
variability is
- inefficient projection transformations inefficiently
represented
- loss of information when using large - not compatible with RS
imagery
cells
-less accurate (although attractive) maps
Creation of Topology: 'Clean
& Build
1. Node types

Types of Errors

EXAMPLE DEFINITION ACCEPTABLE

At an intersection of 3 or
NORMAL NODES Always
more arcs
Arcs (Not polygons)
DANGLING NODES At the end of an arc
e.g. roads, streams
Island polygons,
PSEUDO NODES Between 2 arcs
attribute change
 b. Arcs
• Nodes are required at all arc
intersections.
• Dangling arcs can be accepted if the
"dangle tolerances" are set.
– e.g. if tolerance = 5 metres, an arc < 5 is a
dangle (error), an arc > 5m is a legitimate
arc.
 Cleaning (moves nodes/arcs)
• c. Removes unacceptable dangling arcs and
nodes.
• Joins missing arcs segments (within a
special distance).
• Removes unnecessary pseudo nodes.
• Adds nodes to all intersections.
• Label points are added to polygons.
 Building topology

• Does not move any features but 'cements'

them into place.
• Creates a Feature Attribute Table.
• Builds (again) after new edits including,
– addition or removal of arcs and points;
– addition or removal of attribute items.
 VECTOR DATA
ORGANIZATION
– Requirements for Topology
• Arcs start and end with a node; intermediate
points are vertices.
• All polygons are closed; and have a label point
• There are no dangling nodes and arcs in a
polygon theme.
• Arcs connect below a specified tolerance
distance.
• All intersections have a node.
 – Tolerances
• Nodesnap: minimum distance to the nearest
node.
• Arcsnap: minimum distance to the nearest arc.
• Weed: minimum distance between two vertices
along a line.
• Fuzzy: minimum distance between any two
coordinates: (1/10,000 - 1/100,000 of extent)
• Dangle: minimum acceptable length for an arc.
–
 – Editing for Topology
• Dangling arcs: Overshoot and undershoot
(edit -> move arcs and nodes).
• Intersection: software creates node.
• Pseudo-nodes: removed where
unnecessary.
• Label points: add or delete.
 – Clean
• Puts nodes at intersections where lines cross.
• Moves nodes according to fuzzy tolerance.
• Moves features if necessary.
• Joins segments within tolerance limits.
• Adds polygon label points.
– Build
• Cannot move features ('cements them in place').
• Builds point, line, and polygon topology.
• Does not remove any dangles.
• Updates with edits on spatial and attributes.
– When to Use Clean versus Build
• Missed intersections: clean.
• Dangles beyond tolerance: clean.
• POINT: must use build.
– Vector Reference Files
• .bnd file (boundary)
• .tic file (reference points)