United States Air and Radiation EPA 430-B-95-007

Environmental Protection 6202J February 1997

Agency

LIGHTING
FUNDAMENTALS
A basic understanding of lighting fundamentals is
essential for specifiers and decision-makers who are CONTENTS
evaluating lighting upgrades. This document provides
a brief overview of design parameters, technologies, ILLUMINATION..............................................................1
and terminology used in the lighting industry. For more
detailed information about specific energy-efficient LIGHT
lighting technologies, refer to the Lighting Upgrade SOURCES................................................................4
Technologies document.
BALLASTS...................................................................10

ILLUMINATION LUMINAIRES...............................................................12

SELECTED
Quantity of Illumination REFERENCES.......................................................14

Exhibit 1 shows the interaction between light output, GLOSSARY.................................................................20

light level, and brightness. Although they are
quantitative measures, they directly affect the quality of
illumination. Brightness
Another measurement of light is luminance, sometimes
Light Output called brightness. This measures light “leaving” a
surface in a particular direction, and considers the
The most common measure of light output (or luminous illuminance on the surface and the reflectance of the
flux) is the lumen. Light sources are labeled with an surface.
output rating in lumens. For example, a T12 40-watt
fluorescent lamp may have a rating of 3050 lumens.
Similarly, a light fixture’s output can be expressed in EXHIBIT 1
lumens. As lamps and fixtures age and become dirty,
their lumen output decreases (i.e., lumen depreciation
occurs). Most lamp ratings are based on "initial"
lumens (i.e., when the lamp has been operated for 100 LIGHT OUTPUT
hours). (Luminous Flux)
LUMENS

Light Level
Light intensity measured on a plane at a specific location BRIGHTNESS
is called illuminance. Illuminance is measured in (Luminance)
LIGHT LEVEL FOOTLAMBERTS
footcandles, which are workplane lumens per square (Illuminance)
foot. You can measure illuminance using a light meter FOOTCANDLES (lms/sf.)
located on the work surface where tasks are performed.
Using simple arithmetic and manufacturers’ photometric
data, you can predict illuminance for a defined space.
Work Plane
(Lux is the metric unit for illuminance, measured in
lumens per square meter. To convert footcandles to lux,
multiply footcandles by 10.76.)

Lighting Fundamentals ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● February 1997
 Quantity Measures
☞ Luminous flux is commonly called light output
and is measured in lumens (lm).
☞ Illuminance is called light level and is
measured in footcandles (fc).
☞ Luminance is referred to as brightness and is
measured in footlamberts (fL) or candelas/m2
(cd/m2).
The human eye does not see illuminance; it sees
luminance. Therefore, the amount of light delivered
into the space and the reflectance of the surfaces in the
space affects your ability to see.
Refer to the glossary at the end of this document for
more detailed definitions.
Determining Target Light Levels
The Illuminating Engineering Society of North America
(IESNA) has developed a procedure for determining
the appropriate average light level for a particular
space. This procedure — used extensively by
designers and engineers — recommends a target light
level by considering the following.
✦ the task(s) being performed (contrast, size, etc.)
✦ the ages of the occupants
✦ the importance of speed and accuracy
Then, the appropriate type and quantity of lamps and
light fixtures may be selected based on the following.
✦ fixture efficiency
✦ lamp lumen output
✦ the reflectance of surrounding surfaces
✦ the effects of light losses from lamp lumen
depreciation and dirt accumulation
✦ room size and shape
✦ availability of natural light (daylight)
When designing a new or upgraded lighting system,
one must be careful to avoid overlighting the space. In
the past, spaces were designed for as much as 200
footcandles in places where 50 footcandles may not
only be adequate, but superior. This was partly due to
the misconception that the more light in a space, the
higher the quality. Not only does overlighting waste
energy, but it can also reduce lighting quality. Refer to
Exhibit 2 for light levels recommended by the
Lighting Fundamentals ● Lighting Upgrade Manual
2
Illuminating Engineering Society of North America.
Within a listed range of illuminance, three factors
dictate the proper level: age of the occupant(s), speed
and accuracy requirements, and background contrast.
For example, to light a space that uses computers, the
overhead light fixtures should provide up to 30 fc of
ambient lighting. The task lights should provide the
additional footcandles needed to achieve a total
illuminance of up to 50 fc for reading and writing. For
illuminance recommendations for specific visual tasks,
refer to the IESNA Lighting Handbook, 1993.
Quality Measures
☞ Visual comfort probability (VCP) indicates
the percent of people who are comfortable
with the glare (brightness) from a fixture.
☞ Spacing criteria (SC) refers to the maximum
recommended distance between fixtures to
ensure uniformity.
☞ Color rendering index (CRI) indicates the
color appearance of an object under a source
as compared to a reference source.
Quality of Illumination
Improvements in lighting quality can yield high
dividends for US businesses. Gains in worker
productivity may result by providing corrected light
levels, improved color rendering, and reduced glare.
Although the cost of energy for lighting is substantial, it
is small compared with the cost of labor. Therefore,
these gains in productivity may be much more valuable
than the energy savings associated with new lighting
technologies. In retail spaces, attractive and
comfortable lighting designs can attract clientele and
enhance sales.
Three quality issues are addressed in this section.
☞ glare
☞ uniformity of illuminance
☞ color rendition
Glare
Perhaps the most important factor with respect to lighting
quality is glare. Glare is a sensation caused by
luminances in the visual field that are too bright.
Discomfort, annoyance, or reduced productivity can result.
A bright object alone does not necessarily cause glare,
but a bright object in front of a dark background, however,
● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● February 1997
usually will cause glare. Contrast is the relationship
between the luminance of an object and its background.
Although the visual task generally becomes easier with
increased contrast, too much contrast causes glare and
makes the visual task much more difficult.
You can reduce glare or luminance ratios by not
exceeding suggested light levels and by using lighting
equipment designed to reduce glare. A louver or lens is
commonly used to block direct viewing of a light
source. Indirect lighting, or uplighting, can create a low
glare environment by uniformly lighting the ceiling.
Also, proper fixture placement can reduce reflected
glare on work surfaces or computer screens. Standard
data now provided with luminaire specifications include
tables of its visual comfort probability (VCP) ratings
for various room geometries. The VCP index provides
an indication of the percentage of people in a given
space that would find the glare from a fixture to be
acceptable. A minimum VCP of 70 is recommended
for commercial interiors, while luminaires with VCPs
exceeding 80 are recommended in computer areas.

EXHIBIT 2 Uniformity of
RECOMMENDED LIGHT LEVELS Illuminance on Tasks
Source: IESNA
The uniformity of illuminance
is a quality issue that
TYPE OF ACTIVITY RANGE OF addresses how evenly light
spreads over a task area.
ILLUMINANCE Although a room’s average
illuminance may be
appropriate, two factors may
Public spaces with dark surroundings 2-3-5 fc compromise uniformity:

✦ improper fixture
Simple orientation for short temporary visits 5-71/2-10 fc placement based on
(typical hallway) the luminaire’s spacing
criteria (ratio of maximum
recommended fixture
Working spaces where visual tasks are only 10-15-20 fc spacing distance to
occasionally performed mounting height above
task height)
Ambient lighting for computer use 20-25-30 fc ✦ fixtures that are retrofit
with reflectors or louvers
that narrow the light
Performance of visual tasks distribution
High contrast or large size (typical office) 20-30-50 fc
Non-uniform illuminance
causes several problems:
Medium contrast or small size 50-75-100 fc
✦ inadequate light levels in
some areas
Low contrast or very small size 100-150-200 fc
✦ visual discomfort when
tasks require frequent
shifting of view from
Low contrast and very small size over a 200-300-500 fc
underlit to overlit areas
prolonged period
✦ bright spots and patches
Performance of very prolonged and exacting 500-750-1000 fc of light on floors and
visual tasks walls that cause
distraction and generate a
Performance of very special visual tasks of 1000-1500-2000 fc low-quality appearance
extremely low contrast and small size

Lighting Fundamentals ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● February 1997

3
Color Rendition
The ability to see colors properly is another aspect of
lighting quality. Light sources vary in their ability to
accurately reflect the true colors of people and objects.
The color rendering index (CRI) scale is used to
compare the effect of a light source on the color
appearance of its surroundings.
A scale of 0 to 100 defines the CRI. A higher CRI
means better color rendering, or less color shift. CRIs
in the range of 75-100 are considered excellent, while
65-75 are good. The range of 55-65 is fair, and 0-55 is
poor. Under higher CRI sources, surface colors appear
brighter, improving the aesthetics of the space.
Sometimes, higher CRI sources create the illusion of
higher illuminance levels.
The CRI values for selected light sources are tabulated
in Exhibit 3.
LIGHT SOURCES
Commercial, industrial, and retail facilities use several
different light sources. Each lamp type has particular
advantages; selecting the appropriate source depends
on installation requirements, life-cycle cost, color
qualities, dimming capability, and the effect wanted.
Three types of lamps are commonly used.
✦ incandescent
✦ fluorescent
✦ high intensity discharge
- mercury vapor
- metal halide
- high pressure sodium
- low pressure sodium
Before describing each of these lamp types, the
following section describes characteristics that are
common to all of them.
Characteristics of Light Sources
Electric light sources have many characteristics,
including efficiency, color temperature, and color
rendering index (CRI). Exhibit 4 summarizes these
characteristics.
Efficiency
Some lamp types are more efficient in converting
energy into visible light than others. The efficacy of a
lamp refers to the number of lumens leaving the lamp
Lighting Fundamentals ● Lighting Upgrade Manual
4
compared to the number of watts required by the lamp
(and ballast). It is expressed in lumens per watt.
Sources with higher efficacy require less electrical
energy to light a space.
Color Temperature
Another characteristic of a light source is the color
temperature. This is a measurement of “warmth” or
“coolness” provided by the lamp. People usually prefer
a warmer source in lower illuminance areas, such as
dining areas and living rooms, and a cooler source in
higher illuminance areas, such as grocery stores.
Color temperature refers to the color of a blackbody
radiator at a given absolute temperature, expressed in
Kelvins. A blackbody radiator changes color as its
temperature increases (first to red, then to orange,
yellow, white, and finally bluish white at the highest
temperature). A “warm” color light source actually has
a lower color temperature. For example, a cool-white
fluorescent lamp appears bluish in color with a color
temperature of around 4100 K. A warmer fluorescent
lamp appears more yellowish with a color temperature
around 3000 K. Refer to Exhibit 5 for color
temperatures of various light sources.
Color Rendering Index
The CRI is a relative scale (ranging from 0 - 100)
indicating how perceived colors match actual colors. It
measures the degree that perceived colors of objects,
illuminated by a given light source conform to the colors
of those same objects when they are lighted by a
reference standard light source. The higher the color
rendering index, the less color shift or distortion occurs.
The CRI number does not indicate which colors will
shift or by how much; it is rather an indication of the
average shift of eight standard colors. Two different
light sources may have identical CRI values, but colors
may appear quite different under these two sources.
Incandescent Lamps
Standard Incandescent Lamp
Incandescent lamps are one of the oldest electric
lighting technologies available. With efficacies ranging
from 4 to 24 lumens per watt, incandescent lamps are
the least energy-efficient electric light source and have
a relatively short life (750-2500 hours).
Light is produced by passing a current through a
tungsten filament, causing it to become hot and glow.
● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● February 1997
 EXHIBIT 3
TYPICAL CRI VALUES FOR SELECTED LIGHT SOURCES

Source Typical CRI Value

Incandescent/Halogen 100

Fluorescent

Cool White T12 62

Warm White T12 53
High Lumen T12 73-85
T8 75-85
T10 80-85
Compact 80-85

Mercury Vapor (clear/coated) 15/50

Metal Halide (clear/coated) 65/70

High-Pressure Sodium
Standard 22
Deluxe 65
White HPS 85

Low-Pressure Sodium 0

EXHIBIT 4
LAMP CHARACTERISTICS

Standard Tungsten- Fluorescent Compact Mercury Metal High- Low-

Incandescent Halogen Fluorescent Vapor Halide Pressure Pressure
Sodium Sodium

Wattage 3-1,500 10-1,500 4-215 4-55 40-1,250 32-2,000 35-1,000 18-180

Average System 4-24 8-33 49-89 24-68 19-43 38-86 22-115 50-150
Efficacy (lm/W)

Average 750-2,000 2,000- 7,500-24,000 7,000- 24,000+ 6,000- 16,000- 12,000-

Rated Life 4,000 20,000 20,000 24,000 18,000
(hrs)

CRI 100 100 49-92 82-86 15-50 65-92 21-85 0

Life Cycle Cost high high low moderate moderate moderate low low

Fixture Size compact compact extended compact compact compact compact extended

Start to Full immediate immediate 0-5 seconds 0-1 min 3-9 min 3-5 min 3-4 min 7-9 min
Brightness

Restrike Time immediate immediate immediate immediate 10-20 min 4-20 min 1 min immediate

Lumen good/excellent excellent fair/excellent good/excellent poor/fair good good/excellent excellent

Maintenance

Lighting Fundamentals ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● February 1997

5
 EXHIBIT 5
COLOR TEMPERATURES OF VARIOUS LIGHT SOURCES

With use, the tungsten slowly evaporates, eventually Tungsten-Halogen Lamps

causing the filament to break.
These lamps are available in many shapes and
finishes. The two most common types of shapes are
the common “A-type” lamp (shown below) and the
reflector-shaped lamps (R-lamps or PAR lamps).
INCANDESCENT A-LAMP
Bulb
Filament
The tungsten halogen lamp is another type of
incandescent lamp. In a halogen lamp, a small quartz
capsule contains the filament and a halogen gas. The
small capsule size allows the filament to operate at a
higher temperature, which produces light at a higher
efficacy than standard incandescents. The halogen gas
combines with the evaporated tungsten, redepositing it
on the filament. This process extends the life of the
filament and keeps the bulb wall from blackening and
reducing light output.

Support Because the filament is relatively small, this source is

Filling Wires often used where a highly focused beam is desired.
Gas Compact halogen lamps are popular in retail
Button applications for display and accent lighting. In addition,
Lead-in tungsten-halogen lamps produce a whiter light than
Heat other incandescent lamps, are more efficient, last
Wires
Deflecting longer, and have improved lamp lumen depreciation.
Stem Disc
Press
Fuse More efficient halogen lamps are available. These
Exhaust
sources use an infrared coating on the quartz bulb to
Tube
redirect infrared energy back to the filament. The
Base filament then glows hotter and the efficiency of the
source is increased.

Lighting Fundamentals ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● February 1997

6
Fluorescent Lamps
Fluorescent lamps are the most commonly used
commercial light source in North America. In fact,
fluorescent lamps illuminate about 70% of the
commercial space in the United States. Their
popularity can be attributed to their relatively high
efficacy, diffuse light distribution characteristics, and
long operating life.
Fluorescent lamp construction consists of a glass tube
with the following features:
● filled with an argon or argon-krypton gas and a
small amount of mercury
● coated on the inside with phosphors
● equipped with an electrode at both ends
Fluorescent lamps provide light by the following
process.
☞ An electric discharge (current) is maintained
between the electrodes through the mercury vapor
and inert gas.
☞ This current excites the mercury atoms, causing
them to emit non-visible ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
☞ This UV radiation is converted into visible light by
the phosphors lining the tube.
Discharge lamps (such as fluorescent) require a ballast
to provide correct starting voltage and to regulate the
operating current after the lamp has started.
Full-Size Fluorescent Lamps
Full -size fluorescent lamps are available in several
shades, including straight, U-shaped, and circular
configurations. Lamp diameters range from 1" to 21/2".
The most common lamp type is the four-foot (F40),
FLUORESCENT LAMP
Visible light
Phosphor crystals Mercury atom
Lighting Fundamentals ● Lighting Upgrade Manual
7
11/2" diameter (T12) straight fluorescent lamp. More
efficient fluorescent lamps are now available in smaller
diameters, including the T10 (1¼”) and T8 (1”).
Fluorescent lamps are available in color temperatures
ranging from warm (2700 K) “incandescent-like” colors
to very cool (6500 K) “daylight” colors. “Cool white”
(4100 K) is the most common fluorescent lamp color.
Neutral white (3500 K) is becoming popular for office
and retail use.
Advances in the phosphor coating of fluorescent lamps
have improved color rendering and made some
fluorescent lamps acceptable in many applications
previously dominated by incandescent lamps.
Performance Considerations
The performance of any luminaire system depends on
how well its components work together. With
fluorescent lamp-ballast systems, light output, input
watts, and efficacy are sensitive to changes in the
ambient temperature. When the ambient temperature
around the lamp is significantly above or below 25°C
(77°F), the performance of the system can change.
Exhibit 6 shows this relationship for two common lamp-
ballast systems: the F40T12 lamp with a magnetic
ballast and the F32T8 lamp with an electronic ballast.
As you can see, the optimum operating temperature for
the F32T8 lamp-ballast system is higher than for the
F40T12 system. Thus, when the ambient temperature
is greater than 25°C (77°F), the performance of the
F32T8 system may be higher than the performance
under ANSI conditions. The performance of lamps with
smaller diameters (such as T-5 twin tube lamps) peaks
at even higher ambient temperatures.
Compact Fluorescent Lamps
Advances in phosphor coatings and reductions of tube
diameters have facilitated the development of compact
fluorescent lamps.
Ultraviolet
radiation
Electron Electrode
● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● February 1997
Manufactured since the early 1980s, they are long- Program (“Screw-Base Compact Fluorescent Lamp
lasting, energy-efficient substitutes for incandescent Products,” Specifier Reports, Volume 1, Issue 6, April
lamps. 1993; two supplements also available, 1994 and 1995).

Various wattages, color temperatures, and sizes are

available. The wattages of the compact fluorescents High-Intensity Discharge Lamps
range from 5 to 55 (replacing incandescent lamps
ranging from 25 to 200 watts) and provide energy
High-intensity discharge (HID) lamps are similar to
savings of 60 to 75 percent. While producing light
fluorescents in that an arc is generated between two
similar in color to incandescent sources, the life
electrodes. The arc in a HID source is shorter, yet it
expectancy of a compact fluorescent is about 10 times
generates much more light within the arc tube.
that of a standard incandescent lamp. Note, however,
Originally developed for outdoor and industrial
that the use of compact fluorescent lamps is very
applications, HID lamps are also used in office, retail,
limited in dimming applications.
and other indoor applications. Their color rendering
characteristics have been improved and lower wattages
The compact fluorescent lamp with an Edison screw-
have become available.
base offers an easy means to upgrade an incandescent
luminaire. Screw-in compact fluorescents are available
There are several advantages to HID sources.
in two types.
✓ relatively long life (5,000 to 24,000+ hrs)
☞ Integral Units. These consist of a compact
✓ relatively high lumen output per watt
fluorescent lamp and ballast in self-contained units.
✓ relatively small in physical size
Some integral units also include a reflector and/or
glass enclosure.
However, the following operating limitations must also
be considered. First, HID lamps require time to warm
☞ Modular Units. The modular type of retrofit
up, typically 2 to 6 minutes. Second, HID lamps have a
compact fluorescent lamp is similar to the integral
“restrike” time, meaning that after a momentary
units, except that the lamp is replaceable.
interruption, the gases inside the lamp are too hot to
ionize, and time is needed for the gases to cool and
A Specifier Report that compares the performance of
pressure to drop before the arc will restrike. This
various name-brand compact fluorescent lamps is
process of restriking takes up to 20 minutes, depending
available from the National Lighting Product Information
on which HID source is being used. Therefore, good

EXHIBIT 6
TEMPERATURE SENSITIVITY OF LAMP-BALLAST PERFORMANCE
Source: CEC/DOE/EPRI

Lighting Fundamentals ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● February 1997

8
applications of HID lamps are in areas where lamps are the lamp to produce more visible light per watt with
not switched on and off intermittently. improved color rendition.

The following HID sources are listed in increasing order
of efficacy.
✦ mercury vapor
✦ metal halide
✦ high pressure sodium
✦ low pressure sodium
Mercury Vapor
Clear mercury vapor lamps, which produce a blue-
green light, consist of a mercury-vapor arc tube with
tungsten electrodes at both ends. These lamps have
the lowest efficacies of the HID family, rapid
lumen depreciation, and a low color rendering index.
Because of these characteristics, other HID sources
have replaced mercury vapor lamps in many
applications.
The arc is contained in an inner bulb called the arc
tube. The arc tube is filled with high purity mercury and
argon gas. The arc tube is enclosed within the outer
bulb, which is filled with nitrogen. (See the typical HID
lamp below.)
Wattages range from 32 to 2,000, offering a wide range
of indoor and outdoor applications. The maintained
efficacy of metal halide lamps ranges from 50 to 115
lumens per watt (typically about double that of mercury
vapor). In short, metal halide lamps have several
advantages.
✓ high efficacy
✓ good color rendering
✓ wide range of wattages
However, they also have some operating limitations.
✘ The rated life of metal halide lamps is shorter than
other HID sources; lower-wattage lamps last less
than 7500 hours while high-wattage lamps last an
average of 15,000 to 20,000 hours.
✘ The color may vary from lamp to lamp and may
shift over the life of the lamp and during dimming.
New metal halide systems using ceramic arc tubes
and/or electronic ballasts minimize these effects.
High Pressure Sodium

Color-improved mercury lamps use a phosphor coating The high pressure sodium (HPS) lamp is widely used
on the inner wall of the bulb to improve the color for outdoor and industrial applications. Its higher
rendering index, resulting in slight reductions in efficacy makes it a better choice than metal halide for
efficiency. these applications, especially when good color
rendering is not a priority. HPS lamps differ from
mercury and metal-halide lamps in that they do not
HIGH INTENSITY DISCHARGE LAMP contain starting electrodes; the ballast circuit includes a
high-voltage electronic starter. The arc tube is made of
a ceramic material which can withstand temperatures
Base up to 2372°F. It is filled with xenon to help start the arc,
as well as a sodium-mercury gas mixture.
Supports
Sodium, the major element used, produces the
Resistor “golden” color that is characteristic of HPS lamps.
Although HPS lamps are not generally recommended
Arc Tube Seal
for applications where color rendering is critical, HPS
Arc Tube color rendering properties are being improved. Some
Double Coiled HPS lamps are now available in “deluxe” and “white”
Electrode Structure colors that provide higher color temperature and
improved color rendition. The efficacy of low-wattage
Bulb “white” HPS lamps is lower than that of metal halide
& Coating lamps (lumens per watt of low-wattage metal halide is
40-50, while white HPS is less than 30 LPW).

Low Pressure Sodium

Metal Halide
These lamps are similar to mercury vapor lamps but
use metal halide additives inside the arc tube along
with the mercury and argon. These additives enable
Although low pressure sodium (LPS) lamps are similar
to fluorescent systems (because they are low pressure
systems), they are commonly included in the HID
family. LPS lamps are the most efficacious light

Lighting Fundamentals ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● February 1997

9
sources, but they produce the poorest quality light of all
the lamp types. Being a monochromatic light source,
all colors appear black, white, or shades of gray under
an LPS source. LPS lamps are available in wattages
ranging from 18-180.
LPS lamp use has been generally limited to outdoor
applications such as security or street lighting.
However, because the color rendition is so poor, many
municipalities do not allow them for roadway lighting.
Because the LPS lamps are “extended” (like
fluorescent), they are less effective in directing and
controlling a light beam, compared with “point sources”
like high-pressure sodium and metal halide. Therefore,
lower mounting heights will provide better results with
LPS lamps. To compare a LPS installation with other
alternatives, calculate the installation efficacy as the
average maintained footcandles divided by the input
watts per square foot of illuminated area. The input
wattage of an LPS system increases over time to
maintain consistent light output over the lamp life.
The low-pressure sodium lamp can explode if the
sodium comes in contact with water. Dispose of these
lamps according to the manufacturer’s instructions.
BALLASTS
All discharge lamps (fluorescent and HID) require an
auxiliary piece of equipment called a ballast. Ballasts
have three main functions.
✦ provide correct starting voltage, because lamps
require a higher voltage to start than to operate
✦ match the line voltage to the operating voltage of
the lamp
✦ limit the lamp current to prevent immediate
destruction, because once the arc is struck the
lamp impedance decreases
Because ballasts are an integral component of the
lighting system, they have a direct impact on light
output. The ballast factor is the ratio of a lamp’s light
output using the selected ballast, compared to the
lamp’s rated light output as listed in lamp catalogs.
General purpose ballasts have a ballast factor that is
less than one; special ballasts may have a ballast factor
greater than one.
Fluorescent Ballasts
The two general types of fluorescent ballasts are
magnetic and electronic ballasts.
Lighting Fundamentals ● Lighting Upgrade Manual
10
Magnetic Ballasts
Magnetic ballasts (also referred to as electromagnetic
ballasts) fall into one of the following categories.
● standard core-coil (no longer sold in the US for
most applications)
● high-efficiency core-coil
● cathode cut-out or hybrid
Standard core-coil magnetic ballasts are essentially
core-coil transformers that are relatively inefficient in
operating fluorescent lamps. The high-efficiency
ballast upgrades the aluminum wiring and lower grade
steel of the standard ballast with copper wiring and
enhanced ferromagnetic materials. The result of these
material upgrades is a 10 percent system efficiency
improvement. However, note that these “high
efficiency” ballasts are the least efficient magnetic
ballasts that are available for operating full-size
fluorescent lamps. More efficient ballasts are
described below.
“Cathode cut-out” (or “hybrid”) ballasts are high-
efficiency core-coil ballasts that incorporate electronic
components that cut off power to the lamp cathodes
(filaments) after the lamps are lit, resulting in an
additional 2-watt savings per standard lamp. Also,
many partial-output T12 hybrid ballasts provide up to
10% less light output while consuming up to 17% less
energy than energy-efficient magnetic ballasts. Full-
output T8 hybrid ballasts are nearly as efficient as
rapid-start two-lamp T8 electronic ballasts.
Electronic Ballasts
In nearly every full-size fluorescent lighting application,
electronic ballasts can be used in place of conventional
magnetic “core-and-coil” ballasts. Electronic ballasts
improve fluorescent system efficacy by converting the
standard 60 Hz input frequency to a higher frequency,
usually 25,000 to 40,000 Hz. Lamps operating at these
higher frequencies produce about the same amount of
light, while consuming 12 to 25 percent less power.
Other advantages of electronic ballasts include less
audible noise, less weight, virtually no lamp flicker, and
dimming capabilities (with specific ballast models).
Some electronic ballasts are designed to operate up to
four lamps at a time. Parallel wiring is another feature
now available that allows all companion lamps in the
ballast circuit to continue operating in the event of a
lamp failure. Electronic ballasts are also available for 8'
standard and high-output T12 and T8 lamps.
Some T8 electronic ballasts are designed to start the
lamps in the conventional rapid start mode, while others
● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● February 1997
are operated in the instant start mode. The use of
instant start T8 electronic ballasts may result in a 25
percent reduction in lamp life (at 3 hours per start) but
produces slight increases in efficiency. (Note: Lamp
life ratings for instant start and rapid start are the same
for 12 or more hours per start.)
Types of Fluorescent Circuits
There are three main types of fluorescent circuits.
✦ rapid start
✦ instant start
✦ preheat
The specific fluorescent circuit in use can be identified
by the label on the ballast.
The rapid start circuit is the most used system today.
Rapid start ballasts provide continuous lamp filament
heating during lamp operation (except when used with
a cathode cut-out ballast). Users notice a very short
delay (less than 1/2 second) after “flipping the switch”
before the lamp is started.
The instant start system ignites the arc within the lamp
instantly. This ballast provides a higher starting
voltage, which eliminates the need for a separate
starting circuit. This higher starting voltage causes
more wear on the filaments, resulting in reduced lamp
life compared with rapid starting.
The preheat circuit was used when fluorescent lamps
first became available. This technology is used very
little today, except for low-wattage magnetic ballast
applications such as compact fluorescents. A separate
starting switch, called a starter, is used to aid in forming
the arc. The filament needs some time to reach proper
temperature, so the lamp does not strike for a few
seconds.
HID Ballasts
Like fluorescent lamps, HID lamps require a ballast to
start and operate. The purposes of the ballast are
similar: to provide starting voltage, to limit the current,
and to match the line voltage to the arc voltage.
With HID ballasts, a major performance consideration
is lamp wattage regulation when the line voltage varies.
With HPS lamps, the ballast must compensate for
changes in the lamp voltage as well as for changes in
the line voltages.
Installing the wrong HID ballast can cause a variety of
problems.
✘ waste energy and increase operating cost
✘ severely shorten lamp life
✘ significantly add to system maintenance costs
✘ produce lower-than-desired light levels
✘ increase wiring and circuit breaker installation costs
✘ result in lamp cycling when voltage dips occur
Exhibit 7 describes the differences between the three
types of HID ballasts. For definitions of these ballast
types, please refer to the glossary at the end of this
document.

EXHIBIT 7
HID BALLAST SELECTION FACTORS
Non-Regulating Lead-Type Lag-Type
(reactor, lag) Regulator Regulator
(CWA) (magnetic)

Line Voltage +/- 5% +/- 10% +/- 10%

Variation

Losses low medium to high high

Power Factor 40-50% 90%+ 90%+

Dip Tolerance 20-10% 50-10% 60-30%

Lamp Wattage 2-21/2% for each 1-11/2% for each /4% for each
3

Regulation 1% change of 1% change of 1% change of

line voltage line voltage line voltage

Lighting Fundamentals ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● February 1997

11
Capacitive switching is available in new HID luminaires
with special HID ballasts. The most common
application for HID capacitive switching is in
occupancy-sensed bi-level lighting control. Upon
sensing motion, the occupancy sensor will send a
signal to the bi-level HID system that will rapidly bring
the light levels from a standby reduced level to
approximately 80% of full output, followed by the
normal warm-up time between 80% and 100% of full
light output. Depending on the lamp type and wattage,
the standby lumens are roughly 15-40% of full output
and the input watts are 30-60% of full wattage.
Therefore, during periods that the space is unoccupied
and the system is dimmed, savings of 40-70% are
achieved.
Electronic ballasts for some types of HID lamps are
starting to become commercially available. These
ballasts offer the advantages of reduced size and
weight, as well as better color control; however,
electronic HID ballasts offer minimal efficiency gains
over magnetic HID ballasts. Note, however, that
dimmable electronic HID ballasts have been
introduced.
LUMINAIRES
A luminaire, or light fixture, is a unit consisting of the
following components.
✦ lamps
✦ lamp sockets
✦ ballasts
✦ reflective material
✦ lenses, refractors, or louvers
✦ housing
LUMINAIRE
Housing/Reflector
Ballast
Lamps
Lens
The main function of the luminaire is to direct light
using reflective and shielding materials. Many lighting
upgrade projects consist of replacing one or more of
these components to improve fixture efficiency.
Alternatively, users may consider replacing the entire
luminaire with one that is designed to efficiently provide
Lighting Fundamentals ● Lighting Upgrade Manual
12
the appropriate quantity and quality of illumination.
There are several different types of luminaires. The
following is a listing of some of the common luminaire
types.
● general illumination fixtures such as 2x4, 2x2,
& 1x4 fluorescent for direct lighting
● indirect lighting (light reflected off the ceiling/walls)
● spot or accent lighting
● task lighting
● outdoor area and flood lighting
Luminaire Efficiency
The efficiency of a luminaire is the percentage of lamp
lumens produced that actually exit the fixture. The use
of louvers can improve visual comfort, but because
they reduce the lumen output of the fixture, efficiency is
reduced. Generally, the most efficient fixtures have the
poorest visual comfort (e.g., bare-strip industrial
fixtures). Conversely, the fixture that provides the
highest visual comfort level can be the least efficient.
Thus, a lighting designer must determine the best
compromise between efficiency and VCP when
specifying luminaires. Recently, some manufacturers
have started offering fixtures with excellent VCP and
efficiency. These so-called “super fixtures” combine
state-of-the-art lens or louver designs to provide the
best of both worlds.
Surface deterioration and accumulated dirt in older,
poorly maintained fixtures can also cause reductions in
luminaire efficiency. Refer to Lighting Maintenance for
more information.
Directing Light
Each of the above luminaire types consists of a number
of components that are designed to work together to
produce and direct light. Because the subject of light
production has been covered by the previous section,
the text below focuses on the components used to
direct the light produced by the lamps.
Reflectors
Reflectors are designed to redirect the light emitted
from a lamp in order to achieve a desired distribution of
light intensity outside of the luminaire.
● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● February 1997
In most incandescent spot and flood lights, highly specular
(mirror-like) reflectors are usually built into the lamps.
One energy-efficient upgrade option is to install a
custom-designed reflector to enhance the light control
and efficiency of the fixture, which may allow partial
delamping. Retrofit reflectors are useful for upgrading
the efficiency of older, deteriorated luminaire surfaces.
A variety of reflector materials are available: highly
reflective white paint, silver film laminate, and two
grades of anodized aluminum sheet (standard or
enhanced reflectivity). Silver film laminate is generally
considered to have the highest reflectance, but is
considered less durable.
Proper design and installation of reflectors can have
more effect on performance than the reflector
materials. In combination with delamping, however, the
use of reflectors may result in reduced light output and
may redistribute the light, which may or may not be
acceptable for a specific space or application. To
ensure acceptable performance from reflectors,
arrange for a trial installation and measure “before” and
“after” light levels using the procedures outlined in
Lighting Evaluations. For specific name-brand
performance data, refer to Specifier Reports, “Specular
Reflectors,” Volume 1, Issue 3, National Lighting
Product Information Program.
Lenses and Louvers
Most indoor commercial fluorescent fixtures use either
a lens or a louver to prevent direct viewing of the
lamps. Light that is emitted in the so-called “glare
zone” (angles above 55 degrees from the fixture’s
vertical axis) can cause visual discomfort and
reflections, which reduce contrast on work surfaces or
computer screens. Lenses and louvers can control
these problems.
☞ Lenses. Lenses made from clear ultraviolet-
stabilized acrylic plastic deliver the most light output
and uniformity of all shielding media. However, they
provide less glare control than louvered fixtures.
Clear lens types include prismatic, batwing, linear
EXHIBIT 8
2-FOOT X 4-FOOT TROFFER SHIELDING MEDIA
Shielding Material Luminaire Efficiency Range (%)
Standard Clear Lens
Low-Glare Clear Lens
Deep Cell Parabolic Louver
Translucent Diffuser
White Metal Louver
Small Cell Parabolic Louver
Lighting Fundamentals ● Lighting Upgrade Manual
13
batwing, and polarized lenses. Lenses are usually
much less expensive than louvers. White
translucent diffusers are much less efficient than
clear lenses, and they result in relatively low visual
comfort probability. New low-glare clear lens
materials are available for retrofit and provide high
visual comfort (VCP>80) and high efficiency.
☞ Louvers. Louvers provide superior glare control
and high visual comfort compared with lens-diffuser
systems. The most common application of louvers
is to eliminate the fixture glare reflected on
computer screens. So-called “deep-cell” parabolic
louvers (with 5-7" cell apertures and depths of 2-4")
provide a good balance between visual comfort and
luminaire efficiency. Although small-cell parabolic
louvers provide the highest level of visual comfort,
they reduce luminaire efficiency to 40-65 percent.
For retrofit applications, both deep-cell and small-
cell louvers are available for use with existing
fixtures. Note that the deep-cell louver retrofit adds
2-4" to the overall depth of a troffer; verify that
sufficient plenum depth is available before
specifying the deep-cell retrofit.
Exhibit 8 shows the efficiency and VCP for various
shielding materials.
Distribution
One of the primary functions of a luminaire is to direct
the light to where it is needed. The light distribution
produced by luminaires is characterized by the IESNA
as follows.
☞ Direct — 90 to 100 percent of the light is directed
downward for maximum use.
☞ Indirect — 90 to 100 percent of the light is directed
to the ceilings and upper walls and is reflected to all
parts of a room.
☞ Semi-Direct — 60 to 90 percent of the light is
directed downward with the remainder directed
upward.
VCP Range (%)
60-80 50-70
60-80 75-85
50-75 75-99
40-60 40-50
35-45 65-85
40-65 99
● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● February 1997
☞ Semi-Indirect — 60 to 90 percent of the light is
directed upward with the remainder directed
downward.
☞ General Diffuse or Direct-Indirect — equal
portions of the light are directed upward and
downward.
☞ Highlighting — the beam projection distance and
focusing ability characterize this luminaire.
The lighting distribution that is characteristic of a given
luminaire is described using the candela distribution
provided by the luminaire manufacturer. The candela
distribution is represented by a curve on a polar graph
showing the relative luminous intensity 360° around the
fixture — looking at a cross-section of the fixture. This
information is useful because it shows how much light
is emitted in each direction and the relative proportions
of downlighting and uplighting. The cut-off angle is the
angle, measured from straight down, where the fixture
begins to shield the light source and no direct light from
the source is visible. The shielding angle is the angle,
measured from horizontal, through which the fixture
provides shielding to prevent direct viewing of the light
source. The shielding and cut-off angles add up to 90
degrees.
The lighting upgrade products mentioned in this
document are described in more detail in Lighting
Upgrade Technologies.
CANDELA DISTRIBUTION CURVE
Lighting Fundamentals ● Lighting Upgrade Manual
14
SELECTED REFERENCES
Individual Listings
Advanced Lighting Guidelines: 1993, Electric
Power Research Institute (EPRI)/California Energy
Commission (CEC)/United States Department of
Energy (DOE), May 1993.
EPRI, the CEC, and the DOE have collaborated to
produce the 1993 update of the Advanced Lighting
Guidelines (originally published in 1990 by the CEC).
The Guidelines include four new chapters that address
lighting controls. This series of guidelines provides
comprehensive and objective information about current
lighting equipment and controls.
The Guidelines address the following areas.
● lighting design practice
● computer-aided lighting design
● luminaires and lighting systems
● energy-efficient fluorescent ballasts
● full-size fluorescent lamps
● compact fluorescent lamps
● tungsten-halogen lamps
● metal halide and HPS lamps
● daylighting and lumen maintenance
● occupant sensors
● time-scheduling systems
● retrofit control technologies
Besides providing technology overviews and
applications, each chapter concludes with guideline
specifications to use in accurately designating lighting
upgrade components. The Guidelines also tabulate
representative performance data, which can be very
difficult to locate in product literature.
To obtain a copy of the Advanced Lighting Guidelines
(1993), contact your local utility (if your utility is a
member of EPRI). Otherwise, call the CEC at (916)
654-5200.
Applied Illumination Engineering, Jack L. Lindsey,
1991.
The Association of Energy Engineers uses this text to
prepare applicants to take the Certified Lighting Efficiency
Professional (CLEP) examination. This 480-page book is
particularly useful for learning about illuminance
calculations, basic design considerations, and the
operating characteristics of each light source family.
It also provides application guidelines for industrial,
office, retail, and outdoor lighting.
● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● February 1997
 You can order this
textbook from the
Association of
Energy Engineers
by calling (404)
925-9558.
ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1-1989, American Society
of Heating Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Engineers (ASHRAE) and Illuminating Engineering
Society (IES), 1989.
Commonly known as “Standard 90.1,” ASHRAE/IES
90.1-1989 is the efficiency standard that Green Lights
participants agree to follow when designing new lighting
systems. Standard 90.1 is currently a national,
voluntary consensus standard. However, this standard
has become law in many states. The Energy Policy Act
of 1992 requires that all states certify that their
commercial energy code provisions meet or exceed the
requirements Standard 90.1.
Green Lights participants only need to meet the lighting
system portion of the standard. Standard 90.1 sets
maximum wattage densities (W/SF) for lighting systems
based on the type of building or expected uses within
each space. The lighting portion of Standard 90.1 does
not apply to the following: outdoor manufacturing or
processing facilities, theatrical lighting, specialty lighting,
emergency lighting, signage, retail display windows, and
dwelling unit lighting. Daylighting and lighting controls
receive consideration and credits, and minimum
efficiency standards are specified for fluorescent lamp
ballasts based on the Federal Ballast Standards.
You can purchase Standard 90.1 by contacting
ASHRAE at (404) 636-8400 or IES at (212) 248-5000.
In addition, the book’s appendices include general
technical information, worksheets, and product guides.
To purchase this reference, call the Association of
Energy Engineers at (404) 925-9558.
Illuminations: A Training Textbook for Senior
Lighting Technicians, interNational Association of
Lighting Management Companies (NALMCO), First
Edition, 1993.
Illuminations is a 74-page course workbook for use by
Apprentice Lighting Technicians (NALMCO
designation) for upgrading their status to Senior
Lighting Technician. The workbook consists of seven
chapters, each with a quiz for self-testing. Answers
are provided in the back of the book.
☞ Service Basics (e.g., electricity, instrumentation,
disposal issues, etc.)
Lighting Fundamentals ● Lighting Upgrade Manual
15
☞ Lamp Operation (e.g., lamp construction and
operation ( all types, color effects)
☞ Ballast Operation (e.g., fluorescent & HID ballast
components, types, wattage, ballast factor,
harmonics, starting temperature, efficacy,
replacement)
☞ Troubleshooting (e.g., visual symptoms, possible
causes, explanations and/or remedies)
☞ Controls (e.g., photocells, time clocks, occupancy
sensors, dimmers, EMS)
☞ Lighting Upgrade Devices and Technologies (e.g.,
reflectors, compact fluorescents, ballast upgrades,
correcting overlit situations, lenses and louvers,
HIDconversions, measuring energy effectiveness)
☞ Emergency Lighting (e.g., exit signs, fixture types,
applications, batteries, maintenance)
Illuminations is clear and understandable. The
publication’s greatest strength is its extensive
illustrations and photos, which help to clarify the ideas
discussed. The textbook for Apprentice Lighting
Technicians is also available — entitled Lighten Up —
and is recommended for newcomers to the lighting
field.
To order, call NALMCO at (609) 799-5501.
Lighting Technology Atlas, E SOURCE, INC. September
1994.
This extensive resource provides a wealth of detailed
information about lighting technologies and resources.
Written for the lighting professional, the Lighting
Technology Atlas answers many questions about the
unique operation and application of the state-of-the-art
lighting products. In addition, this reference provides
listings of manufacturer data. The Atlas' three sections
are organized as follows:
Context
Basic Concepts
Lighting For People
Connections
End-Use and Market Data
Technologies
Daylighting
Incandescent Lighting
Full-Sized Fluorescent Lighting
Compact Fluorescent Lamp Technologies
High-Intensity Discharge Lighting
Other Sorces
Lighting Controls
● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● February 1997
 Lighting Maintenance
Special Applications
Resources
Lighting Software
Lighting Loggers and Occupnacy Loggers
Summary of Lighting Provisions of ASHRAE
90.1 Standard
Sample Lighting Specification
Independent Photometric Laboratories
For more information, contact E SOURCE, INC. at (303)
440-8500
Lighting Upgrades: A Guide for Facility Managers,
Damon Wood, 1996.
This 400-page illustrated textbook guides the reader to
an understanding of current lighting equipment and
available upgrade technologies. Balancing the goals of
lighting quality and efficiency, this book outlines the
essential factors that must be considered in any lighting
upgrade investment. In addition, Lighting Upgrades
outlines goals and strategies for upgrading specific
space types. An extensive reference section is also
included. The book has 21 chapters:
✐ The Elements of Lighting Quality
✐ Maximizing Lighting Efficiency
✐ Full-Size Fluorescent Equipment
✐ Full-Size Fluorescent Upgrade Options
✐ Compact Lighting Equipment
✐ Compact Lighting Upgrade Options
✐ High-Intensity Discharge (HID) Equipment
✐ High-Intensity Discharge (HID) Upgrade Options
✐ Exit Sign Equipment
✐ Exit Sign Upgrade Options
✐ Switching Controls
✐ Dimming Controls
✐ Upgrades to Modify Light Levels
✐ Lighting the Office Environment
✐ Lighting the Retail Environment
✐ Lighting the Industrial Environment
✐ Outdoor Lighting
✐ Assessing Lighting Upgrade Opportunities
✐ Project Implementation
✐ Lighting Maintenance
✐ Information Resources
To order a copy of Lighting Upgrades, call 1-800-444-
4881.
Electric Power Research Institute
(EPRI)
Commercial Lighting Efficiency Resource Book,
EPRI, CU-7427, September 1991.
Lighting Fundamentals ● Lighting Upgrade Manual
16
The Commercial Lighting Efficiency Resource Book
provides an overview of efficient commercial lighting
technologies and programs available to the end-user.
Besides providing an overview of lighting conservation
opportunities, this 144-page document provides
valuable information about lighting education and
information in the following areas.
● extensive annotated lighting reference
bibliographies
● directory of lighting demonstration centers
● summaries of regulations and codes related to
lighting
● directory of lighting education institutions,
courses, and seminars
● listings of lighting magazines and journals
● directory and descriptions of lighting research
organizations
● directory of lighting professional groups and
trade associations
● directory of energy and environmental groups
To obtain a copy of EPRI Lighting Publications, contact
your local utility (if your utility is a member of EPRI) or
contact the EPRI Publications Distribution Center at
(510) 934-4212.
EPRI Lighting Brochures
The following lighting publications are available from
EPRI. Each publication contains a thorough description
of the technologies, their advantages, their applications,
and case studies.
High Intensity Discharge Lighting (10 pages), BR-
101739
Electronic Ballasts (6 pages), BR-101886
Occupancy Sensors (6 pages), BR-100323
Compact Fluorescent Lamps (6 pages),
CU.2042R.4.93
Specular Retrofit Reflectors (6 pages), CU.2046R.6.92
Retrofit Lighting Technologies (10 pages),
CU.3040R.7.91
In addition, EPRI offers a series of 2-page informational
bulletins that cover such topics as lighting maintenance,
lighting quality, VDT lighting, and lamp life.
● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● February 1997
To obtain a copy of EPRI Lighting Publications, contact
your local utility (if your utility is a member of EPRI).
Otherwise, contact the EPRI Publications Distribution
Center at (510) 934-4212.
Lighting Fundamentals Handbook, Electric Power
Research Institute, TR-101710, March 1993.
This handbook provides basic information on lighting
principles, lighting equipment, and other considerations
related to lighting design. It is not intended to be an up-
to-date reference on current lighting products and
equipment. The handbook has three major sections.
✐ Physics of Light (e.g., light, vision, optics,
photometry)
✐ Lighting Equipment and Technology (e.g., lamps,
luminaires, lighting controls)
✐ Lighting Design Decisions (e.g., illuminance
targets, quality, economics, codes, power quality,
photobiology and waste disposal)
To obtain a copy of EPRI Lighting Publications, contact
your local utility (if your utility is a member of EPRI) or
contact the EPRI Publications Distribution Center at
(510) 934-4212.
Illuminating Engineering Society
(IES)
ED-100
Introductory Lighting
Consisting of approximately 300 pages in a binder, this
education program is an updated version of the 1985
fundamentals training materials. This set of 10 lessons
is intended for those who want a thorough overview of
the lighting field.
✐ Light and Color
✐ Light, Vision, and Perception
✐ Light Sources
✐ Luminaires and their Photometric Data
✐ Illuminance Calculations
✐ Lighting Applications for Visual Performance
✐ Lighting for Visual Impact
✐ Exterior Lighting
✐ Energy Management/Lighting Economics
✐ Daylighting
ED-150
Intermediate Lighting
This course is the “next step” for those who have already
completed the ED-100 fundamentals program or who
wish to increase their knowledge gained through
practical experience. The IES Technical Knowledge
Lighting Fundamentals ● Lighting Upgrade Manual
17
Examination is based on the ED-150 level of knowledge.
A 2½-inch binder contains thirteen lessons.
✐ Vision
✐ Color
✐ Light Sources & Ballasts
✐ Optical Control
✐ Illuminance Calculations
✐ Psychological Aspects of Lighting
✐ Design Concepts
✐ Computers in Lighting Design and Analysis
✐ Lighting Economics
✐ Daylighting Calculations
✐ Electrical Quantities/Distribution
✐ Electrical Controls
✐ Lighting Mathematics
IES Lighting Handbook, 8th Edition, IES of North
America, 1993.
This 1000-page technical reference is a combination of
two earlier volumes that separately addressed
reference information and applications. Considered the
“bible” of illumination engineering, the Handbook
provides broad coverage of all phases of lighting
disciplines. The 34 chapters are organized into five
general areas.
✍ Science of Lighting (e.g., optics, measurement,
vision, color, photobiology)
✍ Lighting Engineering (e.g., sources, luminaires,
daylighting, calculations)
✍ Elements of Design (e.g., process, illuminance
selection, economics, codes & standards)
✍ Lighting Applications, which discusses 15 unique
case studies
✍ Special Topics (e.g., energy management, controls,
maintenance, environmental issues)
In addition, the Handbook contains an extensive
glossary and index, as well as many illustrations,
graphs, charts, equations, photographs and references.
The Handbook is an essential reference for the
practicing lighting engineer. You can purchase the
manual from the publications office of IES at (212) 248-
5000. IES members receive a price discount on the
Handbook.
IES Lighting Ready Reference, IES, 1989.
This book is a compendium of lighting information,
including the following: terminology, conversion factors,
light source tables, illuminance recommendations,
calculation data, energy management considerations,
cost analysis methods, and lighting survey procedures.
● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● February 1997
The Ready Reference includes the most often used
material from the IES Lighting Handbook.
You can purchase the 168-page reference from the
publications office of IES at (212) 248-5000. IES
members receive the Ready Reference upon joining
the society.

National Lighting Bureau (NLB) National Lighting Product

Information Program (NLPIP)
The NLB is an information service established by the
National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA).
This program publishes objective information about
Its purpose is to create more awareness and
lighting upgrade products, and is co-sponsored by four
appreciation of the benefits of good lighting. NLB
organizations: EPA's Green Lights, the Lighting
promotes all aspects of lighting energy management,
Research Center, the New York State Energy Research
ranging from productivity to lumen output. Each year
and Development Authority, and Northern States Power
the NLB publishes articles in various periodicals and
Company. Two types of publications are available —
guidebooks written for the lay person. These articles
Specifier Reports and Lighting Answers.
discuss specific lighting systems design, operation,
maintenance techniques, and system components.
To purchase these publications, call the Lighting
Research Center, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute at
The following publications are basic references that
(518) 276-8716.
provide an overview of the subject and include lighting
applications.
Specifier Reports
● Office Lighting and Productivity
Each Specifier Report examines a particular lighting
upgrade technology. Specifier Reports provide
● Profiting from Lighting Modernization
background information about the technology and
independent performance test results of name-brand
● Getting the Most from Your Lighting Dollar
lighting upgrade products. Specifier Reports published
to date include:
● Solving the Puzzle of VDT Viewing Problems
☞ Power Reducers, 1992
● NLB Guide to Industrial Lighting
☞ Specular Reflectors, 1992
● NLB Guide to Retail Lighting Management
☞ Occupancy Sensors, 1992, 1997
● NLB Guide to Energy Efficient Lighting Systems
☞ Parking Lot Luminaires, 1993
● Lighting for Safety and Security
☞ Screwbase Compact Fluorescent Lamp Products,
● Performing a Lighting System Audit
1993, 1994, 1995
● Lighting and Human Performance
☞ Cathode-Disconnect Ballasts, 1993
To request a catalog or to order publications, call NLB
☞ Exit Signs, 1994, 1995, 1997
at (301) 587-9572.
☞ Electronic Ballasts, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997
NEMA Guide to Lighting Controls, National
Electrical Manufacturers Association, 1992.
☞ Reflector Lamps, 1994
This guide provides an overview of the following lighting
☞ Dimming Electronic Ballasts, 1995
control strategies: on/off, occupancy recognitiion,
scheduling, tuning, daylight harvesting, lumen
☞ Compact Fluorescent Downlights, 1995
depreciation compensation, and demand control. In
addition, it discusses hardware options and applications
☞ HID Accent Lighting Systems
for each control strategy.
☞ Additional Specifier Reports are under
To order, call NLB at (301) 587-9572.
development.

Lighting Fundamentals ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● February 1997

18
Lighting Answers
Lighting Answers provide informative text about the
performance characteristics of specific lighting
technologies but do not include comparative
performance test results. Lighting Answers published to
date include:
✒ T8 Fluorescent Lamps, 1993
✒ Multilayer Polarizer Panels, 1993
✒ Task Lighting for Offices, 1994
✒ Dimming Systems for High-Intensity Discharge
Lamps, 1994
✒ Power Quality, 1995
✒ Thermal Effects in 2' x 4' Fluorescent Lighting
Systems, 1995
✒ EMI Involving Fluorescent Lighting Systems, 1995
✒ Additional Lighting Answers are under
development.
Periodicals
Energy User News, Chilton Publications, Published
Monthly.
This monthly publication addresses many aspects of
the energy industry. Each edition contains a section
devoted to lighting, usually featuring a case study and
at least one article discussing a lighting product or
issue. Some Energy User News issues feature product
guides, which are technology-specific tables that list the
participating manufacturers (with phone numbers) and
the attributes of their products.
To order back issues, call (215) 964-4028.
Lighting Management & Maintenance, NALMCO,
Published Monthly.
This monthly publication addresses issues and
technologies directly related to upgrading and
maintaining commercial and industrial lighting systems.
The following are some topics addressed in Lighting
Management and Maintenance: the lighting industry,
legislation, new products and applications, waste
disposal, surveying, and the lighting management
business.
To order a subscription, call NALMCO at (609) 799-5501.
Lighting Fundamentals ● Lighting Upgrade Manual
19
Other EPA Green Lights
Publications
Besides the Lighting Upgrade Manual, EPA publishes
other documents, which are available free of charge
from the Green Lights Customer Service Center.
Additionally, EPA's new faxline system enables users to
request and receive Green Lights marketing and
technical information within minutes by calling (202)
233-9659.
Monthly Newsletter
The Green Lights monthly newsletter is the primary
vehicle for informing participants (and other interested
parties) about the latest program enhancements. Each
month's newsletter addresses lighting technologies,
applications, case studies, and special events. Every
issue contains the latest schedule for Lighting Upgrade
Workshops and a copy of the reporting form used by
participants to report completed project for EPA.
To receive a free subscription, contact Green Lights
Customer Service at 1-888-STAR-YES or fax (202)
775-6680.
Application Profiles
Application Profiles are 4-page, 2-color brochures that
provide application guidelines for specific lighting
upgrade technologies or approaches. Each brochure
includes a description of the technology, its benefits,
application issues, manufacturers of the technology, a
cast study, and an application nomograph for quickly
determining cost-effectiveness. Application Profiles
available from Green Lights address occupancy
sensors (3 applications), daylight dimming, daylight
switching, bi-level HID switching, LED traffic lights,
planned maintenance (2 applications), timer switches,
scheduling controls, and improving lighting quality (2
applications).
Application Profiles are available from the Green Lights
Program by calling the hotline at 1-888-STAR-YES (1-
888-782-7937).
Power Pages
Power Pages are short publications that address
lighting technologies, application, and specific
questions or issues about the Green Lights program.
These documents are available through the Green
Lights faxline. To request fax delivery, call the faxline at
(202) 233-9659. Periodically contact the faxline to
retrieve the latest information from Green Lights. If you
do not have a fax machine, contact Green Lights
Customer Service at 1-888-STAR-YES.
● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● February 1997
Green Lights Manufacturer Ally Prodcut Directories GLOSSARY
The Green Lights Program has produced three
documents that help participants identify suppliers of
AMPERE: The standard unit of measurement for
energy-efficient lighting technologies. Each directory
electric current that is equal to one coulomb per
provides manufacturer contact information to enable
second. It defines the quantity of electrons moving
participants to obtain more information.
past a given point in a circuit during a specific period.
Amp is an abbreviation.
3 Compact Fluorescent Task Light Directory. This
directory lists participating Green Lights
ANSI: Abbreviation for American National Standards
Manufacturer Allies who produce compact
Institute.
fluorescent task lights. General features are
tabulated and special features are noted.
ARC TUBE: A tube enclosed by the outer glass
envelope of a HID lamp and made of clear quartz or
3 Deep-Cell Parabolic Luminaire Directory. This
ceramic that contains the arc stream.
directory is similar to the task light directory, and it
lists manufacturer-supplied performance
ASHRAE: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating
information on a wide variety of deep-cell parabolic
and Air-Conditioning Engineers
luminaires. Tabulated data include VCP, efficiency,
louver dimensions, and spacing criteria.
BAFFLE: A single opaque or translucent element used
to control light distribution at certain angles.
3 Manufacturer Ally Product Matrix. All participating
Green Lights Manufacturer Allies are listed,
BALLAST: A device used to operate fluorescent and
indicating the types of products they manufacture.
HID lamps. The ballast provides the necessary starting
This matrix is included t the end of Lighting
voltage, while limiting and regulating the lamp current
Technologies.
during operation.
Green Lights Brochure
BALLAST CYCLING: Undesirable condition under
which the ballast turns lamps on and off (cycles) due to
EPA has produced a four-color brochure for marketing
the overheating of the thermal switch inside the ballast.
the Green Lights program. It outlines the program’s
This may be due to incorrect lamps, improper voltage
goals and commitments, while describing what some of
being supplied, high ambient temperature around the
the participants are doing. This document is an
fixture, or the early stage of ballast failure.
essential tool for any Green Lights marketing
presentation.
BALLAST EFFICIENCY FACTOR: The ballast
efficiency factor (BEF) is the ballast factor (see below)
To order copies of the brochure, please contact Green
divided by the input power of the ballast. The higher
Lights Customer Service at 1-888-STAR-YES or fax
the BEF ( within the same lamp-ballast type ( the more
(202) 775-6680.
efficient the ballast.

BALLAST FACTOR: The ballast factor (BF) for a

specific lamp-ballast combination represents the
percentage of the rated lamp lumens that will be
produced by the combination.

CANDELA: Unit of luminous intensity, describing the

intensity of a light source in a specific direction.

CANDELA DISTRIBUTION: A curve, often on polar

coordinates, illustrating the variation of luminous
intensity of a lamp or luminaire in a plane through the
light center.

CANDLEPOWER: A measure of luminous intensity of

a light source in a specific direction, measured in
candelas (see above).

CBM: Abbreviation for Certified Ballast Manufacturers

Association.

Lighting Fundamentals ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● February 1997

20
CEC: Abbreviation for California Energy Commission.
COEFFICIENT OF UTILIZATION: The ratio of lumens
from a luminaire received on the work plane to the
lumens produced by the lamps alone. (Also called
“CU”)
COLOR RENDERING INDEX (CRI): A scale of the
effect of a light source on the color appearance of an
object compared to its color appearance under a
reference light source. Expressed on a scale of 1 to
100, where 100 indicates no color shift. A low CRI
rating suggests that the colors of objects will appear
unnatural under that particular light source.
COLOR TEMPERATURE: The color temperature is a
specification of the color appearance of a light source,
relating the color to a reference source heated to a
particular temperature, measured by the thermal unit
Kelvin. The measurement can also be described as
the “warmth” or “coolness” of a light source. Generally,
sources below 3200K are considered “warm;” while
those above 4000K are considered “cool” sources.
COMPACT FLUORESCENT: A small fluorescent lamp
that is often used as an alternative to incandescent
lighting. The lamp life is about 10 times longer than
incandescent lamps and is 3-4 times more efficacious.
Also called PL, Twin-Tube, CFL, or BIAX lamps.
CONSTANT WATTAGE (CW) BALLAST: A premium
type of HID ballast in which the primary and secondary
coils are isolated. It is considered a high performance,
high loss ballast featuring excellent output regulation.
CONSTANT WATTAGE AUTOTRANSFORMER
(CWA) BALLAST: A popular type of HID ballast in
which the primary and secondary coils are electrically
connected. Considered an appropriate balance
between cost and performance.
CONTRAST: The relationship between the luminance
of an object and its background.
CRI: (SEE COLOR RENDERING INDEX)
CUT-OFF ANGLE: The angle from a fixture’s vertical
axis at which a reflector, louver, or other shielding
device cuts off direct visibility of a lamp. It is the
complementary angle of the shielding angle.
DAYLIGHT COMPENSATION: A dimming system
controlled by a photocell that reduces the output of the
lamps when daylight is present. As daylight levels
increase, lamp intensity decreases. An energy-saving
technique used in areas with significant daylight
contribution.
Lighting Fundamentals ● Lighting Upgrade Manual
21
DIFFUSE: Term describing dispersed light distribution.
Refers to the scattering or softening of light.
DIFFUSER: A translucent piece of glass or plastic
sheet that shields the light source in a fixture. The light
transmitted throughout the diffuser will be redirected
and scattered.
DIRECT GLARE: Glare produced by a direct view of
light sources. Often the result of insufficiently shielded
light sources. (See GLARE)
DOWNLIGHT: A type of ceiling luminaire, usually fully
recessed, where most of the light is directed downward.
May feature an open reflector and/or shielding device.
EFFICACY: A metric used to compare light output to
energy consumption. Efficacy is measured in lumens
per watt. Efficacy is similar to efficiency, but is
expressed in dissimilar units. For example, if a 100-
watt source produces 9000 lumens, then the efficacy is
90 lumens per watt.
ELECTROLUMINESCENT: A light source technology
used in exit signs that provides uniform brightness, long
lamp life (approximately eight years), while consuming
very little energy (less than one watt per lamp).
ELECTRONIC BALLAST: A ballast that uses semi-
conductor components to increase the frequency of
fluorescent lamp operation ( typically in the 20-40 kHz
range. Smaller inductive components provide the lamp
current control. Fluorescent system efficiency is
increased due to high frequency lamp operation.
ELECTRONIC DIMMING BALLAST: A variable output
electronic fluorescent ballast.
EMI: Abbreviation for electromagnetic interference.
High frequency interference (electrical noise) caused by
electronic components or fluorescent lamps that
interferes with the operation of electrical equipment.
EMI is measured in micro-volts, and can be controlled
by filters. Because EMI can interfere with
communication devices, the Federal Communication
Commission (FCC) has established limits for EMI.
ENERGY-SAVING BALLAST: A type of magnetic
ballast designed so that the components operate more
efficiently, cooler and longer than a “standard magnetic”
ballast. By US law, standard magnetic ballasts can no
longer be manufactured.
ENERGY-SAVING LAMP: A lower wattage lamp,
generally producing fewer lumens.
FC: (SEE FOOTCANDLE)
● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● February 1997
FLICKER: Variation in light intensity due to 60 Hz
operation. Can cause eye strain and fatigue due to
stroboscopic effects.
FLUORESCENT LAMP: A light source consisting of a
tube filled with argon, along with krypton or other inert
gas. When electrical current is applied, the resulting arc
emits ultraviolet radiation that excites the phosphors
inside the lamp wall, causing them to radiate visible light.
FOOTCANDLE (FC): The English unit of
measurement of the illuminance (or light level) on a
surface. One footcandle is equal to one lumen per
square foot.
FOOTLAMBERT: English unit of luminance. One
footlambert is equal to 1/p candelas per square foot.
GLARE: The effect of brightness or differences in
brightness within the visual field sufficiently high to
cause annoyance, discomfort or loss of visual
performance.
HALOGEN: (SEE TUNGSTEN HALOGEN LAMP)
HARMONIC DISTORTION: A harmonic is a sinusoidal
component of a periodic wave having a frequency that
is a multiple of the fundamental frequency. Harmonic
distortion from lighting equipment can interfere with
other appliances and the operation of electric power
networks. The total harmonic distortion (THD) is
usually expressed as a percentage of the fundamental
line current. THD for 4-foot fluorescent ballasts usually
range from 20% to 40%. For compact fluorescent
ballasts, THD levels greater than 50% are not
uncommon.
HID: Abbreviation for high intensity discharge. Generic
term describing mercury vapor, metal halide, high
pressure sodium, and (informally) low pressure sodium
light sources and luminaires.
HIGH-BAY: Pertains to the type of lighting in an
industrial application where the ceiling is 20 feet or
higher. Also describes the application itself.
HIGH OUTPUT (HO): A lamp or ballast designed to
operate at higher currents (800 mA) and produce more
light.
HIGH POWER FACTOR: A ballast with a 0.9 or higher
rated power factor, which is achieved by using a
capacitor.
HIGH PRESSURE SODIUM LAMP: A high intensity
discharge (HID) lamp whose light is produced by
radiation from sodium vapor (and mercury).
HOT RESTART or HOT RESTRIKE: The phenomenon
of re-striking the arc in an HID light source after a
Lighting Fundamentals ● Lighting Upgrade Manual
22
momentary power loss. Hot restart occurs when the
arc tube has cooled a sufficient amount.
IESNA: Abbreviation for Illuminating Engineering
Society of North America.
ILLUMINANCE: A photometric term that quantifies light
incident on a surface or plane. Illuminance is commonly
called light level. It is expressed as lumens per square
foot (footcandles), or lumens per square meter (lux).
INDIRECT GLARE: Glare produced from a reflective
surface.
INSTANT START: A fluorescent circuit that ignites the
lamp instantly with a very high starting voltage from the
ballast. Instant start lamps have single-pin bases.
LAMP CURRENT CREST FACTOR (LCCF): The
peak lamp current divided by the RMS (average) lamp
current. Lamp manufacturers require <1.7 for best
lamp life. An LCCF of 1.414 is a perfect sine wave.
LAMP LUMEN DEPRECIATION FACTOR (LLD): A
factor that represents the reduction of lumen output
over time. The factor is commonly used as a multiplier
to the initial lumen rating in illuminance calculations,
which compensates for the lumen depreciation. The
LLD factor is a dimensionless value between 0 and 1.
LAY-IN-TROFFER: A fluorescent fixture; usually a 2' x
4' fixture that sets or “lays” into a specific ceiling grid.
LED: Abbreviation for light emitting diode. An
illumination technology used for exit signs. Consumes
low wattage and has a rated life of greater than 80
years.
LENS: Transparent or translucent medium that alters
the directional characteristics of light passing through it.
Usually made of glass or acrylic.
LIGHT LOSS FACTOR (LLF): Factors that allow for a
lighting system’s operation at less than initial
conditions. These factors are used to calculate
maintained light levels. LLFs are divided into two
categories, recoverable and non-recoverable.
Examples are lamp lumen depreciation and luminaire
surface depreciation.
LIFE-CYCLE COST: The total costs associated with
purchasing, operating, and maintaining a system over
the life of that system.
LOUVER: Grid type of optical assembly used to
control light distribution from a fixture. Can range from
small-cell plastic to the large-cell anodized aluminum
louvers used in parabolic fluorescent fixtures.
● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● February 1997
LOW POWER FACTOR: Essentially, an uncorrected
ballast power factor of less than 0.9 (SEE NPF)
LOW-PRESSURE SODIUM: A low-pressure
discharge lamp in which light is produced by radiation
from sodium vapor. Considered a monochromatic light
source (most colors are rendered as gray).
LOW-VOLTAGE LAMP: A lamp ( typically compact
halogen ( that provides both intensity and good color
rendition. Lamp operates at 12V and requires the use of a
transformer. Popular lamps are MR11, MR16, and PAR36.
LOW-VOLTAGE SWITCH: A relay (magnetically-
operated switch) that allows local and remote control of
lights, including centralized time clock or computer
control.
LUMEN: A unit of light flow, or luminous flux. The
lumen rating of a lamp is a measure of the total light
output of the lamp.
LUMINAIRE: A complete lighting unit consisting of a
lamp or lamps, along with the parts designed to
distribute the light, hold the lamps, and connect the
lamps to a power source. Also called a fixture.
LUMINAIRE EFFICIENCY: The ratio of total lumen
output of a luminaire and the lumen output of the
lamps, expressed as a percentage. For example, if two
luminaires use the same lamps, more light will be
emitted from the fixture with the higher efficiency.
LUMINANCE: A photometric term that quantifies
brightness of a light source or of an illuminated surface
that reflects light. It is expressed as footlamberts
(English units) or candelas per square meter (Metric
units).
LUX (LX): The metric unit of measure for illuminance
of a surface. One lux is equal to one lumen per square
meter. One lux equals 0.093 footcandles.
MAINTAINED ILLUMINANCE: Refers to light levels of
a space at other than initial or rated conditions. This
terms considers light loss factors such as lamp lumen
depreciation, luminaire dirt depreciation, and room
surface dirt depreciation.
MERCURY VAPOR LAMP: A type of high intensity
discharge (HID) lamp in which most of the light is
produced by radiation from mercury vapor. Emits a
blue-green cast of light. Available in clear and
phosphor-coated lamps.
METAL HALIDE LAMP: A type of high intensity
discharge (HID) lamp in which most of the light is
produced by radiation of metal halide and mercury
vapors in the arc tube. Available in clear and phosphor-
coated lamps.
Lighting Fundamentals ● Lighting Upgrade Manual
23
MR-16: A low-voltage quartz reflector lamp, only 2" in
diameter. Typically the lamp and reflector are one unit,
which directs a sharp, precise beam of light.
NADIR: A reference direction directly below a
luminaire, or “straight down” (0 degree angle).
NEMA: Abbreviation for National Electrical
Manufacturers Association.
NIST: Abbreviation for National Institute of Standards
and Technology.
NPF (NORMAL POWER FACTOR): A ballast/lamp
combination in which no components (e.g., capacitors)
have been added to correct the power factor, making it
normal (essentially low, typically 0.5 or 50%).
OCCUPANCY SENSOR: Control device that turns
lights off after the space becomes unoccupied. May be
ultrasonic, infrared or other type.
OPTICS: A term referring to the components of a light
fixture (such as reflectors, refractors, lenses, louvers)
or to the light emitting or light-controlling performance
of a fixture.
PAR LAMP: A parabolic aluminized reflector lamp. An
incandescent, metal halide, or compact fluorescent
lamp used to redirect light from the source using a
parabolic reflector. Lamps are available with flood or
spot distributions.
PAR 36: A PAR lamp that is 36 one-eighths of an inch
in diameter with a parabolic shaped reflector (SEE PAR
LAMP).
PARABOLIC LUMINAIRE: A popular type of
fluorescent fixture that has a louver composed of
aluminum baffles curved in a parabolic shape. The
resultant light distribution produced by this shape
provides reduced glare, better light control, and is
considered to have greater aesthetic appeal.
PARACUBE: A metallic coated plastic louver made up
of small squares. Often used to replace the lens in an
installed troffer to enhance its appearance. The
paracube is visually comfortable, but the luminaire
efficiency is lowered. Also used in rooms with
computer screens because of their glare-reducing
qualities.
PHOTOCELL: A light sensing device used to control
luminaires and dimmers in response to detected light
levels.
PHOTOMETRIC REPORT: A photometric report is a
set of printed data describing the light distribution,
efficiency, and zonal lumen output of a luminaire. This
report is generated from laboratory testing.
● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● February 1997
POWER FACTOR: The ratio of AC volts x amps
through a device to AC wattage of the device. A device
such as a ballast that measures 120 volts, 1 amp, and
60 watts has a power factor of 50% (volts x amps = 120
VA, therefore 60 watts/120 VA = 0.5). Some utilities
charge customers for low power factor systems.
PREHEAT: A type of ballast/lamp circuit that uses a
separate starter to heat up a fluorescent lamp before
high voltage is applied to start the lamp.
QUAD-TUBE LAMP: A compact fluorescent lamp with
a double twin tube configuration.
RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFERENCE (RFI):
Interference to the radio frequency band caused by other
high frequency equipment or devices in the immediate
area. Fluorescent lighting systems generate RFI.
RAPID START (RS): The most popular fluorescent
lamp/ballast combination used today. This ballast
quickly and efficiently preheats lamp cathodes to start
the lamp. Uses a “bi-pin” base.
REFLECTANCE: The ratio of light reflected from a
surface to the light incident on the surface.
Reflectances are often used for lighting calculations.
The reflectance of a dark carpet is around 20%, and a
clean white wall is roughly 50% to 60%.
REFLECTOR: The part of a light fixture that shrouds
the lamps and redirects some light emitted from the
lamp.
REFRACTOR: A device used to redirect the light
output from a source, primarily by bending the waves of
light.
RECESSED: The term used to describe the doorframe
of a troffer where the lens or louver lies above the
surface of the ceiling.
REGULATION: The ability of a ballast to hold constant
(or nearly constant) the output watts (light output)
during fluctuations in the voltage feeding of the ballast.
Normally specified as +/- percent change in output
compared to +/- percent change in input.
RELAY: A device that switches an electrical load on or
off based on small changes in current or voltage.
Examples: low voltage relay and solid state relay.
RETROFIT: Refers to upgrading a fixture, room, or
building by installing new parts or equipment.
ROOM CAVITY RATIO (RCR): A ratio of room
dimensions used to quantify how light will interact with
room surfaces. A factor used in illuminance
calculations.
Lighting Fundamentals ● Lighting Upgrade Manual
24
SELF-LUMINOUS EXIT SIGN: An illumination
technology using phosphor-coated glass tubes filled
with radioactive tritium gas. The exit sign uses no
electricity and thus does not need to be hardwired.
SEMI-SPECULAR: Term describing the light reflection
characteristics of a material. Some light is reflected
directionally, with some amount of scatter.
SHIELDING ANGLE: The angle measured from the
ceiling plane to the line of sight where the bare lamp in
a luminaire becomes visible. Higher shielding angles
reduce direct glare. It is the complementary angle of
the cutoff angle. (See CUTOFF ANGLE).
SNAP-BACK: The potential or real situation where an
energy-efficiency upgrade could be replaced with the
original type of equipment. Installations that are
subject to snap-back are not permanent.
SPACING CRITERION: A maximum distance that
interior fixtures may be spaced that ensures uniform
illumination on the work plane. The luminaire height
above the work plane multiplied by the spacing
criterion equals the center-to-center luminaire spacing.
SPECULAR: Mirrored or polished surface. The angle
of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence. This
word describes the finish of the material used in some
louvers and reflectors.
STARTER: A device used with a ballast to start
preheat fluorescent lamps.
STROBOSCOPIC EFFECT: Condition where rotating
machinery or other rapidly moving objects appear to be
standing still due to the alternating current supplied to
light sources. Sometimes called “strobe effect.”
T12 LAMP: Industry standard for a fluorescent lamp
that is 12 one-eighths (1½ inches) in diameter. Other
sizes are T10 (1¼ inches) and T8 (1 inch) lamps.
TANDEM WIRING: A wiring option in which a ballasts
is shared by two or more luminaires. This reduces
labor, materials, and energy costs. Also called
“master-slave” wiring.
TASK LIGHTING: The lighting, or amount of light,
used for a given task. Task lighting is localized to the
visual task.
THERMAL FACTOR: A factor used in lighting
calculations that compensates for the change in light
output of a fluorescent lamp due to a change in bulb
wall temperature. It is applied when the lamp-ballast
combination under consideration is different from that
used in the photometric tests.
● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● February 1997
TRIGGER START: Type of ballast commonly used
with 15-watt and 20-watt straight fluorescent lamps.
TROFFER: The term used to refer to a recessed
fluorescent light fixture (combination of trough and coffer).
TUNGSTEN HALOGEN LAMP: A gas-filled tungsten
filament incandescent lamp with a lamp envelope made
of quartz to withstand the high temperature. This lamp
contains some halogens (namely iodine, chlorine,
bromine, and fluorine), which slow the evaporation of
the tungsten. Also, commonly called a quartz lamp.
TWIN-TUBE: (SEE COMPACT FLUORESCENT
LAMP)
ULTRA VIOLET (UV): Invisible radiation that is shorter
in wavelength and higher in frequency than visible violet
light (literally beyond the violet light).
WATT (W): The unit for measuring electrical power. It
defines the rate of energy consumption by an electrical
device when it is in operation. The energy cost of
operating an electrical device is calculated as its
wattage times the hours of use. In single phase
circuits, it is related to volts and amps by the formula:
Volts x Amps x PF = Watts. (Note: For AC circuits, PF
must be included.)
WORK PLANE: The level at which work is done and at
which illuminance is specified and measured. For
office applications, this is typically a horizontal plane 30
inches above the floor (desk height).
ZENITH: The direction directly above the luminaire
(180 angle).

UNDERWRITERS’ LABORATORIES (UL): An

independent organization whose responsibilities include
rigorous testing of electrical products. When products
pass these tests, they can be labeled (and advertised)
as “UL listed.” UL tests for product safety only.

VANDAL-RESISTANT: Fixtures with rugged housings,

break-resistant type shielding, and tamper-proof screws.

VCP: Abbreviation for visual comfort probability. A

rating system for evaluating direct discomfort glare.
This method is a subjective evaluation of visual comfort
expressed as the percent of occupants of a space who
will be bothered by direct glare. VCP allows for several
factors: luminaire luminances at different angles of
view, luminaire size, room size, luminaire mounting
height, illuminance, and room surface reflectivity. VCP
tables are often provided as part of photometric
reports.

VERY HIGH OUTPUT (VHO): A fluorescent lamp that

operates at a “very high” current (1500 mA), producing
more light output than a “high output” lamp (800 mA) or
standard output lamp (430 mA).

VOLT: The standard unit of measurement for electrical

potential. It defines the “force” or “pressure” of
electricity.

VOLTAGE: The difference in electrical potential

between two points of an electrical circuit.

WALLWASHER: Describes luminaires that illuminate

vertical surfaces.

Lighting Fundamentals ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● February 1997

25
NOTES:

Lighting Fundamentals ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● February 1997

26
NOTES:

Lighting Fundamentals ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● February 1997

27
GREEN LIGHTS®
A Bright Investment in the Environment
Green Lights is an exciting and innovative program Lighting Fundamentals is one of a series of documents
sponsored by the US Environmental Protection Agency known collectively as the Lighting Upgrade Manual.
(EPA) that encourages major US corporations and Other documents in the Manual are listed below.
other organizations to install energy-efficient lighting
technologies. LIGHTING UPGRADE MANUAL

Organizations that make the commitment to Green Planning

Lights will profit by lowering their electricity bills,
improving lighting quality, and increasing worker ● Green Lights Program
productivity. They will also reduce the air pollution ● Implementation Planning Guidebook
caused by electricity generation. ● Financial Considerations
● Lighting Waste Disposal
For more information, contact the Green Lights ● Progress Reporting
program office. ● Communicating Green Lights Success

Green Lights Program Technical

US EPA
401 M Street, SW (6202J) ● Lighting Fundamentals
Washington, DC 20460 ● Lighting Upgrade Technologies
● Lighting Mainenance
● Lighting Evaluations
Green Lights Hotline ● The Lighting Survey

☎ 1-888-STAR-YES (1-888-782-7937) Appendices

Fax: (202) 775-6680
● Upgrading Tenant Spaces
Green Lights Homepage ● Green Lights for Federal Participants
● Requesting Proposals
www.epa.gov/greenlights.html

☛ To order other documents or

appendices in this series, contact
the Green Lights Hotline at 1-888-
STAR-YES. Look in the Green
Lights Update newsletter for
announcements of new
publications.

Lighting Fundamentals ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● February 1997
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
LIGHTING UPGRADE
TECHNOLOGIES
This document provides brief descriptions of currently
available lighting upgrade technologies, and it lists
common applications and limitations. Many product
variations exist within each technology described; for
application assistance for specific product types,
contact a lighting professional or the ENERGY STAR
Hotline.
At the end of this document are extensive reference
tables for lighting system performance and product
manufacturer information.
FLUORESCENT UPGRADES
Recent advances in lighting technology have created
new opportunities for reducing energy consumption
while enhancing the quality of fluorescent lighting
systems. Select the combination of the following
lighting upgrade approaches that will yield the
maximum energy savings, while maintaining or
improving lighting quality and earning an after-tax
internal rate of return of at least 20%.
Full-Output Electronic Ballasts
Definition
Full-output electronic ballasts are high-frequency
versions of conventional magnetic “core-and-coil”
ballasts. Electronic ballasts operate fluorescent lamps
more efficiently at frequencies greater than 20,000 Hz.
The resulting increase in lamp efficacy, combined with
reduced ballast losses boosts fluorescent system
efficacy by up to 30 percent.
Full-output ballasts are rated with a ballast factor of at
least 0.85 (see definition of ballast factor in the partial-
output electronic ballast section below).
Applications
In nearly every fluorescent lighting system, full-output
electronic ballasts can replace conventional ballasts,
Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program
Air and Radiation EPA 430-B-95-008
6202J September 1998
CONTENTS
Full-Output Electronic Ballasts ................................ 1
Partial-Output Electronic Ballasts ........................... 3
Dimmable Electronic Ballasts ................................. 4
Step-Dimming Electronic Ballasts ........................... 5
Cathode Disconnect (Hybrid) Magnetic Ballasts ..... 5
"Energy Efficient" Magnetic Ballasts ....................... 6
T8 Lamp-Ballast Upgrade ....................................... 6
40W T10 Lamps ..................................................... 7
40W T12 High-Lumen Lamps ................................ 8
Reduced-Wattage T12 Fluorescent Lamp .............. 8
25W T12 Lamps for T8 Ballasts ............................. 8
Delamping .............................................................. 9
Specular Reflectors with Delamping ....................... 9
Fluorescent Power Reducers .................................11
Lens/Louver Upgrade .............................................11
New Efficient Luminaires ........................................12
Deep-Cell Parabolic Luminaires .............................12
Indirect Luminaires .................................................13
Task Lighting with Delamping .................................14
Group Relamping and Cleaning with Delamping ....14
Compact Fluorescent Lamps ..................................15
Compact Halogen Lamps .......................................16
Exit Sign Upgrades .................................................17
LED Traffic Lights ...................................................19
Compact HID Sources ............................................19
Conversion To HID Systems ...................................20
High Performance Metal Halide Systems ...............20
High Bay Compact Fluorescent Luminaires ............21
Reduced-Wattage HID Systems .............................21
HID Power Reducers ..............................................22
Retrofit HID Reflectors ............................................22
Retrofit HPS and MH Lamps ..................................22
Capacitive Switching HID Luminaires .....................23
Occupancy Sensors ...............................................23
Scheduling Controls ...............................................26
Dimming Controls ...................................................28
Daylighting ..............................................................30
SYSTEM PERFORMANCE TABLES ......................32
● September 1998
1
providing similar light output with significant reductions
in energy consumption.
Other advantages are reduced weight, less humming
noise, virtually no flicker, and the capability to operate
up to four lamps at a time.
Although most magnetic ballasts are designed to
operate only two lamps at a time, some electronic
ballasts can simultaneously operate as many as four
lamps. The use of 3- and 4-lamp ballasts instead of 2-
lamp ballasts (where feasible) can yield savings in
material, labor and energy costs, because fewer
ballasts will be required, and because these ballast
systems may be more efficient. In applications with 2-
lamp luminaires, consider “tandem wiring” pairs of two-
lamp systems to share single 4-lamp ballasts. Check
with your ballast supplier to determine the maximum
wire length between lamps and ballast for reliable
operation.
MAGNETIC AND ELECTRONIC BALLASTS
Source: CEC/DOE/EPRI
Qualifications
All types of fluorescent ballasts produce some degree
of total harmonic distortion (THD) which, if severe, has
the potential to interfere with the operation of sensitive
electronic equipment. Harmonic distortion is also
caused my many other types of electronic devices such
as fax machines, printers, computers, and copy
machines. Here are the typical ranges of THD for each
ballast type:
☞ Magnetic: 12 - 30% THD
☞ Hybrid: 12 - 25% THD
☞ Electronic: 5 - 20% THD
Because many utilities have not offered rebates on
electronic ballasts unless the THD is below 20 percent,
nearly all electronic ballasts now meet this criterion.
Some electronic ballasts with integrated circuits
Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program
2
produce less than 5 percent THD. Because electronic
ballasts require reduced current, maintaining the same
percent THD will yield a reduction in the harmonic
current. Therefore, installing low-harmonic
electronic ballasts can significantly reduce the total
harmonic current that exists in a building’s power
distribution system.
HARMONIC DISTORTION
Sine Wave Current
Distorted Current
Current Wave Form
Another factor to evaluate regarding electronic ballasts
is inrush current. Inrush current is the current flow
occurring at the instant the lighting circuit is switched
on. Electronic ballasts that are designed to produce
less than 10 percent THD may cause excessive inrush
current – as high as 35 amps. High inrush current can
damage light switches, occupancy sensors and lighting
control contactors (relays). In some cases, high inrush
current can trip circuit breakers. However, ballasts with
THD between 10 and 20 percent cause inrush currents
in the range of 10-15 amps and do not appear to be
causing problems with switching equipment.
Not all lamps work with all ballasts. For example, T8
lamps (265mA) are designed to work with T8 (265mA)
ballasts, and high-output T12 lamps (800mA) lamps
are designed to work with high-output (800mA)
ballasts. Some electronic ballasts with integrated
circuits can adapt to operate both T8 (265mA) and T12
(430mA) lamp types. Also, lamps with only one
electrical contact at each end require operation with an
instant-start ballast. Check with your lighting consultant
or supplier about compatibility.
There are some rare occasions in which certain high-
frequency ballasts may be incompatible with existing
technologies. For example, some older-technology
occupancy sensor relays may fail when installed on the
same circuit with some electronic ballasts. Check with
your occupancy sensor supplier for compatibility with
specific electronic ballast products. Another system
compatibility problem may occur when electronic
ballasts are installed in a circuit controlled by a high-
frequency power line carrier (PLC) control system.
● September 1998
Finally, electronic ballasts may impair the operation of a
library’s magnetic detector system when installed within
10-15 feet of the detector. Note that the above potential
incompatibility problems can be resolved or avoided,
and they should not be used to disqualify the use of
electronic ballasts in other applications.
Verify input wattage values for your proposed lamp-
ballast combination because manufacturers’ products
will vary in this regard. Lower input wattages will
increase energy savings and profitability, but will
typically decrease light output. Refer to the tables at the
end of this booklet for listings of system wattages,
ballast factors, light output and efficacies of various
lamp-ballast combinations.
Nearly all ballasts are designed to reliably start the lamps
at a minimum ambient temperature of 50°F. Refer to
manufacturer literature regarding minimum starting
temperatures for your specific lamp-ballast combination.
Typical minimum starting temperatures are:
Note that some ballasts can start high-output (800mA)
lamps at temperatures as low as -20°F.
Partial-Output Electronic
Ballasts
Definition
Partial-output (also known as
“low-wattage”) electronic ballasts operate fluorescent
lamps at the same high efficacy as other electronic
ballasts, but with specified reductions in both light
output and energy consumption. The light output from a
ballast operated on a specific lamp is expressed by the
ballast factor (BF). The ballast factor is simply the
percentage of the lamps’ rated lumens that will be
produced by the specified lamp-ballast combination.
Most magnetic ballasts have a ballast factor in the
range of
0.93 - 0.95. Electronic ballasts are available in a wide
range of ballast factors. For example, they can be
purchased with high ballast factor (1.00 - 1.30) to boost
light output, or a low ballast factor could be specified
(0.67 - 0.80) to reduce light output. Full-output
electronic ballasts have ballast factors that exceed a
minimum of 0.85. Most electronic ballast brochures
now list the ballast factor for the various lamp-ballast
combinations that are available.

Lamps Minimum Starting Applications

Temperature
Partial-output electronic ballasts should be used for
34WT12 +60°F minimum minimizing electricity consumption where reduced
60WT12 +60°F minimum illumination is acceptable. The availability of electronic
59WT8 +50°F minimum ballasts with various output quantities enables
other fluorescents +50°F or 0°F specifiers to select ballasts with the appropriate output
that will most closely meet the target light level. There

Performance data for specific name-brand electronic

ballasts can be found in Specifier
Reports: Electronic Ballasts,
Volume 2 Number 3, National
Lighting Product Information
Program, May 1994. The data
tables include listings of system
performance for approximately
200 ballasts in 4-foot and 8-foot
POWER VS. BALLAST FACTOR CURVES FOR TWO-LAMP
FOUR-FOOT FLUORESCENT LAMP-BALLAST SYSTEMS
Source: CEC/DOE/EPRI
To use the graph, locate the curve (A-H) for the lamp-ballast system of interest. Draw a vertical line from the
cited input power to that curve. Draw a horizontal line from that point to the vertical axis to find the ballast
factor for that lamp-ballast system. It is essential that the input power cited by the manufacturer be
measured under standard ANSI test conditions.

fluorescent applications. Also, *Note: This graph is applicable only for two-lamp four-foot systems; other lamp-ballast systems will differ.

refer to Specific Reports A 32W F32T8 IS electronic ballast

B 32W F32T8 RS elect. ballast
Supplements published in 1995 C 34W F40T12 RS elect. ballast
D 40W F40T12 RS hts. cut. ballast
and 1996. E 32W F32T8 RS magnetic ballast
F 40W F40T12 RS elec. ballast
BALLAST FACTOR (%)

G 34W F40T12 RS mag. ballast

H 40W F40T12 RS mag. ballast

POWER (WATTS)

Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● September 1998

3
are several applications where the use of reduced-
wattage electronic ballasts will result in maximum
energy savings and improved lighting quality:
★ Task/Ambient Lighting: By providing task lights
at office work stations, the illumination required
from the overhead lighting system is significantly
reduced. In some cases, delamping alone will not
reduce light levels to the 20-30 footcandles
recommended for the ambient component of a
task/ambient lighting system. Reduced-output
electronic ballasts can lower the light level while
improving visual comfort (through reduced
luminaire brightness or glare).
★ Alternative to Delamping: Particularly with
parabolic louver luminaires, delamping can result in
unfavorable luminaire appearances. The use of
reduced-wattage electronic ballasts can maintain
uniform brightness across the entire luminaire
aperture while providing the appropriate amount of
illumination on task surfaces.
★ Replacing 34-Watt Fluorescent Lamps:
Conventional “energy-saver” 34W T12 lamps
(which are reduced-output lamps) and magnetic
ballasts can be replaced with 32W T8 lamps and
partial-output electronic ballasts (with BF = 0.70-
0.75) to achieve comparable light levels.
★ New Luminaire Layouts: Where ceiling heights
are low and where low levels of illumination are
specified, wider spacing of luminaires is needed to
achieve the target illumination. In some cases, the
required luminaire spacing with full-output ballasts
will be so great that non-uniform illuminance will
result. Reduced-wattage ballasts can provide the
target illuminance without exceeding the luminaire’s
spacing criterion.
Because reduced-wattage electronic ballasts reduce
energy consumption with little or no premium cost
compared to standard-wattage electronic ballasts,
BOTH energy savings and internal rate of return (IRR)
will be increased. For example, the cost of a .73 BF
reduced-wattage ballast is comparable to that of a full-
output electronic ballast.
Qualifications
The same qualifications that apply to full-output
electronic ballasts also apply to partial-output electronic
ballasts.
When specifying partial-output electronic ballasts,
choose rapid-start ballasts which maintain cathode
voltage during low-current operation, thereby
preserving rated lamp life.
Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program
4
Dimmable Electronic Ballasts
Definition
Dimmable electronic ballasts are specifically designed
to vary the light output of a fluorescent luminaire based
on input from a light sensor, manual dimmer, time
clock, or occupancy sensor. Most dimmable ballasts
are equipped with two additional low-voltage control
leads that receive the signal directly from the controlling
device. Other ballast designs receive the dimming
signal over the line-voltage circuit.
Although most controllable ballasts are available only in
the 2-lamp configuration, 3-lamp controllable ballasts
have been introduced, which lower the material costs
needed for dimming 3-lamp luminaires.
Applications
Daylight dimming is one of the most popular and cost-
effective applications of controllable electronic ballasts.
Other applications include lumen maintenance control,
manually-operated dimming, and occupancy-sensed
dimming. When more than one control device is used
to control ballast output (such as a photosensor with an
occupancy sensor), an integrated load controller is
needed to determine the appropriate signal to send to
the ballasts. For more information about dimming
controls, refer to the controls section in this booklet.
Qualifications
The controlling devices — photosensors, occupancy
sensors, dimmers, etc. — must be compatible with the
controllable electronic ballast. Check with the
manufacturers to verify compatibility.
Harmonic distortion for most controllable electronic
ballasts is very low due to the use of integrated circuit
technology. Although harmonic distortion does increase
as the lamps are dimmed, the total harmonic distortion
typically remains under 20 percent, even in low-current
conditions.
Due to higher ballast losses, dimming electronic
ballasts may draw 5-10 percent more energy at full light
output than non-dimming electronic ballasts. A typical
2-lamp T8 dimming ballast may draw 64-65 watts at full
output, compared to 58-62 watts for non-dimming
instant-start or rapid-start T8 electronic ballasts.
At 20 percent of full light output (maximum dimming for
many controllable ballast designs), the system efficacy
drops from about 84 lumens per watt to about 58. Yet,
this 80 percent reduction in light output is produced with
a 70 percent reduction in power.
● September 1998
Lamp life is not appreciably affected because the
ballasts maintain cathode voltage when dimming.
When calculating energy cost savings expected from a
dimming system, take into account the specific electric
demand charge and rate structure; some rate schedules
include a ratcheted demand charge that could delay or
reduce cost savings resulting from reduced peak
demand.
For independently measured performance data for
specific dimming electronic ballasts, refer to Specifier
Reports: Dimming Electronic Ballasts, 1995,
National Lighting Product Information Program.
Step-Dimming Electronic Ballasts
Definition
A low-cost method for providing occupants with a
choice of light levels is to install electronic ballasts with
“step-dimming” capabilities. Depending on the ballast
design, users may select up to five different light levels
from their wall switch. Some of these light-level
switching ballasts can be controlled by the user with a
hand-held remote control. To limit user control over light
levels, some ballast designs allow the installer to adjust
the light output by changing a setting directly on the
ballast. Another alternative is to install bi-level (or tri-
level) switching electronic ballasts that preserve the
dual-switching capability in most modern office spaces,
while keeping all the lamps uniformly illuminated.
Applications
Some types of 2-lamp and 3-lamp light-level switching
ballasts can be controlled from manual switches
without requiring additional wiring. Other step-dimming
ballasts will respond to signals delivered by low-voltage
wiring. A 4-lamp ballast is also available that provides
inboard/outboard switching capability.
Where dual switching systems currently control 3-lamp
or 4-lamp fixtures, it may not be economical to replace
both of the fixture’s ballasts with fixed-output electronic
models to maintain the existing dual switching
configuration. An alternative would be to tandem-wire
4-lamp ballasts to replace pairs of 2-lamp ballasts, and
tandem-wire 2-lamp ballasts to replace pairs of 1-lamp
ballasts (in 3-lamp fixtures). However, the added labor
cost for tandem-wiring may exceed the added cost of
installing only one light-level switching ballast per
fixture.
Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program
5
Qualifications
Although step-dimming is an economical way to adjust
light levels, occupants may prefer continuous dimming
for establishing their preferred light level or for providing
daylight-dimming control.
To protect your investment in step-dimming ballasts,
provide employee education about the proper light level
settings based on their visual tasks and their visual
capabilities.
A low-cost alternative to the light-level switching ballast
is the parallel-wired, fixed-output electronic ballast. The
parallel wiring allows maintenance staff to lower light
levels by selectively removing one or more of the lamps
while the remaining lamps remain illuminated. Check
with the ballast manufacturer regarding possible
adverse effects resulting from operating the four-lamp
ballast without its full complement of lamps. In addition,
determine if the appearance of partially delamped
fixtures will be acceptable.
Cathode-Disconnect (Hybrid)
Magnetic Ballasts
Definition
Cathode-disconnect ballasts consist of standard,
energy-efficient magnetic ballasts that incorporate
electronic components that disconnect power to the
cathodes (filaments) after the fluorescent lamps are lit,
resulting in an additional energy savings of about 8%
with T12 lamps and about 13% with T8 lamps.
Applications
Suitable for all 2-lamp magnetic ballast applications for
4-foot T8, T10 or T12 rapid-start fluorescent lamps. In
addition, there are hybrid magnetic ballasts now
available for 8-foot high-output (800mA) T12 lamps.
Hybrid magnetic ballasts are 15-25% less expensive
and nearly as efficient as 2-lamp rapid-start electronic
ballasts. However, greater energy and material cost
savings can be realized using instant-start electronic
ballasts or 3- and 4-lamp rapid-start electronic ballasts
where applicable.
In applications where electromagnetic interference
(EMI) from electronic ballasts is a potential problem (in
the immediate vicinity of very sensitive electronic
equipment), hybrid magnetic ballasts should be
considered. Both electronic and hybrid ballasts pass
the FCC requirements for EMI, but total EMI is lower
with hybrid ballasts.
● September 1998
Qualifications
Hybrid T12 ballasts are manufactured as either full-
output ballasts or partial-output ballasts. The partial-
output hybrid ballasts consume about the same
wattage as T12 electronic ballasts, but produce about
10 percent less light output. Full-output T12 and T8
hybrid magnetic ballasts are available that produce light
output that is comparable to either standard magnetic
ballasts or full-output electronic ballasts. Refer to the
ballast charts at the end of this booklet for wattages
and relative light output data.
Because hybrid ballasts do not provide cathode heating
during lamp operation, they should not be used in any
panel-level dimming applications.
Hybrid ballasts operate at 60 Hz and can potentially
produce the same hum and flicker problems caused by
conventional low-frequency ballasts.
At present, all hybrid magnetic ballasts for 40W T12
and 32W T8 lamps are only available in the 2-lamp
configuration.
For maximum efficiency and energy savings, consider
installing instant-start electronic ballasts or 3- and 4-
lamp rapid-start electronic ballasts as alternatives. For
example, the 4-lamp T8 electronic ballast produces
approximately 87 lumens per watt (maintained),
compared to 80 lumens per watt for the 2-lamp T8
cathode-disconnect ballast.
For independently measured performance data for
specific name-brand hybrid ballasts, refer to Specifier
Reports: Cathode-Disconnect Ballasts, Volume 2
Issue 1, June 1993, National Lighting Product
Information Program.
“Energy-Efficient” Magnetic
Ballasts
Definition
These ballasts are premium versions of the older
standard magnetic “core-and-coil” ballasts. As of April
1992, the Federal Appliance Standard prohibited the
issue of the older magnetic ballasts, making “energy-
efficient” magnetic ballasts the new standard for
magnetic ballast production. These are, by the way, the
least energy-efficient ballasts that you can buy to
operate full-size fluorescent lighting systems!
Applications
All magnetic ballast applications for full-size fluorescent
lamps.
Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program
6
Qualifications
Energy-efficient magnetic ballasts may have the lowest first
cost, but they have the highest operating cost. Other more
efficient ballast options exist, such as electronic or hybrid
magnetic ballasts.
FLUORESCENT LAMP UPGRADES
T8 Lamp-Ballast Upgrade
Definition
The T8 lamp-ballast system has the highest efficacy of any
fluorescent system — up to 90 lumens per watt when used
with a 4-lamp electronic ballast.
Applications
T8 lamps have the same medium bipin bases of T12 lamps,
allowing them to fit into the same sockets. T8 lamps operate
on a reduced current (265mA) and, therefore, must be
operated using a ballast that is designed for T8 lamp
operation. T8 lamps are available in 2', 3', 4', 5', and 8'
straight tubes, and 2' U-tubes with either the standard 6" leg
spacing now available for retrofit, or the 1 5/8" leg spacing
for new applications. Recently, T8 lamp/ballast systems
have been introduced for replacing 8' 800mA high-output
(HO) fluorescent systems.
All T8 lamps use tri-phosphor coatings that improve color
rendering performance. T8 fluorescent lamps are generally
available in two versions of color rendering: A thin
triphosphor coat produces a color rendering index (CRI) in
the 70s, and a thick triphosphor coat produces a CRI in the
80s (see definition of CRI in the glossary of the
Fundamentals chapter). Standard “cool-white” lamps have a
CRI of 62. When using T8 lamps, specify lamps with a CRI
of 82-85 to yield maximum efficacy and improved color
rendering. (Note, however, that special T8 lamps with a CRI
over 90 will sacrifice efficiency to achieve such unusually
high color rendering.) The use of triphosphor coatings not
only improve color rendering and boost efficacy, they reduce
lumen depreciation over the lamp’s life, resulting in further
increases in overall system performance.
NOTE: “Advanced” T8 lamps are now available that provide
higher CRI, longer life, and less lumen depreciation. These
advanced T8 lamps have a CRI of 86, rated life of 24,000
hours (compared 20,000 for a standard T8), and only five
percent lumen depreciation compared to 10 percent for
standard T8 lamps.
Refer to the performance tables at the end of this
document for comparative data on light output, color
rendering and system efficacy.
● September 1998
Qualifications
Because converting to T8 lamps requires new ballasts,
the cost of new ballasts should be included in the
project cost estimate. Consider installing electronic T8
ballasts for maximum efficiency.
Although T8 lamps are classified as rapid-start lamps,
electronic ballasts can be designed to start these lamps
in either the rapid-start or instant-start mode. There is a
trade-off to consider when choosing between rapid-
start and instant-start T8 electronic ballasts: T8 lamps
operating on instant-start ballasts will produce about 6
percent more lumens per watt (more efficient), but may
result in a reduction in lamp life. The amount of lamp
life reduction depends on how frequently the system is
switched on and off: At 3 hours per start, the lamp life
reduction is 25 percent, but at 12 hours per start, the
reduction is negligible. In most cases, the financial
advantage of using the more efficient instant-start
ballasts more than offsets the costs associated with
reduced lamp life. However, when occupancy sensors
will be used and frequent switching is expected,
consider using rapid-start ballasts. Use the ProjectKalc
analysis software to determine the effects of lamp life
and efficiency on the total financial return.
For more information, refer to Lighting Answers: T8
Fluorescent Lamps, Volume 1 Issue 1, National
Lighting Product Information Program, April 1993. This
document provides general performance information
about T8 fluorescent systems.
40W T10 Lamps
Definition
The T10 lamp is a high-efficiency, high lumen output
(approx. 3700 initial lumens) F40 fluorescent lamp. The
use of T10 lamps instead of standard 40-watt cool-white
T12 lamps will increase light levels approximately 20
percent. The efficacy of the T10 lamp is comparable to
that of a T8 lamp, assuming both types of lamps are
Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program
7
operating on an electronic ballast. (T10 efficacy is a little
greater than a 75 CRI T8 system, but less than an 85
CRI T8 system; refer to the tables at the end of this
section).
Applications
T10 lamps may be used with conventional T12 ballasts.
(Note that T9 lamps are also available from one
manufacturer that are compatible with both T12 and T8
ballasts, but the efficacy and light output values are
less than dedicated T12 or T8 systems.)
Because T10 lamps have a color rendering index of 80
or more, they can improve the color rendering quality of
the lighting system.
T10 lamps are currently available as straight four-foot
lamps.
T10 lamps are commonly used for increasing light
levels, usually after strategically removing one or more
lamps from a multi-lamp luminaire and/or installing
reflectors.
Another benefit of T10 lamp use is that they are rated
to last 24,000 hours — 20 percent longer than most T8
and T12 lamps.
1 inch
1 inch
1 inch
T-8
Diameter
1 1/4 inch
T-10
1 1/2 inch
1 1/2 inch
1 1/2 inch
T-12
Rapid Start and Instant-Start High Output (HO)
Preheat Lamps (Slimline) Lamps Rapid Start Lamps
Qualifications
Although they are advertised as 40W lamps, they actually
consume 42 watts. This added current may increase
ballast temperature which could affect ballast life.
Conduct a trial installation to see the effect of the
increased light output from these lamps. Remember to
allow the lamps to “burn in” for 100 hours before
measuring initial light levels. Refer to Lighting Evaluations
for more guidance regarding trial installations.
● September 1998
For more information, refer to Lighting Answers: T10
and T9 Fluorescent Lamps, National Lighting Product
Information Program, Volume 2, Number 4, June 1995.
40W T12 High-Lumen Lamps
Definition
These high-lumen triphosphor lamps are an alternative
to T10 lamps for increasing light output and providing
high color rendering. There are two versions of this
unique T12 lamps: the 82 CRI lamps produce about 14
percent more light with no increase in energy
consumption compared to standard cool-white 40-watt
lamp; the 73 CRI lamps produce about 11 percent more
light than standard cool-white 40-watt lamps. Although
other triphosphor T12 lamps exist, these lamps utilize
improved triphosphors to boost light output by about 7
percent over other triphosphor 40-watt lamps with the
same CRI.
The high-lumen T12 lamps are available in both 40-
watt and 34-watt versions.
Applications
High-lumen T12 lamps should be used where both an
increase in light output and improved color rendering
(CRI 70-82) are desired. In addition, these lamps have
a rated life of 24,000 hours (as compared with the
standard 20,000-hour life).
Qualifications
To achieve efficacies comparable to electronic T8 or
T10 systems, operate high-lumen T12 lamps with
electronic ballasts.
Reduced-Wattage T12 Fluorescent
Lamps
Definition
The 34-watt “energy-saver” fluorescent lamp is
essentially a standard 40-watt fluorescent lamp that is
filled with an argon-krypton gas mixture (rather than
just argon) that causes the lamp to draw only 34 watts.
Similar reduced-wattage versions exist to replace the
following eight-foot lamps:
● 60W vs. 75W slimline
● 95W vs. 110W high-output (HO/800mA)
● 185W vs. 215W very-high-output (VHO/1500mA)
Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program
8
Applications
These lamps may be used to replace standard T12
lamps in spaces that are currently over-illuminated.
This retrofit produces about 19 percent in energy
savings and about a 19 percent reduction in light
output. No ballast upgrades are required when
converting to the energy-saver lamps.
Qualifications
Although the unit wattage is reduced, the resulting light
output is also reduced. In addition to a lower rated
lumen output, these lamps will lower the ballast factor
from 94 to 87 when used with magnetic ballasts. The
combination of these effects results in about a 19
percent reduction in light output. In 4-foot applications,
energy-saver lamps do not increase the system
efficacy; however, 8-foot enrgy-saver lamps do
increase the system efficacy.
The 34W and 60W energy-saver lamps cannot be
dimmed as easily as standard 40W and 75W T12
lamps, and they are more sensitive to temperature. The
minimum starting temperature of 34W and 60W
energy-saver lamps is 60°F. In addition, energy-saver
lamps should not be used with preheat ballasts.
For maximum energy savings and efficiency in four-foot
commercial applications, consider installing T8 or T10
lamps with electronic ballasts as an alternative. Refer to
the lamp-ballast tables at the end of this section for listings
of system wattages, ballast factors, lumen outputs, and
system efficacies of various lamp-ballast systems.
25W T12 Lamps for Use with
T8 Electronic Ballasts
Definition
One manufacturer produces 25-watt T12 lamps
specifically for use on T8 electronic ballasts. The
F25T12 lamp will reduce light levels by about 20
percent and energy consumption by about 17 percent
when replacing F32T8 lamps operating on a full-output
electronic T8 ballast. Initial rated lumens are 2300, the
CRI is 72, and lamps are available in color
temperatures of 3000K, 3500K, and 4100K.
Applications
These lamps enable users to correct overlit conditions
which may result from installing full-output 32-watt T8
systems in place of 34-watt T12 systems. This simple
lamp replacement is a far more economical approach
to adjusting T8 system light levels than replacing the
full-output T8 ballasts with partial-output ballasts. The
● September 1998
light levels produced by a system using 25-watt T12
lamps with a full-output T8 electronic ballast is
approximately equal to that of a system using 34-watt
T12 lamps with an energy-efficient magnetic ballast.
Qualifications
Although this retrofit will reduce light levels to that of a
34-watt energy-saver T12 system, this upgrade is
subject to potential “snap-back,” meaning that
subsequent system relamping with 32-watt T8 lamps
could result in lost energy savings and a return to
unnecessarily high light levels. Snap-back can be
avoided through proper maintenance practices and
ongoing training of maintenance personnel.
FLUORESCENT LUMINAIRE
UPGRADES
Delamping
Definition
Delamping is simply the removal of one or more lamps
from a luminaire.
Applications
Two approaches to delamping may be used:
☞ Uniform delamping for reducing light levels
throughout the space
☞ Task-oriented delamping to place more light directly
in the work area and less light in the circulation
areas
Relocating lamps so that they are centered on each
half of the luminaire will improve light output and
distribution, and will result in a more acceptable
upgrade appearance.
Delamping may be combined with the use of higher
output lamps, reflectors, lens upgrades, luminaire
cleaning, and task lighting to minimize light output
reduction.
In general, light levels are reduced in proportion to the
number of lamps removed. However, in enclosed
luminaires, delamping will result in a 5-10 percent
increase in efficacy due to the cooler operating
temperature and reduced lamp shadowing that results.
Depending on ambient temperature, delamping an open
strip luminaire may either increase or decrease efficacy.
Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program
9
Qualifications
If the remaining lamps are not relocated, the
appearance of a delamped luminaire may not be
acceptable.
Ballasts used for operating the removed lamps should
be disconnected and removed from the luminaire. In
addition, removing the unused sockets will prevent
“snap-back” (re-installing lamps where they have been
removed).
Delamping may not be feasible in series-wired two-
lamp luminaires where the removal of one lamp
extinguishes the other lamp. In such cases, consider
installing partial-output (low ballast factor) electronic
ballasts to operate both lamps at reduced wattage and
reduced output.
Specular Reflectors with Delamping
Definition
Luminaire efficiency can be improved by 17 percent or
more by removing one or more lamps and installing a
specular “mirror-like” reflector in the luminaire behind
the lamps. (Efficiency can be improved by more than
17 percent when reflectors are installed in older
luminaires where the finish is dull or has deteriorated.)
Applications
Typically, the remaining two lamps in a 2’x4' luminaire
are relocated to positions centered on each side of the
luminaire for maximum utilization of the reflector. This
enhances light output and distribution and will result in
a more acceptable luminaire appearance.
The National Lighting Product Information Program
measured the increase in luminaire efficiency achieved
by specular reflectors in 2-lamp luminaires and
reported the following average results:
Reflector Material Boost in Illumination
new white reflector: base case
anodized aluminum reflector: 5 percent increase
enhanced aluminum reflector: 15 percent increase
silver film reflector: 17 percent increase
The three factors that have the greatest affect on a
reflector’s ability to improve luminaire efficiency are:
☞ reflector material
☞ reflector design (shape)
☞ efficiency of the base luminaire
Because it may be too expensive to replace older
luminaires that have a dull or deteriorated finish, retrofit
● September 1998
reflectors can be one of the most economical means
for restoring the efficiency of an older luminaire.
As an alternative to specular reflectors, white reflector
retrofits are available that can improve an older
luminaire’s efficiency while maintaining the original light
distribution. These white reflectors can be significantly
less expensive than specular reflectors.
All ballasts used for operating the removed lamps
should be disconnected in order to save additional
energy.
Reflectors may be combined with installation of higher
output lamps, ballasts and/or improved lenses to
minimize light output reduction (and in some cases,
increase light output).
To maintain the increase in luminaire efficiency that
results from a specular reflector installation, reflector
surfaces should be cleaned at regular intervals.
Another application of specular reflectors is to modify a
2x2 luminaire by removing the two F40 U-lamps and
installing a 2-lamp or 3-lamp UL-classified conversion
to 2-foot 17-watt T8 lamps, electronic ballast, and
specular reflector. This retrofit should be considered in
applications where light output reductions are
acceptable, yielding savings of over 60 percent.
Qualifications
When installing reflectors and using 50 percent of the
original lamps in 2’x4' troffers, maintained light levels
are typically reduced by 30-45 percent (this assumes
comparable conditions of luminaire dirt and lamp age).
If existing luminaires show some surface deterioration
(reduced efficiency that cleaning can’t improve),
reductions in light output resulting from installing
reflectors and delamping will be lessened. To assess
the performance of specular reflectors in your facility,
set up a trial installation to compare the lighting in a
room with clean, delamped luminaires to one with
Without Reflector
Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program
10
reflectors installed. (See Lighting Evaluations for
specific procedures to follow for conducting a
photometric evaluation both before and after a trial
installation.)
Even a well-designed reflector may affect light
distribution. Although it is possible to design reflectors
that maintain the luminaire’s original spacing criteria,
most retrofit reflectors tend to concentrate the light
distribution downward (refer to the glossary in Lighting
Fundamentals for definition of spacing criteria). Although
this concentration can reduce glare and brightness, it
can also reduce the uniformity of illuminance throughout
the space. To verify the reflector performance, install a
trial installation and measure the variation of light levels
at points directly underneath the luminaires compared to
points between luminaires. Alternatively, ask your
supplier for photometric data and check the values for
spacing criteria.
If lamps need to be relocated or if the reflector is being
used as part of an electrical enclosure, specify only UL-
classified reflectors and accessories that include
installation instructions for your specific luminaire’s
make and model.
Check the design for accessibility to the ballast
compartment.
Differences between manufacturers’ reflector designs
and materials can cause wide variations in reflector
performance. For independently measured
performance data for specific name-brand reflectors,
refer to Specifier Reports: Specular Reflectors,
Volume 1 Issue 3, National Lighting Product Information
Program, July 1992.
With Reflector
● September 1998
Fluorescent Power Reducers
Definition
Power Reducers (also called “current limiters”) are
retrofit devices for fluorescent (and high-intensity
discharge) luminaires that reduce light output with a
nearly corresponding reduction in power consumption.
(See high-intensity discharge (HID) upgrades section
for discussion of HID power reducers.)
Applications
Most power reducers are designed to achieve a pre-set
light output reduction — and energy savings — of 20,
33, or 50 percent. In addition, power reducers extend
magnetic ballast life by reducing ballast operating
temperature.
Power reducers enable light-output reductions as an
alternative to delamping. They may be preferred to
delamping in applications involving 2-lamp series-wired
systems where the removal of one lamp will also
extinguish the other lamp.
Power reducers may be installed directly inside the
ballast compartment or installed as a companion lamp.
The use of the companion lamp design is discouraged
because it can be easily removed from the luminaire,
eliminating future energy savings.
For maximum energy savings and efficiency in
fluorescent systems, however, consider partial-output
electronic ballasts as an alternative.
Qualifications
Power reducers do not improve the inherent efficacy of
the lamp-ballast system. However, due to the
relationship between operating temperature and
fluorescent efficacy, slight increases in efficacy may
result with power reducers installed in enclosed
luminaires.
Power reducers may not be used with electronic
ballasts.
2-FOOT X 4-FOOT TROFFER SHIELDING MEDIA
Shielding Material Efficiency Range (%)
Standard Clear Lens
Low-Glare Clear Lens
Deep Cell Parabolic Louver
Translucent Diffuser
White Metal Louver
Small Cell Parabolic Louver
Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program
Some power reducers increase total harmonic
distortion in rapid-start systems to over 32 percent,
which is considered an unacceptable level by most
building engineers, utility companies, and ANSI. In
addition, some power reducers can increase the lamp
current crest factor to over 1.7 in rapid-start systems,
which can void some lamp warranties. Check with the
manufacturers of your lamps and ballasts to determine
if the installation of power reducers will have any effect
on their warranties.
Consider performing two comparative trial installations:
Install power reducers and compare their measured
performance against partial-output electronic ballasts.
Verify that the resultant light levels will be satisfactory.
Refer to Lighting Evaluations regarding trial
installations.
Not all power reducers perform identically. For
independently measured performance data for specific
name-brand power reducers, refer to Specifier
Reports: Power Reducers, Volume 1 Issue 2,
National Lighting Product Information Program, March
1992.
Lens/Louver Upgrade
Definition
Luminaire efficiency can be significantly improved by
replacing inefficient or deteriorated shielding materials.
Clear acrylic lenses provide maximum efficiency, and
new “low-glare” clear lenses provide this high efficiency
AND good glare control. Deep-cell parabolic louvers
also provide a good combination of efficiency and glare
control.
Applications
The least efficient glare shielding materials — such as
translucent diffusers or small-cell louvers — should be
replaced with either clear acrylic lenses or large-cell
parabolic louvers.
To determine impacts on visual comfort (glare control
capability), refer to the product’s Visual Comfort
Probability (VCP) data or perform a trial installation.
VCP Range (%)
60-80 50-70
60-80 75-85
50-75 75-99
40-60 40-50
40-60 65-85
40-65 99
● September 1998
11
Visual comfort is improved when light emitted at higher
angles is shielded.
Qualifications
Smaller cell parabolic louvers (2" or smaller cells)
provide high visual comfort (>90) but reduce efficiency.
Similarly, low glare tinted lenses also sacrifice efficiency
in order to achieve high visual comfort.
If sufficient plenum space is available above the ceiling
grid, deep-cell parabolic louver upgrades can be
installed in many kinds of existing fluorescent
luminaires. Alternatively, consider installing new deep-
cell parabolic louver luminaires or retrofit with low-glare
clear lenses.
New Efficient Luminaires
Definition
Instead of upgrading individual luminaire components,
consider the labor savings and quality improvements
that may be achieved by replacing existing luminaires
with new luminaires that feature high-efficiency
components such as T8 lamps, electronic ballasts,
deep-cell parabolic louvers, and optional daylight-
dimming controls.
Applications
Conditions that enhance the cost-effectiveness of new
luminaires include:
★ where multiple luminaire component replacements
are considered (new lamps, ballasts, reflectors,
lenses, etc.)
★ where deep-cell parabolic louvers or indirect
lighting systems are desired for combined
efficiency and glare control
★ where the space will be remodeled or the luminaire
locations will be changed
New luminaires should be considered in offices where
computers are used. Luminaires in these areas should
provide shielding of high-angle light which cause
objectionable reflections in VDT screens, especially in
large, open offices. The Illuminating Engineering
Society (IES) has published their Recommended
Practice No. 1 (RP-1) which addresses appropriate
methods for lighting offices containing computer visual
display terminals. Luminaires that meet the preferred
glare shielding criteria of RP-1 have the following
luminance (brightness) limits at specific angles.
Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program
12
Viewing Angle Maximum Luminance
(preferred criteria)
>55° 850 cd/m2
>65° 350 cd/m2
>75° 175 cd/m2
Qualifications
Before installing new luminaires, ask a lighting designer
to verify the correct number and spacing of the
luminaires based on published photometric data and
the desired illumination level.
Deep-Cell Parabolic Luminaires
Definition
Deep-cell parabolic luminaires provide large-width
louver cells (4-7 inches) to allow the light to efficiently
exit the luminaire while providing glare shielding for
high visual comfort. The vertical surfaces of these
louvers are parabolic in shape, thereby eliminating any
light loss resulting from interreflection within the louver.
Applications
Deep-cell parabolic luminaires are generally preferred
in modern commercial spaces and particularly where
visual display terminals are in use. Although the
efficiency of deep-cell parabolic luminaires is typically
less than that of lensed fixtures, the coefficient of
utilization for the highest performing deep-cell
luminaires may exceed that of standard lensed troffers.
This advantage can be achieved by deep-cell
luminaires that feature a “full chamber” design that
aligns the parabolic louvers with a parabolic contour
behind each lamp. More light is directed toward the
visual task, and less light is absorbed by the walls in
the room.
Typical Three-Lamp Parabolic Troffer
Source: CEC/DOE/EPRI
● September 1998
Qualifications
To achieve a high coefficient of utilization and high
visual comfort, deep-cell parabolic luminaires may
cause shadows to appear on the upper sections of
walls, creating the “cave effect.” This aesthetic concern
can be addressed with the use of accent lighting (e.g.,
wall sconces or wall-washers) or indirect luminaires
(see below).
Indirect Luminaires
Definition
Indirect luminaires distribute at least 90 percent of the
emitted light upwards to reflect off the ceiling, providing
uniform, diffuse lighting on ceilings, walls, and tasks.
Because the light sources are completely shielded from
the view of occupants, indirect systems provide
relatively high visual comfort. Compared with direct
lighting systems, indirect lighting can create the illusion
of a more spacious and pleasant environment because
ceilings and walls are uniformly illuminated.
Applications
Indirect fluorescent lighting is an excellent application
for offices with computers. Indirect luminaires provide a
uniform lighting distribution on the ceiling and walls.
This helps to eliminate the distracting glare of light
sources on display screens. Properly installed, indirect
luminaires meet the performance criteria of IES RP-1
for illuminating spaces with personal computers (see
section above).
Indirect Luminaire
Pendant Mounted
Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program
13
Another common application for indirect lighting is in
partitioned spaces. Because the light reflected off the
ceiling is more diffuse than light from direct systems,
shadowing effects caused by the partitions are
reduced.
Indirect luminaires are usually suspended from the
ceiling, although some luminaires are available that can
be directly mounted on systems furniture. Indirect
lighting can also be used with compact fluorescent task
lights for an energy-efficient task/ambient lighting
system.
The combined use of both direct and indirect lighting
can create a pleasing aesthetic effect. The direct
lighting system can provide the needed ambient
illumination in the interior area of a large space, while
the indirect luminaires provide perimeter illumination
and wall washing. Some purely indirect systems have
been described as “washed out” or “bland” without the
contrast-enhancing qualities of direct lighting. Also,
consider the use of “direct/indirect” luminaires that
provide both uplighting and downlighting from
suspended luminaires.
Qualifications
Indirect systems yield a slightly lower workplane lumen
efficacy (workplane lumens per system watt) than direct
systems utilizing the same lamp-ballast combination.
However, upgrading to a more efficient lamp-ballast
combination can offset this decrease in efficacy.
A highly reflective ceiling is a must for indirect systems.
Workplane lumen efficacy will significantly decline when
ceiling reflectances are below 80 percent. In addition,
walls should have a high reflectance (at least 50
percent reflectance).
Luminaire dirt depreciation is of major importance for
successful indirect lighting systems. Indirect lighting
systems are more susceptible to dirt depreciation
because dust will settle on the lens or inside surfaces.
Regular cleaning is strongly recommended to minimize
the effects of dirt depreciation.
When installing indirect luminaires, mount them
according to manufacturer’s specifications. The correct
suspension distance is critical for indirect lighting
system performance. If the sources are mounted too
close to the ceiling, the resulting “hot-spots” will cause
unwanted glare on computer screens. Suspending the
luminaire too far from the ceiling will decrease the
efficiency of the system.
Because indirect systems need to be suspended below
the ceiling, areas with low ceilings may be
unacceptable. In such areas, consider installing indirect
systems that are specifically designed with a wide
lighting distribution lateral to the lamp axis. User
● September 1998
acceptance should first be evaluated in a trial
installation.
Most indirect systems are installed in new construction
and renovations, although retrofit indirect lighting kits
are available. Indirect lighting is generally more
expensive than direct systems, but check with local
suppliers and contractors for installed costs in your
area.
Task Lighting with Delamping
Definition
Significant energy savings and lighting quality
improvements can be achieved by providing light
sources at specific task locations while reducing
ambient (overhead) lighting. The 50 footcandles that
are normally needed for typical reading and writing
tasks can be achieved with a task light that provides at
least 25-30 footcandles and an ambient lighting system
that provides only about 20-30 footcandles. Compact
fluorescent task lighting with delamping increases
visual comfort, saves energy, and provides users with
greater control over their workstation illuminance.
Applications
“Task/ambient” lighting designs are best suited for
office environments with significant VDT usage and/or
where modular furniture can incorporate task lighting
under shelves. In other cases, desk lamps may be
used to provide task illumination. Task lighting should
also be incorporated into industrial applications such as
inspection, assembly, and machine operation.
In most workplaces, a wide variety of visual tasks need
to be performed. In addition, workers have varying
visual capabilities and preferences. Task lighting can
enhance user acceptance of the lighting system
because task lights can be adjusted to provide higher
levels of illuminance where the user chooses. In
situations where older workers require higher light
levels, an additional task light could be provided.
Qualifications
Energy savings result when the energy saved from
reducing the ambient lighting load exceeds the added
energy used for the task lights. In some cases, the use
of incandescent task lights may add more load than
can be eliminated from the ambient lighting system.
Compact fluorescent task lights are very efficient
sources for task lighting.
Non-adjustable task light strips that are permanently
mounted under cabinet shelves can cause reflected
Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program
14
glare on work surfaces. To reduce reflected glare,
specify compact fluorescent task lights that allow users
to position the light to the side of the task.
When adding task lights, consider the electrical loads
added to your distribution system. Be careful not to
overload the amperage rating of your building circuits.
For more guidance on the use of task lighting, refer to
Lighting Answers: Task Lighting for Offices,
Volume 1 Number 3, April 1994, National Lighting
Product Information Program.
Group Relamping and Cleaning
with Delamping
Definition
Relamping and cleaning luminaires according to a
schedule determined by lamp life, lumen depreciation
characteristics, and ambient dirt conditions. Refer to
Lighting Maintenance for a complete discussion of
group relamping and cleaning.
Applications
Periodic group relamping and cleaning will significantly
improve luminaire efficiency and reduce maintenance
costs. The resulting increased light output from properly
maintained luminaires may justify delamping, using
current limiters, using partial-output electronic ballasts,
or relamping with reduced-output lamps.
Qualifications
Group relamping and cleaning makes the most sense
in the following situations:
✓ high or remote fixture mounting locations
✓ dirty environments
✓ 800mA and 1500mA 8' fluorescent systems
✓ uniform hours of lighting operation
✓ retail, where aesthetics are important
● September 1998
INCANDESCENT UPGRADES
Wherever feasible, alternatives to the use of incandescent
lamps should be pursued. With recent advances in
compact fluorescent and halogen lamps, the continued
use of standard incandescent lamps is difficult to justify.
Compact Fluorescent Lamps
Definition
Compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) are an energy-
efficient, long-lasting substitute for the incandescent
lamp. They are available in a wide variety of
configurations beyond the most common twin-tube,
quad-tube, and triple-twin-tube configurations. CFLs
can be purchased as self-ballasted units or as discrete
lamps and ballasts. Several retrofit adapters are
available for convenient retrofit in existing incandescent
sockets. Most CFL products are now manufactured
with electronic ballasts which provide 20 percent higher
efficacies as well as instant-starting, reduced lamp
flicker, quiet operation, smaller size, and lighter weight.
Screw-In Compact Fluorescent
Source: CEC/DOE/EPRI
Applications
CFLs may be used in a variety of incandescent
applications including downlights, surface lights,
pendant luminaires, task lights, compact troffers,
sconces, exit lights, step lights, and flood lights. Over
the past couple years manufacturers have introduced
CFLs that are designed to fit in the same physical
space as an A-19 and A-21 incandescent lamp. These
small size CFLs allow for upgrades to table lamps and
small incandescent luminaires.
Qualifications
Because compact fluorescent lamps are not point
sources (like incandescents or HID lamps), CFLs are
not as effective in projecting light over distance. The
light output from a CFL is much more diffuse, and
lumens easily stray from the intended target in
Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program
15
directional lighting applications. As such, these lamps
may not be suitable in high-ceiling downlighting
applications (ceilings higher than 15') or where tight
control of beam spread is necessary. Note, however,
that improvements in CFL reflector design are
introduced each year. Perform a trial installation to
verify CFL performance in high-ceiling areas.
Compact fluorescents are available in a wide range of
color temperatures from 2700K to 5000K allowing the
lamps to be used in a variety of applications. With the
introduction of 2700 and 3000K CFLs in small and large
sizes, almost every incandescent application can be
upgraded with a CFL and still have the same look and
“warmth” of an incandescent lamp.
Dimmable CFLs are available as part of a new
luminaire installation and also as a retrofit. Complete
fixtures are available that contain a dimmable CFL with
a dimming ballast usually mounted on the exterior of
the fixture (not as an integral part of the lamp). Retrofit
dimmable CFLs are also available to be used on
existing incandescent dimming circuits. Conference
rooms with incandescent downlights are an excellent
application for retrofit dimmable CFLs. Note: standard
non-dimmable CFLs should not be installed on a
dimming circuit due to risk of fire.
Some CFLs have difficulty starting when the ambient
temperature drops below 40°F, while others are
designed to start at temperatures below freezing. Refer
to manufacturer specifications.
The light output of CFLs is significantly reduced when
used in luminaires that trap heat near the lamp or when
exposed to cold temperatures. However, when a
mercury amalgam is included in the lamp’s chemistry,
the light output at temperature extremes is typically
within 85 percent of maximum.
In addition, the orientation of the lamp can also
significantly affect lumen output. Depending on the
lamp design and ambient temperature, the light output
in the base-down orientation may be up to 15 percent
less than in the base-up position. Trial installations are
recommended before purchasing large quantities.
Common Compact Fluorescent Lamp
Types
Source: CEC/DOE/EPRI
● September 1998
Most lamps operating on magnetic ballasts require one to
three seconds to start and rise to full output. Where
instantaneous lighting is required, use compact fluorescent
electronic ballasts or T5 rapid-start lamp-ballast systems.
Integral Modular
Some compact fluorescent systems with electronic
ballasts may be incompatible with occupancy sensors
that utilize solid-state switches (triacs) instead of air-gap
switches or relays. In these situations, the occupancy
sensor may not function with electronically-ballasted
lamps unless a ground wire is available. Check with your
occupancy sensor supplier to verify compatibility.
The total harmonic distortion (THD) from most
magnetically ballasted compact fluorescents is in the
range of 15-25 percent. However, the THD from
electronically ballasted compact fluorescents can be
significantly higher. When using a relatively large number
of electronically ballasted compact fluorescent lamps on
a circuit, consider specifying “low-harmonic” electronic
ballasts which produce less than 32 percent THD.
To achieve the compact size and low cost of compact
fluorescent ballasts, many are produced with a normal
power factor (NPF) rating. This causes the ballast to
draw more current (amps), but not more energy (watts),
than the high power factor type. When using a large
number of NPF ballasts in a given location, consult your
utility representative or a professional engineer to
evaluate the impact of power factor on your utility bill.
For independently measured performance data for
specific name-brand CFLs, refer to Specifier Reports:
Screwbase Compact Fluorescent Lamp Products,
Volume 1 Issue 6, April 1993, and the Update Specifier
Reports on Screwbase Compact Fluorescent Lamp
Products published in 1994 and 1995, National Lighting
Product Information Program. In addition, a Specifier
Report on CFL downlights was published in 1995.
Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program
16
Compact Halogen Lamps
Definition
Compact halogen lamps consist of a small tungsten-
halogen capsule lamp within a standard lamp shape
similar to PAR lamps or general service A-type lamps.
These lamps are adapted for use as direct
replacements for standard incandescent lamps.
Halogen lamps are more efficient, produce a whiter
light, and last longer than conventional incandescent
lamps.
Applications
As a general rule, compact halogen lamps should be
considered for replacing incandescents wherever the
more efficient compact fluorescents would not be a
better choice. (See the qualifications listed under CFLs
above.) Compact halogen lamps can be dimmed, their
performance is independent of temperature and
orientation, they project light efficiently over long
distances, and they present no power quality or
compatibility concerns.
Cut-Away View Showing
Tungsten-Halogen Capsule
Within a PAR Lamp
Source: CEC/DOE/EPRI
The best applications are in accent lighting and retail
display lighting, especially where tight control of beam
spread is necessary. Other good applications include
high-ceiling downlighting and “instant-on” floodlighting.
The use of specially-designed reflectors or an optional
infrared (IR) coating applied to the halogen capsule can
increase the efficacy of this light source by about 35
percent. Both PAR lamps and general service A-lamps
are now manufactured using this thin film technology.
● September 1998
Compact halogen lamps may be used in full-range
dimming applications, but constant dimming below 35
percent of full light output may reduce lamp life and efficacy.
Qualifications
Lamps with optional diodes (for improving lamp optics)
can flicker and have adverse effects on dimming and
power quality. Most manufacturers, however, have
eliminated diodes from their lamp designs.
Due to their lower efficacy, compact halogen lamps
should not be used in applications where compact
fluorescent lamps would serve satisfactorily.
Although quartz capsules allow emissions of ultraviolet
(UV) light, most compact halogen lamps are equipped
with a glass cover or enclosure that blocks nearly all of
the UV emissions. Note however that some compact
halogen task lights, low-voltage halogen lamps, and
linear quartz lamps may not be equipped with adequate
UV protection.
For independent performance test results for a wide
variety of halogen and compact fluorescent reflector
lamps, refer to Specifier Reports: Reflector Lamps,
Volume 3 Number 1, October 1994, National Lighting
Product Information Program.
Exit Sign Upgrades
Definition
Exit sign upgrades offer the potential for huge
reductions in energy and maintenance costs. The
following light sources should be considered for
replacing up to 40 watts of incandescent power
consumption per exit sign:
Retrofit
✓ light-emitting diode (LED)
✓ low-wattage incandescent assembly
✓ compact fluorescent
New Exit Signs
✓ light-emitting diode (LED)
✓ electroluminescent
✓ tritium or self-luminous
✓ compact fluorescent
Applications
All emergency exit signs should illuminate 24 hours per
day and be able to continue operation in the event of a
power failure. Significant energy savings can be
Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program
17
achieved by simply replacing or upgrading the exit
signs with low-energy models.
Common to all retrofit kits are adapters that screw into
the existing incandescent sockets to make installation
simple. However to avoid snap-back, retrofit kits are
available for hard-wire installation. Whatever
connection methods are used, installation is relatively
easy, usually taking fifteen minutes or less per sign.
Of the retrofit options, light-emitting diode (LED)
sources are the most energy efficient — only consuming
two to five watts per exit sign kit. Combined with the
extremely long rated life of LED sources, this option is
one of the most economical retrofits based on life-cycle
cost. One version of the LED retrofit consists of a pair of
LED strips that adhere to the side panels of the exit sign
enclosure. Alternatively, a simple screw-in LED “lamp” is
available, consisting of a series of LEDs encased in a
glass housing.
Another low-cost retrofit solution is the incandescent
assembly which is a series of low-voltage, low-wattage,
long-life incandescents that can be assembled in a
variety of configurations such as a luminous rope or
cluster. These devices simply screw into the existing
incandescent sockets.
Although compact fluorescent lamps have been
recommended for years as an energy-efficient retrofit
for exit signs, their lamp life and efficacy are exceeded
by the LED, EL, and low-wattage incandescent
technologies discussed above.
Several choices exist for purchasing new exit signs
with consumption of less than 5 watts. Among these
choices, tritium or self-luminous sources are the most
energy efficient, consuming no electricity. Note,
however, that the spent tritium tubes must be disposed
of as a radioactive waste. Other new fixture choices
include LED, electroluminescent, and compact
fluorescent.
● September 1998
To determine the most financially attractive exit sign
upgrade, consider all of the costs that will occur during
the life cycle, including installation, energy, maintenance,
and disposal. The table below compares new fixture and
retrofit options to an incandescent base case. Note that
for new fixtures and retrofits, LED sources generally
yield the highest net present value (NPV) or net profit.
Use ProjectKalc and your specific financial assumptions
to determine the life-cycle “net present value” of the
benefits of replacing incandescents with one of these
energy-efficient exit sign technologies. (See Financial
Considerations for more information about financial
analysis.)
Qualifications
Check with local building codes for accepted
emergency exit sign illuminance options and accepted
retrofit sources. Note that some exit sign technologies
(such as electroluminescent) may not produce the
required brightness during the entire life of the light
source.
Verify that your new exit sign complies with
Underwriters Laboratory Standard UL 924 and that your
illumination sources are U.L. listed for use in your exit
sign. To maintain the U.L. listing of retrofitted exit signs,
use only UL-classified retrofit kits that are designed for
your specific exit sign.
LED retrofit lamps and kits should not be used in panel-
type exit signs (those with a single translucent panel
where the word “exit” and the background are
luminous). The red or green color of the LED source
will distort the true color of the panel exit sign face,
causing a reduction in letter contrast (visibility). Use
only white sources in panel exit signs.
Reliability is of utmost importance for exit signs. For
example, sources with a shorter life are more likely to
be burned out when needed in an emergency situation.
Of all the new technologies, LED sources have the
longest rated life. Most claims state that LED sources
will last 80 years, although some manufacturers claim a
rated life of 25 years for their retrofit products. Self-
luminous and electroluminescent sources also have
relatively long life spans.
Note that the light output of electroluminescent light
sources depreciates significantly over time. Request
information about the lumen depreciation performance
of the electroluminescent product that you are
considering, and evaluate whether the maintained light
output will be acceptable.

Exit Sign Technologies

Typical Performance

Source Typical Life Replacement Annual Annual Upgrade

Wattage (yrs) Source Energy Maint. Cost
Cost ($) Cost ($)
New Fixtures
Incandescent 40 0.8 lamp 28.00 19.50 N/A
CFL 10 2 lamp 7.00 9.5 90.00
Electroluminescent 1 10 light panel 0.70 20.50 200.00
Self Luminous (Tritium) 0 10-20 tube console 0 10.50 247.00
LED 2-5 25+ circuit board 3.50 0 90.00
Retrofit Light Sources
Reduced Wattage Incan. 8-18 10 light tube 5.60 4.00 30.00
CFL 10 2 lamp 7.00 9.50 30.00
LED 2 25+ LED kit 2.80 0 35.00
Note: Material, labor, energy costs and lamp performance can vary. Contact local suppliers for specific prices and performance data.

ASSUMPTIONS
● One-sided exit
● Ten year life used for tritium signs
● Maintenance costs based on materials and labor for source replacement on a spot relamping basis
● $0.08 per kWh, labor=$20 per hour
● Upgrade cost includes labor and materials
● Based on 1998 price data

Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● September 1998

18
Since tritium is radioactive, expired tritium tubes must
be recycled or disposed of as radioactive waste. To
insure proper disposal of the luminous tubes,
manufacturers will label an address on the tube
console that specifies where to send it for recycling
(and purchase of replacement tubes).
For more technical information, as well as
independently measured performance data for specific
name-brand exit signs, refer to Specifier Reports: Exit
Signs, Volume 2, Issue 2, National Lighting Product
Information Program, January 1994; Specifier Reports
Supplements: Exit Signs, March 1998
LED Traffic Lights
Definition
Instead of using high-wattage incandescent lamps in
traffic signals, consider the new light-emitting diode
(LED) traffic lights. Using over 85% less energy and
lasting about five times longer than incandescents
(about 44,000 hours), LED traffic lights can yield rapid
financial returns for municipalities. Each “solid” LED
traffic light consists of 400 to 700 LEDs; other
configurations include directional arrows and pedestrian
“hands.” Typical solid-red and solid-yellow LED traffic
lights can be purchased for $100-$150 per lamp. Solid-
green can cost up to $400 per lamp.
Applications
Red lights operate for more hours per year than green or
yellow. (The average red light operates an average 60%
of the time or nearly 5,300 hours per year.) In addition,
some red traffic lights are larger and higher wattage than
the other lights. For these reasons, about 85 percent of
the potential energy savings from LED sources in traffic
lights can be achieved by replacing the red lights.
Red Red
Incandescent LED
150W 25W
150W 10W
75W 12W
Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program
19
The application with the greatest energy savings is
replacing a 150-watt red incandescent directional arrow
with a 9-watt red LED arrow. Other wattage
comparisons are listed in the diagram below.
Limitations
Check with state vehicle codes for acceptance of LED
traffic signals.
Verify that the LED light is compatible with the signal’s
controller. Some controllers may interpret the low-
current condition of LED operation as a lamp “failure”
and could switch the signal to a flashing-red mode.
Compact HID Sources
Definition
New manufacturing methods have produced low-
wattage (<100-watt) versions of metal halide and high
pressure sodium lamps.
Applications
Primarily intended for new construction or remodeling
applications, compact high-intensity discharge (HID)
lamps are point sources which lend themselves to
projection and floodlight applications as well as general
illumination.
Qualifications
All metal halide lamps are susceptible to lamp-to-lamp
color differences and color shift over life.
Compact “white” high pressure sodium lamps offer
improved color rendering (80-85 CRI) compared to
standard HPS lamps, but after their “color life,” the color
quality becomes similar to standard HPS lamps (25
CRI). In addition, the maintained efficacy of white high
pressure sodium systems is only 22-27 lumens per watt.
All HID lamps require warm-up and restrike periods, so
frequent switching installations should not utilize these
lamps.
For independent performance test results for HID
accent lighting systems, refer to Specifier Report: HID
Accent Lighting Systems, October 1996 (Volume 4
Number 2).
● September 1998
HID UPGRADES advantage of the different light distribution
characteristics of HID luminaires.

Qualifications
The primary method for improving the efficiency of high-
intensity discharge (HID) systems is to replace the light
The selection of the HID luminaire should be based on
source with a more efficacious system. Other retrofit
the following criteria that pertain to the task:
options include reduced-wattage HID lamps, retrofit
reflectors, HPS lamps for mercury ballasts, and bi-level
☞ color rendering quality
HID luminaire switching.
☞ efficiency
☞ lamp life
☞ lumen maintenance
Conversion to High-Efficiency ☞ light distribution
HID System Refer to Lighting Fundamentals for a complete
discussion of these characteristics.
Definition

Existing high-bay or outdoor lighting systems that use

incandescent, mercury vapor, or (in some cases)
fluorescent lamps, may be replaced with metal halide
(MH), high pressure sodium (HPS), or low pressure
sodium (LPS) systems. These retrofits normally include
a complete luminaire replacement, including the lamp,
ballast and optical assembly. Refer to Lighting
Fundamentals for a complete discussion of these
lamps and their characteristics.
Applications
The most cost-effective upgrades involve replacing less
efficient sources such as incandescent, HO/VHO
fluorescent, or mercury vapor with MH, HPS, or LPS
systems. This may involve a one-for-one luminaire
replacement or a new layout of luminaires to take
High Performance Metal Halide
Systems
Definition
For maximum efficacy (lumens/watt), consider the new high-
performance pulse-start metal halide lamp/ballast systems.
Pulse-start systems can achieve up to a 30 percent increase
in maintained efficacy because of a change in the
construction of the lamp’s arc tube. The starting electrode
normally used in a typical metal halide lamp is eliminated; a
higher voltage pulse is supplied to the lamp using a special
igniter in the ballast. The result is reduced lamp lumen
depreciation. Some manufacturers have taken advantage
of the removal of the starting electrode and redesigned the
shape of the lamp’s arc tube to further increase efficacy.

Lamp Construction In addition to improved efficacy and reduced lamp lumen

Source: DOE: CEC/DOE/EPRI depreciation, other benefits of 'pulse-start metal halide
systems include up to 60 percent reductions in lamp warm-
up and restrike times, as well as improved color consistency.
Restrike time for pulse-start MH is 2-4 minutes
Support
and Lead
Wires
Applications
Starting
Resistor Support
Wire
Starting To convert to this system, both the lamp and the ballast
Electrode Sodium + must be replaced. SuperCWA, regulated lag, and
Mercury
Operating linear reactor type ballasts are available to operate
Electrode Arc Tube pulse-start lamps. Pulse-start lamps and ballasts are
Niobium available from several manufacturers in wattages from
(Columbium) 150 to 400.
or Ceramic Plug

Arc
Tube
Tungsten Electrode Pulse start lamps are excellent for interior and exterior
applications. The increased color quality and shorter
Outer
Bulb
restrike characteristics lend the lamps to be practical
for warehouses, gymnasiums, exterior lighting, indoor
stadiums, and retail. For the most efficacious pulse-
start system, specify a linear reactor ballast. A 350-
Metal Halide High Pressure Sodium

Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● September 1998

20
watt lamp on a linear reactor ballast (375 system watts)
will provide comparable light levels to a 400-watt
standard MH system (460 system watts).
Limitations
Although linear reactor pulse-start systems are the
most efficacious they may be sensitive to voltage dips.
In areas with frequent voltage dips consider using a
regulated lag pulse-start system that can withstand a
50 percent voltage dip. SuperCWA pulse-start systems
are good for a variety of general lighting applications
but do not have the energy savings of a linear reactor
system.
High-Bay Compact Fluorescent
Luminaires
Definition
Compact fluorescent luminaires designed for relatively
high mounting heights (up to 30'). Using large, specially
designed reflectors, these luminaires typically house six
to nine compact fluorescent lamps (either T4 quad-tube
or T5 twin-tube).
Applications
The unique characteristics of compact fluorescent
operation provide the following advantages of compact
fluorescent luminaires over standard high-intensity
discharge systems:
★ instant-on (no warm-up time)
★ instant-restrike
★ multiple light levels
★ high color rendering
★ high efficacy
Multiple light levels are provided by separately
switching each of the 2-lamp or 3-lamp ballasts within
the luminaire. Using a photosensor, the proper light
output level can be determined automatically. The
instant-on and instant-restrike performance allows for
automatic on/off control using occupancy sensors.
Typical applications for these luminaires include sports
arenas/gymnasiums, auditoriums, and warehouse
aisles. The diffuse nature of fluorescent lighting
increases the percentage of illuminance on vertical
surfaces — an important consideration in
manufacturing, warehousing, retail, and sport lighting.
Qualifications
Although compact fluorescent sources are relatively
efficient in terms of lumens per watt, they are not as
Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program
21
optically efficient has HID sources for directing light
over long distances. To verify that the high-bay compact
fluorescent luminaires will produce the required
footcandles on the floor, ask for the luminaire’s
photometric data which tabulates the coefficient of
utilization values for a variety of room geometries and
room surface reflectances. In general, these luminaires
will perform better in rooms with ceilings that are
relatively low compared to the room length and width;
they should not be considered for use in rooms with
ceilings that are high in proportion to the room’s length
and width. Have a lighting specifier perform illuminance
calculations for your specific application, based on
independently measured photometric data. Do not rely
on simplified lighting performance tables because they
may not take into account the size and shape of the
room in which the luminaires are to be located.
Reduced-Wattage (Energy-Saver)
HID Systems
Definition
Reduced-wattage metal halide and high-pressure
sodium systems are available that reduce energy
consumption by up to 18 percent with corresponding
reductions in light output. These upgrade technologies
are available as reduced wattage retrofit lamps.
Applications
“Energy-saver” versions of metal halide and high
pressure sodium lamps are available in 225-watt and
360-watt packages for directly replacing 250-watt and
400-watt lamps. In addition, 150-watt metal halide
energy-saver lamps are available for replacing the 175-
watt lamp.
Qualifications
In most cases, the reduced-wattage energy-saver
lamps will also cause a corresponding reduction in light
output. However, if a "universal-position" metal halide
lamp is replaced with a "position-specific" energy-saver
lamp (e.g., vertical base-up), then the light output would
be comparable. A simple trial installation is suggested
in order to compare the light output and quality of these
new lamps. Remember to correct for lamp lumen
depreciation when comparing the old and new lamps.
Refer to Lighting Maintenance for a complete
discussion of lamp lumen depreciation effects.
● September 1998
HID Power Reducers Qualifications

The installation of retrofit reflectors may alter the lighting

Definition
distribution from your existing HID luminaires. When
evaluating a trial installation, check for uniformity of
Power reducers (also called “current limiters”) are
illuminance, visual comfort (glare), illuminance on
retrofit devices for high-intensity discharge (and
vertical surfaces, color shift, and aesthetic effects such
fluorescent) luminaires that reduce light output with a
as darkness of ceilings and walls.
nearly corresponding reduction in power consumption.
(See fluorescent upgrades section for discussion of
fluorescent power reducers.)
HPS and MH Lamps for Use on
Applications Existing Mercury Ballasts
Power reducers are designed to achieve a pre-set light
Definition
output reduction — and energy savings — of 20 or 25
percent. In addition, power reducers extend HID ballast
High pressure sodium (HPS) and metal halide (MH)
life by reducing ballast operating temperature. They
lamps are available that can be used in place of
should be considered as economic alternatives to panel-
specific wattages of mercury vapor lamps, without
level HID system dimming (see controls upgrades
requiring a ballast change.
section) if variable control of light output is not needed.

Qualifications Applications

These lamps provide an inexpensive means for

Power reducers are typically designed to work only with
the more common CWA ballasts and HID lamp
wattages of at least 175 watts. Lamp types that can be
controlled include mercury vapor, metal halide, and
high-pressure sodium.
Check with the manufacturers of your lamps and
ballasts to determine if the installation of power
reducers will have any effect on their warranties.
Trial installations are suggested to verify that light
output reductions and energy savings are acceptable.
Refer to Lighting Evaluations for guidance in
performing and evaluating trial installations.
Retrofit HID Reflectors
Definition
Conventional HID reflectors can be retrofit or replaced
with specular or clear reflectors in order to enhance
luminaire efficiency.
Applications
significantly improving light output while saving up to 16
percent in energy consumption in existing mercury
vapor luminaires.
Note that several manufacturers produce specially
designed metal halide lamps that will operate on
existing HPS ballasts for improving color rendering (65-
70 vs. 22), but causing light output reductions of 33-50
percent.
Qualifications
Make sure that any retrofit lamp under consideration is
UL-listed. Verify that the socket rating is compatible
with the new lamp type.
Contact the manufacturer for a list of mercury ballast
types for which their retrofit lamps are compatible.
For greater energy savings and wattage selection,
consider replacing the mercury vapor luminaire with a
new high-pressure sodium or metal-halide luminaire.
Conduct a trial installation to determine if resultant light
levels and visual comfort will be acceptable.

In relatively clean environments, retrofit HID reflectors
can increase illuminance on task surfaces without
increasing energy consumption. In overlit situations, the
efficiency improvement may allow some of the
luminaires to be removed or de-energized. In addition,
proper applications of retrofit reflectors can reduce glare.
For typical performance information, refer to the system
performance tables included at the end of this booklet.
Note that the actual wattage and lumen performance
will vary depending on the specific mercury ballast that
is used.

Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● September 1998

22
Capacitive Switching HID
Luminaires (Bi-Level)
Definition
Capacitive switching (or “bi-level” or “hi/lo”) HID
luminaires are designed to provide either full light output
or partial light output based on inputs from occupancy
sensors, manual switches, or scheduling systems.
Capacitive-switched dimming can be installed as a
retrofit to existing luminaires or, more commonly, as a
direct luminaire replacement. Capacitive switching HID
upgrades can be less expensive than installing a panel-
level variable voltage control to dim the lights, especially
in circuits with relatively few luminaires. In addition, it
allows for control of individual luminaires, rather than
entire circuits.
Applications
The most common applications of capacitive switching
are occupancy-sensed dimming in parking lots, athletic
facilities, and warehouse aisles. General purpose
transmitters can be used with other control devices
such as timeclocks and photosensors to control the bi-
level luminaires.
Upon sensing motion, the occupancy sensor will send a
signal (by powerline carrier, fiberoptic cable, or low-
voltage wire) to the bi-level HID system that will rapidly
bring the light levels from a standby reduced level to
about 80 percent of full output, followed by a short
warmup time between 80 percent and 100 percent of
full light output.
Depending on the lamp type and wattage, the standby
lumens are roughly 15-40 percent of full output and the
standby wattage is 30-60 percent of full wattage.
Therefore, during periods that the space is unoccupied
and the system is dimmed, energy savings of 40-70
percent are achieved. Utility cost savings can be even
greater depending on demand charges and time-of-use
rates.
Qualifications
Lamp manufacturers do not recommend dimming
below 50 percent of the rated input power. Check with
your lamp supplier to determine whether the bi-level
system will affect your lamp warranty.
For more information about continuous and bi-level HID
dimming systems, refer to Lighting Answers:
Dimming Systems for High-Intensity Discharge
Lamps, Volume 1 Number 4, September 1994,
National Lighting Product Information Program.
For a case study, order EPA’s Application Profile –
HID Bi-Level Switching , October 1996.
Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program
23
OCCUPANCY SENSORS
Reducing watts represents only half of the potential for
maximizing energy savings. Reducing operating hours
through automatic controls is the other half. Occupancy
sensors are cost-effective devices that can ensure that
the lights are energized only when occupants are
present.
OVERVIEW
Occupancy sensors save energy by automatically
turning off lights in spaces that are unoccupied. When
motion is detected, the sensor activates a control
device that turns on the luminaires. If no motion is
detected within a specified period of time, the lights are
turned off until motion is sensed again.
Occupancy sensors are suitable for a very wide range
of lighting control applications and should be
considered in every upgrade decision. Occupancy
sensors may be installed to provide on/off control of
incandescent or fluorescent loads as well as bi-level
control of capacitive-switching HID luminaires (that idle
in a low-output mode during periods of unoccupancy).
Refer to the HID upgrades section for a complete
discussion of capacitive switching HID luminaires.
Most occupancy sensors have adjustable settings for
both sensitivity and time delay. The sensitivity setting
allows the user to fine tune the sensor for the activities
that occur in the space to ensure that normal motion is
detected without triggering responses to extraneous
signals. The time delay setting refers to the amount of
time that elapses with no motion detected before the
luminaires are turned off. The time delay prevents the
luminaires from switching off during intervals when
people are actually in the room, but move too little or
too slowly to be detected by the sensor.
Some occupancy sensors provide daylight switching
with their occupancy switching control. A trial
installation is recommended to assess user acceptance
of this technology.
● September 1998
 Wallbox Occupant Sensors
Source: CEC/DOE/EPRI
MOUNTING LOCATIONS
Occupancy sensors are available in both ceiling-
mounted and wall-mounted versions, utilizing either
infrared or ultrasonic sensing technologies. In addition,
workstation occupancy sensors have entered the market
for automatically controlling workstation loads such as
task lights, computer monitors, printers, and radios.
Wall-Mounted Sensors
Common applications for wall-mounted sensors include
separately switched areas such as conference rooms,
classrooms, individual offices, and storage rooms. Because
these devices are mounted in existing light switch locations,
check the coverage pattern provided by the sensor to see if
it will adequately detect motion throughout the room. In
addition, verify that the type of motion in the space will be
detected, given the sensor type and location (see
discussion of infrared and ultrasonic technologies below). In
addition to the “automatic-on/automatic-off” occupancy
sensors, other control options that are available with wall-
mounted sensors include:
Manual-On/Automatic-Off
These sensors must be switched on manually to
energize the luminaires; the unit automatically turns off
the luminaires when motion is no longer detected.
Two-Level
For retrofit of dual switching systems (with two switches
providing two levels of light), the user has the option to
manually select either a “half-on” or “full-on” setting on
the occupancy sensor.
Daylight Switching
These sensors can be calibrated to turn off the lights
when ambient light levels reach a desired target. Some
sensors will not allow the lights to turn off due to
daylight contribution when occupants are present.
Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program
24
Ceiling-Mounted Occupant Sensors
Source: CEC/DOE/EPRI
Ceiling-Mounted Sensors
Ceiling-mounted sensors should be used in areas
where wall-mounted switches would be inadequate,
such as corridors, rest rooms, open office areas,
warehouse aisles, and spaces where objects obstruct
the coverage of a wall-mounted sensor. These sensors
are usually wired to a separate control module and one
or more relays that perform the actual switching
function in the ceiling plenum. Multiple sensors and
lighting circuits can be controlled by one control
module, but manufacturers specify a maximum
distance between the sensors and the control module
for reliable operation. Ceiling-mounted sensors are
available in a variety of detection patterns to provide
flexibility in mounting locations. With ceiling-mounted
sensors in place, existing wall switches may be used to
turn off the lights while occupants remain in the space.
MOTION SENSING TECHNOLOGIES
The two most common motion-sensing technologies
used in occupancy sensors are passive infrared
technology and ultrasonic technology. Either technology
can be housed in ceiling-mounted or wall-mounted
sensors. Some manufacturers combine these two
technologies into one product, which is referred to as a
hybrid or dual technology sensor. In addition, one
manufacturer has introduced a dual-technology sensor
that uses an infrared sensor and a microphonic (sound)
sensor.
Passive Infrared Sensors
Passive infrared (PIR) sensors respond to motion
between horizontal and vertical cones of vision defined
by the faceted lens surrounding the sensor. As an
occupant moves a hand, arm, or torso from one cone
of vision to another, a positive “occupancy” signal is
generated and sent to the controller. Because these
● September 1998
cones of vision radiate from the sensor, a greater range
of motion is required at a greater distance in order for
the sensor to detect motion. Most PIR sensors are
sensitive to hand movement up to a distance of about
10 feet, arm and upper torso movement up to 20 feet,
and full-body motion up to about 40 feet. Note that the
PIR sensors require an unobstructed view of the motion
and are much more sensitive to motion occurring
perpendicular to the line-of-sight to the sensor.
Because infrared sensors require direct line-of-sight to
the moving object, they will not perform properly in
spaces where furniture, partitions, or other objects are
between the sensor and the occupant.
Ultrasonic Sensors
Ultrasonic sensors emit and receive high-frequency
sound waves in the range of 25-40 kHz, well above the
range of human hearing. These waves reflect off
objects and room surfaces, and the sensor measures
the frequency of the waves that return to the receiver. If
there is motion within the space, the frequency of the
reflected waves will shift slightly; the change is detected
by the receiver and the luminaires are turned on.
Although ultrasonic sensors do not always require
direct line-of-sight to detect motion, the space must be
enclosed and must include hard surfaces for the
reflected waves to eventually return to the receiver.
Ultrasonic sensors are much more sensitive to
movement directly toward or away from the sensor,
compared to lateral movements.
QUALIFICATIONS
Occupancy sensors — when properly specified,
installed, and adjusted — should provide reliable
operation of lighting systems during periods of
occupancy and should not disrupt normal business
activity. Most causes of failed occupancy sensor
installations can be linked to improper product selection
and placement. By following the guidelines below, your
occupancy sensor installation should provide significant
energy savings.
Use professional services
The specification and placement of occupancy sensors
should be performed by an experienced professional to
ensure adequate occupancy sensing coverage.
Occupancy sensor systems must be “tuned” after
installation. This involves adjusting sensitivity and time
delay settings as appropriate for the space. Most
suppliers offer this post-installation service. As part of
your agreement with your supplier, require a minimum
24-hour response time to address occupant complaints
that may arise after the sensors have been installed
and tuned. In some cases, the placement of sensors
Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program
25
may need to be adjusted to provide reliable coverage.
Select products with adequate
coverage areas
Specifiers should pay particular attention to the
coverage area which defines the physical limits of the
sensor’s ability to detect motion. Most occupancy
sensor manufacturers publish their coverage areas for
the maximum sensitivity setting, although this may not
be clearly stated in the product literature. In some
cases, more than one occupancy sensor may be
required in a space to extend the coverage area, as in
the case of a large open office area.
Design sensor installations to avoid
false signals
Both infrared and ultrasonic sensors are susceptible to
activation by false signals.
False Signals for Ultrasonic Sensors
Ultrasonic sensors can be activated by vibrations
(which, for example, may be caused by the starting of
an air conditioner). Also, ultrasonic sensors can be
activated by moving air and should not be used in
areas where strong air currents exist. Ceiling-mounted
ultrasonic sensors should be located away from
ventilation diffusers.
False Signals for Infrared Sensors
Infrared sensors may be located in positions that allow
the sensor to have line-of-sight into an adjacent
corridor which could keep lights on unnecessarily. By
applying a masking material to the appropriate facets of
the PIR sensor’s lens, this potential problem can be
avoided. In addition, a mirrored image or direct sunlight
may provide a signal to the PIR sensor that a space is
occupied.
Select infrared or ultrasonic technologies
based on room geometry and activities
Infrared
★ Requires line-of-sight; may not work well where
partitions may block direct viewing of occupants
★ Magnitude of required motion is directly
proportional to distance from the sensor
★ Least sensitive to motion toward and away from the
sensor; most sensitive to motion lateral to sensor
★ Does not require an enclosed space; works well
outdoors and in high-bay areas
● September 1998
Ultrasonic
★ Does not require line-of-sight in enclosed spaces;
may require line-of-sight in large open office plans
with fabric partitions
★ Magnitude of required motion increases with
distance from the sensor
★ Least sensitive to motion lateral to the sensor; most
sensitive to motion toward and away from the sensor
★ Requires an enclosed space; not for use outdoors
or in high-bay areas
Energy Saving Potential with Occupancy Sensors
Source: EPA Green Lightd and ENERGY STAR Buildings
Application Energy Savings*
Offices (private) 55%
Rest Rooms 70%
Storage Areas 56%
Conference Rooms 66%
Classrooms 61%
*Note: Figures are based on field data compiled during EPA’s
occupancy sensor outreach project with Green Lights and Energy
Star Buildings Partners.
Verify compatibility with electronic ballasts
Mechanical relays typically used in older-technology
occupancy sensors may become damaged by the
relatively high in-rush currents that result from an
occupancy sensor’s making and breaking of electrical
contact in electronically-ballasted fluorescent systems.
Mechanical relays that were commonly used with the
earliest occupancy sensor models were rated for
inductive and resistive loads, characteristic of magnetic
and incandescent lighting systems, respectively.
However, with the introduction of more complex
harmonic filtering with electronic ballasts, the wave
form generated when switching electronically ballasted
fluorescent systems typically includes a combination of
resistive, inductive, and capacitive loads. With the use
of a triac, the switching system is protected in order to
provide long life.
Contact your supplier to verify that their occupancy
sensors are compatible with electronic ballasts.
Conduct a trial installation and evaluate the
sensor’s performance
Not all sensors perform comparably. Before purchasing
Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program
26
a specific name brand of sensor, conduct a simple trial
installation of all products under consideration —
simultaneously. Follow the procedure below for
conducting your test:
1. Install the ceiling-mounted sensors temporarily in a
strategic location as suggested by the sensing
coverage pattern.
2. Connect these sensors to a power supply. They
should not, however, be connected to the lighting
circuit.
3. Notice the LED indicator light that illuminates when
the sensor detects motion. At various locations in
the test room, perform several types of motions,
varying the magnitude, speed, and direction of
motion. Also, include a test that evaluates the
sensor’s ability to detect motion behind obstacles.
4. Note which sensors were most successful in
detecting minor motion (both with and without
obstacles), as well as which sensors were most
affected by false signals.
For independently measured performance data for
specific name-brand occupancy sensors, refer to
Specifier Reports: Occupancy Sensors, Volume 1
Issue 5, National Lighting Product Information Program,
October 1992. A second report is to be issued in early
1997.
SCHEDULING CONTROLS
In addition to occupancy sensors, scheduling controls
are designed to help eliminate unnecessary use of
lighting.
Timed Switching Systems
Definition
Timed switching controls can be installed to ensure that
lighting systems are turned off or dimmed according to
an established schedule. These devices range from
simple wallbox electronic timer switches to
programmable “sweep” systems.
Applications
Wallbox electronic timer switches can be installed in
place of manual switches that allow the occupant to
preselect a period of operating duration after which the
lights will automatically shut off. These switches can be
programmed to provide a warning signal before the
lights are turned off.
● September 1998
Timeclocks can be used to control lighting systems with
predictable operating periods, such as security lighting
and corridors. In addition, more sophisticated scheduling
controls can be programmed for facilities having different
daily operating schedules.
Sweep systems are an advanced form of programmable
switching control. These systems establish a
programmed schedule for sequentially turning off lights
throughout a floor or an entire building. A typical
application is found in office buildings, where the
systems ensure that lighting is not unnecessarily left on
by the occupants. For example, if most of the occupants
on a given floor normally leave by 6:00 pm, then the
system will provide a warning signal (such as flicking the
lights off and on) a few minutes prior to turning the lights
off in the space. This warning signal allows any
remaining occupants to override the scheduled lighting
“sweep” in their location. This override may need to be
repeated periodically until the space is unoccupied.
The components of a lighting sweep system include:
● The central processor which is capable of
independently controlling several output channels;
each group of luminaires to be controlled together is
assigned to a single output channel.
● Relays are simple switches that are controlled
electrically; they are series-wired to the controlled
lighting zones and are controllable from the central
processor.
● Overrides to the system can be activated by either a
local override switch or a touch-tone telephone code.
Qualifications
Unlike occupancy sensors, scheduling systems do not
have the flexibility to eliminate wasted energy
consumption during normal business hours.
24-hour emergency lighting should be provided in areas
with sweep systems to provide safe access to lighting
control override switches.
Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program
27
Daylight Switching Systems
Definition
Photocells or scheduling systems may be used to
automatically turn off lighting systems when sufficient
daylight is available.
Applications
All outdoor lighting should be controlled using a daylight
switching system. In many cases, photocells have been
used to automatically provide “dusk-to-dawn” operation.
The resulting operating hours under photocell control is
typically 4,100 hours per year, because the lights are
typically turned on about 20 minutes after sundown,
and about 20 minutes prior to sunrise.
In applications where the outdoor lighting is not needed
for dusk-to-dawn illumination, a timed switching system
may be wired in series with the photosensor to switch
off the circuit before dawn. For example, a retail
establishment may require high-level parking lot
illumination from dusk until one hour after closing —
say 11:00 pm — after which the lighting system may be
switched off by the timed switching system.
Compared to mechanical photocells, new solid-state
electronic photosensors combine longer service life
with more accurate daylight sensing to yield significant
energy and maintenance cost savings.
As an alternative to photosensors, consider installing a
microprocessor-based timed switching system for
controlling outdoor lighting. Systems are available that
predict seasonal dusk and dawn switching times and
Time Scheduling System Components
Source: CEC/DOE/EPRI
Override Switches
Central Processor
Outputs
Low-Voltage Control
Wiring
Low-Voltage
Relay
Electric
Distribution Lighting Circuit
Panel (High Voltage)
● September 1998
automatically switch the outdoor lighting systems
according to this schedule. Such systems must have
extensive battery back-up and memory in order to
ensure that the “solar schedule” will remain properly
programmed in the event of a power failure.
Microprocessor-based daylight switching systems can
also incorporate “pre-dawn” scheduled switching
functions. Many systems provide the capability to
program various lighting schedules over a multi-year
period.
Qualifications
Mechanical timeclocks are not recommended for
daylight switching control because they can be
relatively inaccurate in scheduling on/off functions, and
may get “off schedule” if not properly maintained.
Photocells should be properly calibrated and
maintained to eliminate wasteful “day-burning.”
Daylight switching indoors has been applied with
varying degrees of success. Consider indoor daylight
switching in common areas such as break rooms,
corridors, and lobbies. In employee work areas, users
may object to the use of automatic switching of the
lighting system during daylight hours because it draws
attention to sudden changes in illumination. However,
adverse occupant reactions can be minimized if the
sensor can be programmed to turn on the lights when
the ambient light level drops to about 30 footcandles,
and turn off the lights when the ambient light level
climbs to about 65 footcandles. Still, the most
successful indoor applications for daylighting control
usually involve dimming instead of switching.
Some occupancy sensors provide daylight switching
control in conjunction with their occupancy switching
control. A trial installation is recommended to assess
user acceptance of this technology.
For more information about photosensors, refer to:
Specifier Reports: Photosensors, Volume 6, Number
1, March 1998, National Lighting Product Information
Program.
DIMMING CONTROLS
Dimming controls can be used to vary the intensity of
lighting system output based on ambient light levels,
manual adjustments, and occupancy.
Daylight Dimming & Lumen
Maintenance Control
Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program
28
Definition
Daylight dimming systems consist of photosensors that
are wired directly to specifically designed controllable
(dimmable) electronic ballasts. Some manufacturers
provide a photosensor to control every ballast, while
others provide a single photosensor that can control
many ballasts simultaneously. Because the control wiring
can be run between the photosensors and the ballasts in
the plenum above a dropped ceiling, retrofit applications
can be feasible. The daylighting “zone” (consisting of the
luminaires to be dimmed) is defined by the low-voltage
wiring circuit which is independent of the power circuits.
A manual adjustment on the photosensor allows users to
select the light level to be maintained in both the
absence of daylight and during the dimming process.
Applications
Ceiling-mounted photosensors should be installed a
specific distance from window areas, according to
manufacturer instructions. As daylighting becomes
available, the photosensor will reduce the light output
from the lamp-ballast systems that are directly
connected to the photosensor via low-voltage wiring. The
photosensor dims the luminaires in order to maintain the
same light level that would normally be provided by the
luminaires in the absence of daylight. However, the
controllable ballasts are typically capable of reducing
output down to 10-20 percent of full light output. When
this minimum output level is reached, it is possible that
increasing daylight contributions may further elevate light
levels beyond the manually adjusted setpoint.
Because dimming (low-voltage) circuits are usually
separate from existing power circuits, users have great
flexibility in determining which luminaires will be
controlled by the photocell. In general, retrofit installation
costs are minimized if each dimming ballast is controlled
with a low-cost, dedicated light sensor.
The same equipment used for daylight dimming may
also be used in non-daylit areas for adjusting system
light output to compensate for aging lamps and
accumulated dirt on luminaires. This is known as lumen
maintenance control. When lamps are new and
luminaires are clean, the manual adjustment on the
photosensor should be tuned to lower the illuminance by
25-30 percent — the amount of lamp lumen depreciation
and luminaire dirt depreciation to be expected during the
maintenance cycle. Over time as the lamps age and the
luminaire collects dirt, the photosensor will require the
controllable ballast to increase the system output in
order to maintain the illuminance setpoint. In order for a
lumen maintenance control strategy to save energy, the
luminaires must be cleaned and relamped on a regular
basis. See Lighting Maintenance regarding group
maintenance strategies.
● September 1998
Light levels should be maintained in accordance with
standards established by the Illuminating Engineering
Society of North America. (Refer to Lighting
Fundamentals.)
The introduction of three-lamp dimming ballasts has
contributed to making dmming upgrades more cost-
effective.
Daylighting Control System
Source: CEC/DOE/EPRI
Power
Controller
Sensor Source
Qualifications
The proper placement of photosensors is critical to the
success of the daylight dimming installation. Follow
manufacturer specifications carefully.
If architectural structures or partitions reduce the
amount of available daylight in selected spaces within
the daylighting zone, exclude the affected luminaires
from daylighting control. Alternatively, if daylighting
contributions vary widely within the daylighting zone,
consider installing a daylighting system that provides a
photosensor to control each luminaire.
To achieve sustained energy savings, be sure to adjust
the photosensor so that the proper light levels are
maintained. When daylight levels are low or
nonexistent, reduce the light output by adjusting the
tuning control on the photosensor to a point that is
below your target workplane illuminance (have a light
meter placed on the work surface). Then, increase the
light output until the illuminance reaches your desired
maintained light level.
When calculating energy cost savings expected from a
dimming system, take into account the specific electric
demand charge and rate structure; some rate schedules
Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program
29
include a ratcheted demand charge that could negate
cost savings resulting from reduced peak demand.
For independently measured performance data for
specific dimming electronic ballasts, refer to Specifier
Reports: Dimming Electronic Ballasts, November
1995, National Lighting Product Information Program.
Tuning
Definition
Using manual dimming controls, the light output from
individual luminaires or groups of luminaires can be
reduced to match the area’s visual requirements. This is
normally accomplished with either controllable electronic
ballasts that have built-in adjusting switches or knobs, or
with hand-held remote controls that communicate
directly with one or more of the ballasts overhead.
Alternatively the light level can be adjusted using a
compatible manual dimmer control at the switch location.
Applications
The most common application of tuning is in spaces
where the visual task changes frequently. (For example
bookkeeping and VDT usage.) Other applications
include adjusting light level for various occupants of a
space based on age and visual task requirements —
such as in a conference room.
Qualifications
Compact fluorescents and full-size fluorescents
operating on magnetic ballasts require specialized
dimming controls.
Panel-Level Dimming
Definition
This strategy involves installing a control system at the
electric panel to uniformly control all luminaires on the
designated circuits.
Applications
Circuit dimming can be controlled manually or by inputs
from occupancy sensors, photosensors, timeclocks, or
energy management systems. Panel-level dimming is a
method for dimming HID systems as well as both
electronically and magnetically ballasted fluorescent
systems. Continuous dimming is accomplished using
either a variable-voltage transformer or a wave
modification device that reduces the power to the HID
or fluorescent circuit.
● September 1998
For example, using photosensors in a warehouse with
skylights, the high-pressure sodium lighting system
could be uniformly dimmed in response to the available
daylight from the skylights, saving substantial amounts
of energy.
Another application would include a wholesale
merchandising outlet that requires higher light levels
during normal business hours, and reduced light levels
during routine maintenance and stocking operations.
The scheduling control system would automatically
adjust the light levels based on the business operating
schedule.
Qualifications
Slight reductions in efficiency result from dimming HID
systems. Light output reductions are about 1.2 to 1.5
times the power reduction in metal halide systems and
about 1.1-1.4 times the power reduction in high-
pressure sodium systems. Manufacturers can provide
the specific lumen-wattage performance curves for the
specific systems being controlled.
Note that some panel-level dimming systems are
incompatible with electronic ballasts. Check with the
manufacturer to determine if their variable voltage
system is compatible with electronic ballasts and
whether the system introduces harmonic currents.
Dimming HID lamps below 50 percent power may
result in a significant reduction in lamp life.
For more information about continuous and bi-level HID
dimming systems, refer to Lighting Answers:
Dimming Systems for High-Intensity Discharge
Lamps, Volume 1 Number 4, September 1994,
National Lighting Product Information Program.
DAY LIGHTING
Photovoltaic Systems
Definition
Photovoltaics are solid state semiconductor devices
that convert light directly into (DC) electricity.
Photovoltaic (or solar) modules usually employ a
silicon-based material cut into wafers or chemically
deposited in thin layers on glass, steel or other flexible
materials and generate the most electricity when
exposed to direct sunlight. Solar generated electricity
can be used directly by a connected lighting system,
stored in batteries, or “pumped” into the electric grid
(grid-tied systems) for later use.
Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program
30
Applications
Photovoltaic systems are most commonly used to
power remote (off-grid) lighting applications such as
traffic signals, parking lots, streetlights, billboards, and
transit shelter lighting. However, “remote” photovoltaic
lighting can also be used in suburban areas for parking
lots and other applications where the costs associated
with running overhead or underground wires can be too
expensive. All remote solar lighting systems require
batteries for electric storage and to regulate the voltage
of the solar array. Also, because electronic (DC)
ballasts are available for fluorescent and HID lamps,
the need for an (AC) inverter is eliminated, making the
solar lighting system less costly.
A new application for photovoltaics and lighting is found
with buildings that are connected to the electric grid
(grid-tied). “Solar-assisted lighting” refers to systems
specifically designed to offset the daytime lighting load
through generated solar energy. These systems do not
require batteries because the building lighting demand
is generally coincident with the solar generation and the
electric grid serves as a voltage regulator. However, if
the system is deployed without batteries and the
electric grid fails the system must shut down or risk
damage to ballasts and solar modules. Some
applications also use batteries to provide uniterruptable
power supply (UPS). Also, some electronic AC ballasts
will operate off a DC voltage allowing the elimination of
the AC inverter.
Qualifications
Photovoltaics are most cost-effective in remote areas
where the cost of extending a power line is very
expensive. However, photovoltaics may be cost-
effective for solar-assisted lighting applications
depending on the rates paid for electricity or the need
for emergency lighting. Solar-assisted lighting, with
battery backup, is not less expensive than emergency
lighting. However, the marginal additional cost is
usually paid back in 8 - 10 years from energy savings
based on $.10 per kWh and solar-assisted lighting
does not require specially equipped lighting fixtures.
Active Daylighting Systems
Definition
A system consisting of a motorized sun-tracking mirror, a
skylight, diffusing media, and an automatic lighting
control. The sun-tracking mirror reflects sunlight through
the skylight. This light is delivered to the building interior
through a wide-angle diffuser. An automatic lighting
control switches off the artificial lighting when sufficient
daylighting is provided by the system.
● September 1998
Applications

The most economical applications are for one-story

buildings in areas that receive a high percentage of
sunny days (or bright cloudy days) and have relatively
high peak demand charges and peak electricity rates.
Systems are available for either new construction or
retrofit. Daylighting systems also improve color
rendering, reduce lighting maintenance costs, and
potentially reduce air conditioning costs as well.

Qualifications

Verify vendor claims by visiting installations — check

for workmanship, warranty service, demonstrated
energy cost savings, and effect on illumination quality.
Energy savings can be difficult to quantify, because
they depend on local insolation data, equipment
performance, and time-of-day energy use analysis. To
mitigate financial risk with this upgrade, ask your
supplier about performance guarantees.

PRODUCT REFERENCE
INFORMATION
System Performance Tables
When performing lighting and energy calculations, refer
to the performance tables on the following pages for
listings of system wattage, ballast factor, lumen output,
and maintained efficacy for your existing and proposed
lighting systems. These tables address:

★ 2-lamp, 4-foot systems

★ 3-lamp, 4-foot systems
★ 4-lamp, 4-foot systems
★ 2-lamp, 8-foot systems
★ 2-foot systems
★ compact sources
★ directional lamps
★ HID systems
★ low pressure sodium systems
★ ANSI wattage correction factors
★ ANSI lumen correction factors

Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● September 1998

31
 TYPICAL PERFORMANCE VALUES FOR 2-LAMP 4-FOOT SYSTEMS
Ballast Types Lamps System Initial Lamp Maintained Maintained Maintained
per Lamp Input Lamp Lamp Lumen Ballast System System Relative
Lamp Types Ballast Watts Watts CRI Lumens Deprec. Factor Lumens Efficacy Lumens

Old Standard Magnetic

2 - F40T12 2 40 96 62* 3050 0.87 0.94 4989 52 100%
2 40 96 73 3200 0.90 0.94 5414 56 109%
2 40 96 85 3300 0.90 0.94 5584 58 112%
2 - F40T12/ES 2 34 82 62 2650 0.87 0.87 4012 49 80%
2 34 82 73 2800 0.90 0.87 4385 53 88%
2 34 82 85 2900 0.90 0.87 4541 55 91%
2 - F40T10 2 40 101 82 3700 0.89 0.92 6059 60 121%

Standard EE Magnetic
2 - F40T12 2 40 88 62* 3050 0.87 0.94 4989 57 100%
2 40 88 73 3200 0.90 0.94 5414 62 109%
2 40 88 85 3300 0.90 0.94 5584 63 112%
2 - F40T12/ES 2 34 72 62 2650 0.87 0.87 4012 56 80%
2 34 72 73 2800 0.90 0.87 4385 61 88%
2 34 72 85 2900 0.90 0.87 4541 63 91%
2 - F40T10 2 40 93 82 3700 0.89 0.92 6059 65 121%
2 - F32T8 2 32 70 75 2850 0.91 0.94 4876 70 98%
2 32 70 85 3050 0.93 0.94 5333 76 107%

Magnetic Heater Cutout

2 - F40T12 2 40 80 62* 3050 0.87 0.95 5042 63 101%
2 40 80 73 3200 0.90 0.95 5472 68 110%
2 40 80 85 3300 0.90 0.95 5643 71 113%
Partial 2 40 69 62* 3050 0.87 0.83 4405 64 88%
Output 2 40 69 73 3200 0.90 0.83 4781 69 96%
Ballast 2 40 69 85 3300 0.90 0.83 4930 71 99%
2 - F40T12/ES 2 34 66 62 2650 0.87 0.88 4058 61 81%
2 34 66 73 2800 0.90 0.88 4435 67 89%
2 34 66 85 2900 0.90 0.88 4594 70 92%
Partial 2 34 58 62 2650 0.87 0.81 3735 64 75%
Output 2 34 58 73 2800 0.90 0.81 4082 70 82%
Ballast 2 34 58 85 2900 0.90 0.81 4228 73 85%
2 - F40T10 2 40 84 82 3700 0.89 0.92 6059 72 121%
2 - F32T8 2 32 61 75 2850 0.91 0.86 4461 73 89%
2 32 61 85 3050 0.93 0.86 4879 80 98%
Electronic Rapid Start
2 - F40T12 2 40 72 62* 3050 0.87 0.88 4670 65 94%
2 40 72 73 3200 0.90 0.88 5069 70 102%
2 40 72 85 3300 0.90 0.88 5227 73 105%
2 - F40T12/ES 2 34 62 62 2650 0.87 0.88 4058 65 81%
2 34 62 73 2800 0.90 0.88 4435 72 89%
2 34 62 85 2900 0.90 0.88 4594 74 92%
2 - F40T10 2 40 75 82 3700 0.89 0.86 5664 76 114%
2 - F32T8 2 32 62 75 2850 0.91 0.88 4565 74 92%
2 32 62 85 3050 0.93 0.88 4992 81 100%
2 32 62 86 3200 0.95 0.88 5350 86 108%
Partial 2 32 54 75 2850 0.91 0.75 3890 72 78%
Output 2 32 54 85 3050 0.93 0.75 4255 79 85%
2 32 54 86 3200 0.95 0.75 4560 84 92%
Extended 2 32 86 75 2850 0.91 1.28 6639 77 133%
Output 2 32 86 85 3050 0.93 1.28 7261 84 146%
2 32 86 86 3200 0.95 1.28 7782 90 157%
Electronic Instant-Start
2 - F32T8 2 32 58 75 2850 0.91 0.88 4565 79 92%
2 32 58 85 3050 0.93 0.88 4992 86 100%
2 32 58 86 3200 0.95 0.88 5350 92 108%
Extended 2 32 76 75 2850 0.91 1.15 5965 78 120%
Output 2 32 76 85 3050 0.93 1.15 6524 86 131%
2 32 76 86 3200 0.95 1.15 6992 92 141%
NOTES: Lamp lumen performance varies among manufacturers.
Maintained performance includes effect of lamp lumen depreciation (@ 40% lamp life).
System wattages and lumens shown are based on ANSI test conditions; use correction factors at end of this section.
Sources: CEC/EPRI/DOE (1993) and manufacturer data
* Lamps no longer manufactured per Energy Policy Act of 1992.

Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● September 1998

32
 TYPICAL PERFORMANCE VALUES FOR 3-LAMP 4-FOOT SYSTEMS
Ballast Types Lamps System Initial Lamp Maintained Maintained Maintained
per Lamp Input Lamp Lamp Lumen Ballast System System Relative
Lamp Types Ballast Watts Watts CRI Lumens Deprec. Factor Lumens Efficacy Lumens

Old Standard Magnetic

3 - F40T12 1.5 40 148 62* 3050 0.87 0.94 7483 51 100%
1.5 40 148 73 3200 0.90 0.94 8122 55 109%
1.5 40 148 85 3300 0.90 0.94 8375 57 112%
3 - F40T12/ES 1.5 34 134 62 2650 0.87 0.87 6017 45 80%
1.5 34 134 73 2800 0.90 0.87 6577 49 88%
1.5 34 134 85 2900 0.90 0.87 6812 51 91%
3 - F40T10 1.5 40 156 82 3700 0.89 0.92 9089 58 121%

Standard EE Magnetic
3 - F40T12 1.5 40 134 62* 3050 0.87 0.94 7483 56 100%
1.5 40 134 73 3200 0.90 0.94 8122 61 109%
1.5 40 134 85 3300 0.90 0.94 8375 63 112%
3 - F40T12/ES 1.5 34 112 62 2650 0.87 0.87 6017 54 80%
1.5 34 112 73 2800 0.90 0.87 6577 59 88%
1.5 34 112 85 2900 0.90 0.87 6812 61 91%
3 - F40T10 1.5 40 142 82 3700 0.89 0.92 9089 64 121%
3 - F32T8 1.5 32 106 75 2850 0.91 0.94 7314 69 98%
1.5 32 106 85 3050 0.93 0.94 7999 75 107%

Magnetic Heater Cutout

3 - F40T12 2/T 40 120 62* 3050 0.87 0.95 7562 63 101%
2/T 40 120 73 3200 0.90 0.95 8208 68 110%
2/T 40 120 85 3300 0.90 0.95 8465 71 113%
Partial 2/T 40 104 62* 3050 0.87 0.83 6607 64 88%
Output 2/T 40 104 73 3200 0.90 0.83 7171 69 96%
Ballast 2/T 40 104 85 3300 0.90 0.83 7395 71 99%
3 - F40T12/ES 3 34 90 62 2650 0.87 0.83 5741 64 77%
3 34 90 73 2800 0.90 0.83 6275 70 84%
(Partial Output) 3 34 90 85 2900 0.90 0.83 6499 72 87%
3 - F40T10 2/T 40 126 82 3700 0.89 0.92 9089 72 121%
3 - F32T8 2/T 32 92 75 2850 0.91 0.86 6691 73 89%
2/T 32 92 85 3050 0.93 0.86 7318 80 98%

Electronic Rapid Start

3 - F40T12 3 40 107 62* 3050 0.87 0.88 7005 65 94%
3 40 107 73 3200 0.90 0.88 7603 71 102%
3 40 107 85 3300 0.90 0.88 7841 73 105%
3 - F40T12/ES 3 34 92 62 2650 0.87 0.88 6087 66 81%
3 34 92 73 2800 0.90 0.88 6653 72 89%
3 34 92 85 2900 0.90 0.88 6890 75 92%
3 - F40T10 3 40 116 82 3700 0.89 0.92 9089 78 121%
3 - F32T8 3 32 90 75 2850 0.91 0.88 6847 76 92%
3 32 90 85 3050 0.93 0.88 7488 83 100%
3 32 90 86 3200 0.95 0.88 8026 89 108%
Partial 3 32 80 75 2850 0.91 0.75 5835 73 78%
Output 3 32 80 85 3050 0.93 0.75 6382 80 85%
3 32 80 86 3200 0.95 0.75 6840 86 92%

Electronic Instant-Start
3 32 86 75 2850 0.91 0.88 6847 80 91%
3 32 86 85 3050 0.93 0.88 7488 87 100%
3 32 86 86 3200 0.95 0.88 8026 93 107%
Partial 3 32 75 75 2850 0.91 0.77 5991 80 80%
Output 3 32 75 85 3050 0.93 0.77 6552 87 88%
3 32 75 86 3200 0.95 0.77 7022 94 94%

NOTES: Lamp lumen performance varies among manufacturers.

Maintained” performance includes effect of lamp lumen depreciation (@ 40% lamp life).
Ballast factors for electronic ballasts can vary in range of 0.41-1.30 among manufacturers.
System wattages shown are based on ANSI test conditions.
Sources: CEC/EPRI/DOE (1993) and manufacturer data

* Lamps no longer manufactured per Energy Policy Act of 1992.

Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● September 1998

33
 TYPICAL PERFORMANCE VALUES FOR 4-LAMP 4-FOOT SYSTEMS
Ballast Types Lamps System Initial Lamp Maintained Maintained Maintained
per Lamp Input Lamp Lamp Lumen Ballast System System Relative
Lamp Types Ballast Watts Watts CRI Lumens Deprec. Factor Lumens Efficacy Lumens

Old Standard Magnetic

4 - F40T12 2 40 192 62* 3050 0.87 0.94 9977 52 100%
2 40 192 73 3200 0.90 0.94 10829 56 109%
2 40 192 85 3300 0.90 0.94 11167 58 112%
4 - F40T12/ES 2 34 164 62 2650 0.87 0.87 8023 49 80%
2 34 164 73 2800 0.90 0.87 8770 53 88%
2 34 164 85 2900 0.90 0.87 9083 55 91%

Standard EE Magnetic
4 - F40T12 2 40 176 62* 3050 0.87 0.94 9977 57 100%
2 40 176 73 3200 0.90 0.94 10829 62 109%
2 40 176 85 3300 0.90 0.94 11167 63 112%
4 - F40T12/ES 2 34 144 62 2650 0.87 0.87 8023 56 80%
2 34 144 73 2800 0.90 0.87 8770 61 88%
2 34 144 85 2900 0.90 0.87 9083 63 91%
4 - F32T8 2 32 140 75 2850 0.91 0.94 9752 70 98%
2 32 140 85 3050 0.93 0.94 10665 76 107%

Magnetic Heater Cutout

4 - F40T12 2 40 160 62* 3050 0.87 0.95 10083 63 101%
2 40 160 73 3200 0.90 0.95 10944 68 110%
2 40 160 85 3300 0.90 0.95 11286 71 113%
Partial 2 40 138 62* 3050 0.87 0.83 8810 64 88%
Output 2 40 138 73 3200 0.90 0.83 9562 69 96%
Ballast 2 40 138 85 3300 0.90 0.83 9860 71 99%
4 - F40T12/ES 2 34 132 62 2650 0.87 0.88 8115 61 81%
2 34 132 73 2800 0.90 0.88 8870 67 89%
2 34 132 85 2900 0.90 0.88 9187 70 92%
Partial 2 34 116 62 2650 0.87 0.81 7470 64 75%
Output 2 34 116 73 2800 0.90 0.81 8165 70 82%
Ballast 2 34 116 85 2900 0.90 0.81 8456 73 85%
4 - F32T8 2 32 122 75 2850 0.91 0.86 8922 73 89%
2 32 122 85 3050 0.93 0.86 9758 80 98%

Electronic Rapid Start

4 - F40T12 4 40 141 62* 3050 0.87 0.87 9234 65 93%
4 40 141 73 3200 0.90 0.87 10022 71 100%
4 40 141 85 3300 0.90 0.87 10336 73 104%
4 - F40T12/ES 4 34 117 62 2650 0.87 0.83 7654 65 77%
4 34 117 73 2800 0.90 0.83 8366 72 84%
4 34 117 85 2900 0.90 0.83 8665 74 87%
4 - F32T8 4 32 116 75 2850 0.91 0.87 9025 78 90%
4 32 116 85 3050 0.93 0.87 9871 85 99%
4 32 116 86 3200 0.95 0.87 10579 91 106%
Partial 4 32 101 75 2850 0.91 0.75 7781 77 78%
Output 4 32 101 85 3050 0.93 0.75 8510 84 85%
4 32 101 86 3200 0.95 0.75 9120 90 92%

Electronic Instant-Start
4 - F32T8 4 32 111 75 2850 0.91 0.85 8818 79 88%
4 32 111 85 3050 0.93 0.85 9644 87 97%
4 32 111 86 3200 0.95 0.85 10336 93 104%
Partial 4 32 101 75 2850 0.91 0.79 8195 81 82%
Output 4 32 101 85 3050 0.93 0.79 8963 89 90%
4 32 101 86 3200 0.95 0.79 9606 95 96%

NOTES: Lamp lumen performance varies among manufacturers.

"Maintained” performance includes effect of lamp lumen depreciation (@ 40% lamp life).
Ballast factors for electronic ballasts can vary in range of 0.41-1.30 among manufacturers.
System wattages shown are based on ANSI test conditions.
Sources: CEC/EPRI/DOE (1993) and manufacturer data
* Lamps no longer manufactured per Energy Policy Act of 1992.

Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● September 1998

34
 TYPICAL PERFORMANCE VALUES FOR 2-LAMP 8-FOOT SYSTEMS
Ballast Types Lamps System Initial Lamp Maintained Maintained Maintained
per Lamp Input Lamp Lamp Lumen Ballast System System Relative
Lamp Types Ballast Watts Watts CRI Lumens Deprec. Factor Lumens Efficacy Lumens

Old Standard Magnetic

2 - F96T12 2 75 173 62* 6100 0.88 0.94 10092 58 100%
2 75 173 73 6425 0.94 0.94 11354 66 113%
2 75 173 85 6600 0.94 0.94 11664 67 116%
2 - F96T12/ES 2 60 138 62 5500 0.88 0.87 8422 61 83%
2 60 138 73 5750 0.94 0.87 9405 68 93%
2 60 138 85 5900 0.94 0.87 9650 70 96%
2 - F96T12/HO 2 110 257 62* 8900 0.87 0.94 14557 57 144%
2 110 257 73 9200 0.90 0.94 15566 61 154%
2 110 257 85 9400 0.90 0.94 15905 62 158%
2 - F96T12/HO/ES 2 95 227 62 8000 0.87 0.87 12110 53 120%
2 95 227 73 8350 0.90 0.87 13076 58 130%
2 95 227 85 8600 0.90 0.87 13468 59 133%
2 - F96T12/VHO 2 215 450 62 13500 0.75 0.94 19035 42 189%
2 - F96T12/VHO/ES 2 185 390 62 12500 0.75 0.87 16313 42 162%

Standard EE Magnetic
2 - F96T12 2 75 158 62* 6100 0.88 0.95 10199 65 100%
2 75 158 73 6425 0.94 0.95 11475 73 114%
2 75 158 85 6600 0.94 0.95 11788 75 117%
2- F96T12/ES 2 60 128 62 5500 0.88 0.90 8712 68 86%
2 60 128 73 5750 0.94 0.90 9729 76 96%
2 60 128 85 5900 0.94 0.90 9983 78 99%
2- F96T12/HO 2 110 237 62* 8900 0.87 0.95 14712 62 146%
2 110 237 73 9200 0.90 0.95 15732 66 156%
2 110 237 85 9400 0.90 0.95 16074 68 159%
2- F96T12/HO/ES 2 95 197 62 8000 0.87 0.88 12250 62 121%
2 95 197 73 8350 0.90 0.88 13226 67 131%
2 95 197 85 8600 0.90 0.88 13622 69 135%
2- F96T12/VHO 2 215 440 62 13500 0.75 0.95 19238 44 191%
2- F96T12/VHO/ES 2 185 380 62 12500 0.75 0.88 16500 43 163%

Magnetic Heater Cutout

2 - F96T12/HO 2 110 210 62* 8900 0.87 0.89 13783 66 137%
2 110 210 73 9200 0.90 0.89 14738 70 146%
2 110 210 85 9400 0.90 0.89 15059 72 149%
2 - F96T12/HO/ES 2 95 177 62 8000 0.87 0.86 11971 68 119%
2 95 177 73 8350 0.90 0.86 12926 73 128%
2 95 177 85 8600 0.90 0.86 13313 75 132%

Electronic
2 - F96T12 2 75 136 62* 6100 0.88 0.89 9555 70 100%
2 75 136 73 6425 0.94 0.89 10750 79 107%
2 75 136 85 6600 0.94 0.89 11043 81 109%
2 - F96T12/ES 2 60 110 62 5500 0.88 0.88 8518 77 84%
2 60 110 73 5750 0.94 0.88 9513 86 94%
2 60 110 85 5900 0.94 0.88 9761 89 97%
2 - F96T12/HO 2 110 209 62* 8900 0.87 0.90 13937 67 138%
2 110 209 73 9200 0.90 0.90 14904 71 148%
2 110 209 85 9400 0.90 0.90 15228 73 151%
2 - F96T12/HO/ES 2 95 174 62 8000 0.87 0.88 12250 70 121%
2 95 174 73 8350 0.90 0.88 13226 76 131%
2 95 174 85 8600 0.90 0.88 13622 78 135%
2 - F96T8 2 59 106 75 5800 0.91 0.85 8973 85 89%
2 59 106 84 5950 0.91 0.85 9205 87 91%
Partial 2 59 99 75 5800 0.91 0.78 8234 83 82%
Output 2 59 99 84 5950 0.91 0.78 8447 85 84%
2 - F96T8/HO 2 86 160 85 8200 0.90 0.88 12989 81 129%
2 86 186 85 8200 0.90 1.00 14760 79 146%

NOTES: Lamp lumen peformance varies among manufacturers.

Maintained performance includes effect of lamp lumen depreciation (@ 40% rated life).
System wattages and lumens shown are based on ANSI test conditions; use correction factors at end of this section.
Sources: CEC/EPRI/DOE (1993) and manufacturer data * Lamps no longer manufactured per Energy Policy Act of 1992.

Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● September 1998

35
 TYPICAL PERFORMANCE VALUES FOR 2-FOOT SYSTEMS
22.5" T5 Compact Fluorescents
24" T8 Straight Fluorescent Lamps

FB40T12 and FB31T8 U-lamps perform essentially the same as F40T12 and F32T8 straight lamps, respectively.
Refer to the 4-foot table (2-lamp and 3-lamp) for representative values for FB40T12 and FB31T8 lamps.

Ballast Types Lamps System Initial Lamp Maintained Maintained

per Lamp Input Lamp Lamp Lumen Ballast System System
Lamp Types Ballast Watts Watts CRI Lumens Deprec.* Factor Lumens Efficacy

Old Standard Magnetic

2 - F20T12 (preheat) 2 20 50 62 1200 0.87 0.94 1963 39

Standard EE Magnetic
2 - F20T12 (preheat) 2 20 46 62 1200 0.87 0.94 1963 43
2 - F17T8 2 17 43 75 1325 0.91 0.93 2243 52
2 17 43 85 1400 0.93 0.93 2422 56
2 - FT40T5 2 40 91 82 3150 0.90 0.93 5273 58

Electronic Rapid Start

2 - F17T8 2 17 37 75 1325 0.91 0.92 2219 60
2 17 37 85 1400 0.93 0.92 2396 65
Partial 2 17 27 75 1325 0.91 0.75 1809 67
Output 2 17 27 85 1400 0.93 0.75 1953 72
3 - F17T8 3 17 52 75 1325 0.91 0.92 3328 64
3 17 52 85 1400 0.93 0.92 3594 69
4 - F17T8 4 17 70 75 1325 0.91 0.92 4437 63
4 17 70 85 1400 0.93 0.92 4791 68
2 - FT40T5 2 40 74 82 3150 0.90 0.87 4933 67
3 - FT40T5 3 40 106 82 3150 0.90 0.90 7655 72

Electronic Instant-Start
2 - F17T8 2 17 33 75 1325 0.91 0.90 2170 66
2 - F17T8 2 17 33 85 1400 0.93 0.90 2344 71
3 - F17T8 3 17 47 75 1325 0.91 0.92 3328 71
3 - F17T8 3 17 47 85 1400 0.93 0.92 3594 76
4 - F17T8 4 17 62 75 1325 0.91 0.90 4341 70
4 - F17T8 4 17 62 85 1400 0.93 0.90 4687 76
2 - FT40T5 2 40 71 82 3150 0.90 0.90 5103 72
3 - FT40T5 3 40 101 82 3150 0.90 0.88 7484 74

NOTES: Different manufacturers of 22.5" lamps provide rated wattages of 38, 39, or 40 watts.
Maintained performance includes effect of lamp lumen depreciation.
System wattages and lumens shown are based on ANSI test conditions; use thermal correction factors
included at the end of this section.
Sources: CEC/EPRI/DOE (1993) and manufacturer data
*@ 40% life

Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● September 1998

36
 TYPICAL PERFORMANCE VALUES FOR COMPACT SOURCES
(non-directional sources)

Initial Maintained Maintained

Lamp Lamp System Lamp Lamp System System Rated
Types Watts Watts CRI Lumens Lumens Efficacy Life

Incandescents (Reference)
A19 25 25 100 215 215 9 1000
A19 40 40 100 495 495 12 1000
A19 60 60 100 860 860 14 1000
A19 75 75 100 1180 1180 16 750
A19 100 100 100 1720 1720 17 750
A23 200 200 100 4010 4010 20 750
TB19 (halogen) 50 50 100 830 830 17 2000
TB19 (halogen) 90 90 100 1680 1680 19 2000
TB19 (halogen/film) 60 60 100 1400 1400 23 2000

Integral Units / Electronic

Enclosed / Non Vent - 16 82 800 650 41 10000
Enclosed / Vented - 18 82 1100 950 53 10000
Open Quad Tube - 15 82 900 765 51 10000
Open Quad Tube - 20 82 1200 1020 51 10000
Open Quad Tube - 26 82 1500 1275 49 10000
Triple Twin/U-Tube - 15 82 900 750 50 10000
Triple Twin/U-Tube - 20 82 1200 1020 51 10000
Triple Twin/U-Tube - 25 82 1520 1290 52 10000
Quadruple Twin-Tube - 28 82 1750 1475 53 10000

T-4 Twin-Tube / Preheat Magnetic

5 9 82 225 216 24 10000
7 11 82 360 324 29 10000
9 13 82 540 432 33 10000
13 17 82 810 792 47 10000

T-4 Quad Tube / Preheat Magnetic

9 13 82 540 440 34 10000
13 17 82 774 756 44 10000
18 25 82 1125 1070 43 10000
26 31 82 1620 1540 50 10000

Circline / Electronic Adapter

6.1" diam. - 13 84 950 800 62 12000
6.4" diam. - 20 84 1450 1250 63 12000
8.2" diam. - 22 84 1750 1475 67 12000
8.9" diam. - 30 84 2400 2050 68 12000

2-D / Electronic Adapter

4.0" diam. - 22 82 1300 1100 50 10000
4.3" diam. - 39 82 2780 2375 61 10000

Spiral Integral Units

- 9 85 400 340 38 10000
- 11 85 600 510 46 10000
- 15 85 900 765 51 10000
- 20 85 1200 1020 51 10000
- 23 85 1450 1232 54 10000
- 26 82 1560 1326 51 10000

NOTES: Lamp lumen performance varies among manufacturers.

Maintained performance includes effect of lamp lumen depreciation (@40% rated life).
Sources: 1993 Advanced Lighting Guidelines; manufacturer data.

Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● September 1998

37
 TYPICAL PERFORMANCE VALUES FOR DIRECTIONAL LAMPS

Lamp System Avg.System CBCP Beam Rated

Types Watts Lumens Candelas Degrees Life

Incandescents
R30 45 485 N/A N/A 2000
R30 / Krypton 60 775 510 65 2000
R30 75 900 470 72 2000
ER30 50 replaces 100W in deep cans 2000
ER30 75 replaces 150W in deep cans 2000
ER40 120 replaces 250W in deep cans 2000
R40 75 890 N/A N/A 2000
R40 100 1190 N/A N/A 2000
PAR38/ES/Spot 65 675 5900 14 2000
PAR38/ES/Flood 65 675 1750 30 2000
PAR38/Spot 75 765 4400 17 2000
PAR38/Flood 75 765 1750 33 2000
PAR38/ES/Spot 85 930 6800 15 2000
PAR38/ES/Flood 85 930 2000 37 2000
PAR38/ES/Spot 120 1370 9200 18 2000
PAR38/ES/Flood 120 1370 3600 30 2000
PAR38/Spot 150 1740 12000 16 2000
PAR38/Flood 150 1740 3100 36 2000

Compact Halogen
PAR30/Wide Flood 50 670 800 55 2000
PAR30/Spot/IR 50 1000 19500 7 3000
PAR30/Flood/IR 50 1000 2400 33 3000
PAR30/Spot 75 1100 15000 11 2000
PAR30/Flood 75 1100 2500 36 2000
PAR30/Wide Flood 75 1100 2500 36 2000
PAR38/Spot/IR 60 1150 18500 10 3000
PAR38/Flood/IR 60 1150 3650 29 3000
PAR38/Spot 75 1070 18400 8 2500
PAR38/Flood 75 1070 4000 26 2500
PAR38/Spot 90 1270 18500 10 2000
PAR38/Flood 90 1270 4000 30 2000
PAR38/Wide Flood 90 1270 1500 55 2000
PAR38/Spot/IR 100 2000 30000 10 3000
PAR38/Flood/IR 100 2000 5500 33 3000

Compact Fluorescent
Integral/Reflector/Quad 15 540 315 70 10000
Integral/Reflector/Quad 17 720 N/A N/A 10000
Integral/Reflector/Quad 20 810 335 80 10000

Notes: CBDP = center beam candlepower, the maximum luminous intensity (in candelas)
Beam angle = the angle in which the luminous intensity is at least 50% of the maximum value.

Sources: Manufacturer Literature

Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● September 1998

38
 TYPICAL PERFORMANCE VALUES FOR HID SYSTEMS

Initial Maintained Maintained

Lamp Lamp System Lamp Lamp System System Rated
Types Watts Watts CRI Lumens Lumens Efficacy Life

Mercury Vapor (MV)

2 1/8" Diameter (Coated) 50 67 50 1575 1250 19 16000
2 1/8" Diameter (Coated) 75 92 50 2800 2250 24 16000
3" Diameter 100 120 15 4200 3200 27 24000
3 1/2" Diameter 175 206 15 7900 7400 36 24000
3 1/2" Diameter 250 284 15 12100 10500 37 24000
4 5/8" Diameter 400 458 15 22500 17500 38 24000
7" Diameter 1000 1050 15 60000 45000 43 24000
2 1/8" Diameter 35 50 65 2500 1900 38 7500
Metal Halide (MH)
2 1/8" Diameter 35 50 65 2500 1900 38 7500
2 1/8" Diameter 50 67 65 3500 2550 38 5000
2 1/8" Diameter 70 90 65 5500 4000 44 7500
2 1/8" Diameter (ceramic tube) 70 90 83 6200 4960 55 7500
2 1/8" Diameter 100 127 65 9000 6390 50 15000
2 1/8" Diameter (ceramic tube) 100 127 83 9500 7600 60 10000
2 1/8" Diameter 150 195 65 13500 10200 52 15000
2 7/8" Diameter (1) 175 210 65 15000 12000 57 10000
3 1/2" Diameter (1) 250 293 65 23000 18000 61 10000
4 5/8" Diameter (1) 400 458 65 40000 32000 70 20000
7" Diameter (1) 1000 1080 65 115000 92000 85 12000
7" Diameter (1) 1500 1620 65 155000 140000 86 6000
MH Retrofit for MV Systems 325 383 65 28000 18200 48 20000
MH Retrofit for MV Systems 950 1030 65 100000 80000 78 12000
MH Retrofit for HPS Systems 250 300 65 18000 13500 45 10000
MH Retrofit for HPS Systems 400 465 65 40000 30000 65 20000
Energy-saver MH 150 185 65 13500 10200 55 10000
Energy-saver MH 225 268 65 19000 14300 53 10000
Energy-saver MH 360 418 65 35000 26300 63 10000
Super MH (2) 150 not avail. 65 15000 11300 n/a 15000
Super MH (2) 200 not avail. 65 21000 15800 n/a 15000
Super MH (2) 350 375 65 36000 27000 72 15000
150W Pulse-Start (Linear Reactor Blast) 150 170 65 15000 11300 66 15000
200W Pulse-Start (Linear Reactor Blast) 200 218 65 21000 15800 72 15000
350W Pulse-Start (Linear Reactor Blast) 350 375 65 36000 27000 72 20000
Note: Linear Reactor ballasts may not be suitable for all pulse-start lamp applications. Check with manufacturer for proper ballast specifications.

High Pressure Sodium (HPS)

Standard HPS 35 45 22 2250 2025 45 24000
Standard HPS 50 65 22 4000 3600 55 24000
Standard HPS 70 95 22 6400 5450 57 24000
Standard HPS 100 130 22 9500 8550 66 24000
Standard HPS 150 195 22 16000 14400 74 24000
Standard HPS 250 300 22 28000 27000 90 24000
Standard HPS 400 465 22 51000 45000 97 24000
Standard HPS 1000 1100 22 140000 126000 115 24000
Energy-saver HPS 225 275 22 27500 24800 90 24000
Energy-saver HPS 360 425 22 45000 40500 95 24000
Deluxe HPS 70 95 60 4400 3960 42 15000
Deluxe HPS 100 130 60 7300 6570 51 15000
Deluxe HPS 150 195 60 12000 10800 55 15000
Deluxe HPS 250 300 65 23000 20700 69 15000
Deluxe HPS 400 465 65 37500 33750 73 15000
White HPS 35 45 70 1250 1000 22 10000
White HPS 50 65 70 2300 1725 27 10000
White HPS 100 130 70 4700 3520 27 10000
HPS Retrofit for MV Systems 150 195 25 15000 13500 69 24000
HPS Retrofit for MV Systems 215 265 25 20200 18600 70 24000
HPS Retrofit for MV Systems 360 425 25 45000 40500 95 24000
NOTES TO HID LAMP TABLE:
(1) High-output lamps designed for specific vertical or horizontal orientation and produce 10-25% more light than universal-orientation lamps.
(2) Requires external igniter in ballast.
Many other variations of HID lamps exist that are not included in the table, including coated lamps, various outer jacket sizes, various color
temperatures, enclosed vs. open fixture rated, directional lamps,double-ended lamps, and instant restrike lamps.

Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● September 1998

39
NOTES TO HID TABLE (cont'd)
The lumen output and lamp life of some metal halide lamps are affected by burning position.
Consult lamp manufacturer catalogs for application-specific performance data.

HID lamps are available with or without phosphor coatings. Unless otherwise noted, the data shown are for clear lamps.
Coatings on MV lamps provide CRI of 50, average.
Coatings on MH lamps provide CRI of 70, average.
Coatings on HPS lamps do not improve CRI, but reduce direct glare.
Coatings can reduce lamp output by up to 15%, particularly in lower-wattage lamps; consult manufacturer data.

Maintained performance includes effect of lamp lumen depreciation (@40% rated life).
Lamp life ratings are based on 10 hours per start.

Sources: 1993 Advanced Lighting Guidelines; manufacturer data.

TYPICAL PERFORMANCE VALUES FOR LOW PRESSURE SODIUM SYSTEMS

Initial Maintained Maintained

Lamp Lamp System Lamp Lamp System System Rated
Types Watts Watts CRI Lumens Lumens Efficacy Life

Low Pressure Sodium (LPS)

8-inch LPS 18 36 0 1800 1800 50 14000
12-inch LPS 35 60 0 4800 4800 80 18000
17-inch LPS 55 80 0 8000 8000 100 18000
21-inch LPS 90 125 0 13500 13500 108 18000
30-inch LPS 135 178 0 22500 22500 126 18000
44-inch LPS 180 220 0 33000 33000 150 18000

NOTES: Maintained performance includes effect of lamp lumen depreciation (@40% rated life).
Lamp life ratings are based on 10 hours per start.

Source: Manufacturer data

APPROXIMATE ANSI THERMAL CORRECTION FACTORS: WATTAGE

Source: CEC/DOE/EPRI

Parabolic Lens Air Return Strip

40W/T12/Magnetic 0.92 0.91 0.99 1.00
34W/T12/Magnetic 0.98 0.95 1.00 1.00
40W/T12/Electronic 0.94 0.92 0.99 1.00
34W/T12/Electronic 1.00 0.97 1.02 1.00
T8/Magnetic 0.95 0.92 0.98 1.00
T8/Electronic 0.94 0.90 0.98 1.00

Note: Luminaires (except strip fixtures) are assumed to be recessed in grid ceiling.
Thermally corrected wattage = ANSI wattage x correction factor

APPROXIMATE ANSI THERMAL CORRECTION FACTORS: LUMENS

Source: CEC/DOE/EPRI

Parabolic Lens Air Return Strip

40W/T12/Magnetic 0.96 0.96 1.11 1.00
34W/T12/Magnetic 0.98 0.95 1.09 1.00
40W/T12/Electronic 0.97 0.97 1.09 1.00
34W/T12/Electronic 0.99 0.97 1.07 1.00
T8/Magnetic 0.98 0.96 1.07 1.00
T8/Electronic 0.98 0.95 1.08 1.00

Note: Luminaires (except strip fixtures) are assumed to be recessed in grid ceiling.
Thermally corrected lumens = ANSI lumens x correction factor

Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● September 1998

40
NOTES:

Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● September 1998

41
NOTES:

Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● September 1998

42
NOTES:

Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● September 1998

43
GREEN LIGHTS®
A Bright Investment in the Environment

Green Lights, one of several ENERGY STAR programs, is Lighting Upgrade Technologies is one of a series of
sponsored by the US Environmental Protection Agency documents known collectively as the Lighting Upgrade
(EPA) and encourages major US corporations and Manual. Other documents in the Manual are Listed
other organizations to install energy-efficient lighting below.
technologies.
LIGHTING UPGRADE MANUAL
Organizations that make the commitment to Green
Lights will profit by lowering their electricity bills, Planning
improving lighting quality, and increasing worker
productivity. They will also reduce the air pollution ● Green Lights Program
caused by electricity generation. ● Implementation Planning Guidebook
● Financial Considerations
For more information, contact the Green Lights ● Lighting Waste Disposal
program office. ● Progress Reporting
● Communicating Green Lights Success
Green Lights Program
US EPA Technical
401 M Street, SW (6202J)
Washington, DC 20460 ● Lighting Fundamentals
● Lighting Upgrade Technologies
● Lighting Maintenance
ENERGY STAR Hotline ● Lighting Evaluations
● The Lighting Survey
☎ 1-888-STAR-YES (1-888-782-7937)
Appendices
Fax: (202) 775-6680

Green Lights Homepage ● Upgrading Tenant Spaces

● Green Lights for Federal Participants
www.epa.gov/greenlights/ ● Requesting Proposals

ENERGY STAR Homepage

www.epa.gov/energystar/
☛ To order other documents or
appendices in this series, contact
the ENERGY STAR Hotline at 1-888-
STAR-YES. Look in the ENERGY
STAR Update newsletter for
announcements of new
publications.

Lighting Upgrade Technologies ● Lighting Upgrade Manual ● EPA's Green Lights® Program ● September 1998

44
 LIGHTING FUNDAMENTALS
LIGHTING UPGRADE MANUAL
US EPA Office of Air and Radiation 6202J
EPA 430-B-95-003, January 1995

U.S. EPA Green Lights Program

CONTENTS

z ILLUMINATION
z LIGHT SOURCES
z BALLASTS
z LUMINAIRES
z SELECTED REFERENCES
z GLOSSARY

A basic understanding of lighting fundamentals is essential for specifiers and decision-makers who
are evaluating lighting upgrades. This document provides a brief overview of design parameters,
technologies, and terminology used in the lighting industry. For more detailed information about
specific energy-efficient lighting technologies, refer to the Lighting Upgrade Technologies
document.

ILLUMINATION

z Quantity of Illumination
z Quality of Illumination

Quantity of Illumination

Light Output

The most common measure of light output (or luminous flux) is the lumen. Light sources are labeled
with an output rating in lumens. For example, a T12 40-watt fluorescent lamp may have a rating of
3050 lumens. Similarly, a light fixture's output can be expressed in lumens. As lamps and fixtures
age and become dirty, their lumen output decreases (i.e., lumen depreciation occurs). Most lamp
ratings are based on initial lumens (i.e., when the lamp is new).

Light Level

Light intensity measured on a plane at a specific location is called illuminance. Illuminance is

measured in footcandles, which are workplane lumens per square foot. You can measure illuminance
using a light meter located on the work surface where tasks are performed. Using simple arithmetic
and manufacturers' photometric data, you can predict illuminance for a defined space. (Lux is the
metric unit for illuminance, measured in lumens per square meter. To convert footcandles to lux,
multiply footcandles by 10.76.)

Brightness
Another measurement of light is luminance, sometimes called brightness. This measures light
"leaving" a surface in a particular direction, and considers the illuminance on the surface and the
reflectance of the surface.

The human eye does not see illuminance; it sees luminance. Therefore, the amount of light delivered
into the space and the reflectance of the surfaces in the space affects your ability to see.

Refer to the GLOSSARY at the end of this document for more detailed definitions.

Quantity Measures

z Luminous flux is commonly called light output and is measured in lumens (lm).
z Illuminance is called light level and is measured in footcandles (fc).
z Luminance is referred to as brightness and is measured in footlamberts (fL) or candelas/m2
(cd/m2).

Determining Target Light Levels

The Illuminating Engineering Society of North America has developed a procedure for determining
the appropriate average light level for a particular space. This procedure ( used extensively by
designers and engineers ( recommends a target light level by considering the following:

z the task(s) being performed (contrast, size, etc.)

z the ages of the occupants
z the importance of speed and accuracy

Then, the appropriate type and quantity of lamps and light fixtures may be selected based on the
following:

z fixture efficiency
z lamp lumen output
z the reflectance of surrounding surfaces
z the effects of light losses from lamp lumen depreciation and dirt accumulation
z room size and shape
z availability of natural light (daylight)

When designing a new or upgraded lighting system, one must be careful to avoid overlighting a
space. In the past, spaces were designed for as much as 200 footcandles in places where 50
footcandles may not only be adequate, but superior. This was partly due to the misconception that the
more light in a space, the higher the quality. Not only does overlighting waste energy, but it can also
reduce lighting quality. Refer to Exhibit 2 for light levels recommended by the Illuminating
Engineering Society of North America. Within a listed range of illuminance, three factors dictate the
proper level: age of the occupant(s), speed and accuracy requirements, and background contrast.

For example, to light a space that uses computers, the overhead light fixtures should provide up to
30 fc of ambient lighting. The task lights should provide the additional footcandles needed to achieve
a total illuminance of up to 50 fc for reading and writing. For illuminance recommendations for
specific visual tasks, refer to the IES Lighting Handbook, 1993, or to the IES Recommended Practice
No. 24 (for VDT lighting).

Quality Measures
 z Visual comfort probability (VCP) indicates the percent of people who are comfortable with the
glare from a fixture.
z Spacing criteria (SC) refers to the maximum recommended distance between fixtures to ensure
uniformity.
z Color rendering index (CRI) indicates the color appearance of an object under a source as
compared to a reference source.

Quality of Illumination

Improvements in lighting quality can yield high dividends for US businesses. Gains in worker
productivity may result by providing corrected light levels with reduced glare. Although the cost of
energy for lighting is substantial, it is small compared with the cost of labor. Therefore, these gains
in productivity may be even more valuable than the energy savings associated with new lighting
technologies. In retail spaces, attractive and comfortable lighting designs can attract clientele and
enhance sales.

Three quality issues are addressed in this section.

z glare
z uniformity of illuminance
z color rendition

Glare

Perhaps the most important factor with respect to lighting quality is glare. Glare is a sensation caused
by luminances in the visual field that are too bright. Discomfort, annoyance, or reduced productivity
can result.

A bright object alone does not necessarily cause glare, but a bright object in front of a dark
background, however, usually will cause glare. Contrast is the relationship between the luminance of
an object and its background. Although the visual task generally becomes easier with increased
contrast, too much contrast causes glare and makes the visual task much more difficult.

You can reduce glare or luminance ratios by not exceeding suggested light levels and by using
lighting equipment designed to reduce glare. A louver or lens is commonly used to block direct
viewing of a light source. Indirect lighting, or uplighting, can create a low glare environment by
uniformly lighting the ceiling. Also, proper fixture placement can reduce reflected glare on work
surfaces or computer screens. Standard data now provided with luminaire specifications include
tables of its visual comfort probability (VCP) ratings for various room geometries. The VCP index
provides an indication of the percentage of people in a given space that would find the glare from a
fixture to be acceptable. A minimum VCP of 70 is recommended for commercial interiors, while
luminaires with VCPs exceeding 80 are recommended in computer areas.

Uniformity of Illuminance on Tasks

The uniformity of illuminance is a quality issue that addresses how evenly light spreads over a task
area. Although a room's average illuminance may be appropriate, two factors may compromise
uniformity.
 z improper fixture placement based on the luminaire's spacing criteria (ratio of maxim
recommended fixture spacing distance to mounting height above task height)
z fixtures that are retrofit with reflectors that narrow the light distribution

Non-uniform illuminance causes several problems:

z inadequate light levels in some areas

z visual discomfort when tasks require frequent shifting of view from underlit to overlit areas
z bright spots and patches of light on floors and walls that cause distraction and generate a low
quality appearance

Color Rendition

The ability to see colors properly is another aspect of lighting quality. Light sources vary in their
ability to accurately reflect the true colors of people and objects. The color rendering index (CRI)
scale is used to compare the effect of a light source on the color appearance of its surroundings.

A scale of 0 to 100 defines the CRI. A higher CRI means better color rendering, or less color shift.
CRIs in the range of 75-100 are considered excellent, while 65-75 are good. The range of 55-65 is
fair, and 0-55 is poor. Under higher CRI sources, surface colors appear brighter, improving the
aesthetics of the space. Sometimes, higher CRI sources create the illusion of higher illuminance
levels.

The CRI values for selected light sources are tabulated with other lamp data in Exhibit 3.

Back to the Table of Contents

LIGHT SOURCES

z Characteristics of Light Sources

z Incandescent Lamps
z Fluorescent Lamps
z High-Intensity Discharge Lamps

Commercial, industrial, and retail facilities use several different light sources. Each lamp type has
particular advantages; selecting the appropriate source depends on installation requirements, life-
cycle cost, color qualities, dimming capability, and the effect wanted. Three types of lamps are
commonly used:

z incandescent
z fluorescent
z high intensity discharge
z mercury vapor
z metal halide
z high pressure sodium
z low pressure sodium

Before describing each of these lamp types, the following sections describe characteristics that are
common to all of them.
Characteristics of Light Sources

Electric light sources have three characteristics: efficiency, color temperature, and color rendering
index (CRI). Exhibit 4 summarizes these characteristics.

Efficiency

Some lamp types are more efficient in converting energy into visible light than others. The efficacy
of a lamp refers to the number of lumens leaving the lamp compared to the number of watts required
by the lamp (and ballast). It is expressed in lumens per watt. Sources with higher efficacy require
less electrical energy to light a space.

Color Temperature

Another characteristic of a light source is the color temperature. This is a measurement of "warmth"
or "coolness" provided by the lamp. People usually prefer a warmer source in lower illuminance
areas, such as dining areas and living rooms, and a cooler source in higher illuminance areas, such as
grocery stores.

Color temperature refers to the color of a blackbody radiator at a given absolute temperature,
expressed in Kelvins. A blackbody radiator changes color as its temperature increases ( first to red,
then to orange, yellow, and finally bluish white at the highest temperature. A "warm" color light
source actually has a lower color temperature. For example, a cool-white fluorescent lamp
appears bluish in color with a color temperature of around 4100 K. A warmer fluorescent lamp
appears more yellowish with a color temperature around 3000 K. Refer to Exhibit 5 for color
temperatures of various light sources.

Color Rendering Index

The CRI is a relative scale (ranging from 0 - 100). indicating how perceived colors match actual
colors. It measures the degree that perceived colors of objects, illuminated by a given light source,
conform to the colors of those same objects when they are lighted by a reference standard light
source. The higher the color rendering index, the less color shift or distortion occurs.

The CRI number does not indicate which colors will shift or by how much; it is rather an indication
of the average shift of eight standard colors. Two different light sources may have identical CRI
values, but colors may appear quite different under these two sources.

Incandescent Lamps

Standard Incandescent Lamp

Incandescent lamps are one of the oldest electric lighting technologies available. With efficacies
ranging from 6 to 24 lumens per watt, incandescent lamps are the least energy-efficient electric light
source and have a relatively short life (750-2500 hours).

Light is produced by passing a current through a tungsten filament, causing it to become hot and
glow. With use, the tungsten slowly evaporates, eventually causing the filament to break.

These lamps are available in many shapes and finishes. The two most common types of shapes are
the common "A-type" lamp and the reflector-shaped lamps.

Tungsten-Halogen Lamps

The tungsten halogen lamp is another type of incandescent lamp. In a halogen lamp, a small quartz
capsule contains the filament and a halogen gas. The small capsule size allows the filament to
operate at a higher temperature, which produces light at a higher efficacy than standard
incandescents. The halogen gas combines with the evaporated tungsten, redepositing it on the
filament. This process extends the life of the filament and keeps the bulb wall from blackening and
reducing light output.

Because the filament is relatively small, this source is often used where a highly focused beam is
desired. Compact halogen lamps are popular in retail applications for display and accent lighting. In
addition, tungsten-halogen lamps generally produce a whiter light than other incandescent lamps, are
more efficient, last longer, and have improved lamp lumen depreciation.

Incandescent A-Lamp

More efficient halogen lamps are available. These sources use an infrared coating on the quartz bulb
or an advanced reflector design to redirect infrared light back to the filament. The filament then
glows hotter and the efficiency of the source is increased.

Fluorescent Lamps

Fluorescent lamps are the most commonly used commercial light source in North America. In fact,
fluorescent lamps illuminate 71% of the commercial space in the United States. Their popularity can
be attributed to their relatively high efficacy, diffuse light distribution characteristics, and long
operating life.

z Fluorescent lamp construction consists of a glass tube with the following features:
z filled with an argon or argon-krypton gas and a small amount of mercury
z coated on the inside with phosphors
z equipped with an electrode at both ends

Fluorescent lamps provide light by the following process:

z An electric discharge (current) is maintained between the electrodes through the mercury
vapor and inert gas.
z This current excites the mercury atoms, causing them to emit non-visible ultraviolet (UV)
radiation.
z This UV radiation is converted into visible light by the phosphors lining the tube.

Discharge lamps (such as fluorescent) require a ballast to provide correct starting voltage and to
regulate the operating current after the lamp has started.

Full-Size Fluorescent Lamps

Full-size fluorescent lamps are available in several shapes, including straight, U-shaped, and circular
configurations. Lamp diameters range from 1" to 2.5". The most common lamp type is the four-foot
(F40), 1.5" diameter (T12) straight fluorescent lamp. More efficient fluorescent lamps are now
available in smaller diameters, including the T10 (1.25 ") and T8 (1").

Fluorescent lamps are available in color temperatures ranging from warm (2700(K) "incandescent-
like" colors to very cool (6500(K) "daylight" colors. "Cool white" (4100(K) is the most common
fluorescent lamp color. Neutral white (3500(K) is becoming popular for office and retail use.

Improvements in the phosphor coating of fluorescent lamps have improved color rendering and
made some fluorescent lamps acceptable in many applications previously dominated by incandescent
lamps.

Performance Considerations

The performance of any luminaire system depends on how well its components work together. With
fluorescent lamp-ballast systems, light output, input watts, and efficacy are sensitive to changes in
the ambient temperature. When the ambient temperature around the lamp is significantly above or
below 25C (77F), the performance of the system can change. Exhibit 6 shows this relationship for
two common lamp-ballast systems: the F40T12 lamp with a magnetic ballast and the F32T8 lamp
with an electronic ballast.

As you can see, the optimum operating temperature for the F32T8 lamp-ballast system is higher than
for the F40T12 system. Thus, when the ambient temperature is greater than 25C (77F), the
performance of the F32T8 system may be higher than the performance under ANSI conditions.
Lamps with smaller diameters (such as T-5 twin tube lamps) peak at even higher ambient
temperatures.

Compact Fluorescent Lamps

Advances in phosphor coatings and reductions of tube diameters have facilitated the development of
compact fluorescent lamps.

Manufactured since the early 1980s, they are a long-lasting, energy-efficient substitute for the
incandescent lamp.

Various wattages, color temperatures, and sizes are available. The wattages of the compact
fluorescents range from 5 to 40 ( replacing incandescent lamps ranging from 25 to 150 watts ( and
provide energy savings of 60 to 75 percent. While producing light similar in color to incandescent
sources, the life expectancy of a compact fluorescent is about 10 times that of a standard
incandescent lamp. Note, however, that the use of compact fluorescent lamps is very limited in
dimming applications.

The compact fluorescent lamp with an Edison screw-base offers an easy means to upgrade an
incandescent luminaire. Screw-in compact fluorescents are available in two types:

z Integral Units. These consist of a compact fluorescent lamp and ballast in self-contained units.
Some integral units also include a reflector and/or glass enclosure.
z Modular Units. The modular type of retrofit compact fluorescent lamp is similar to the integral
units, except that the lamp is replaceable.
A Specifier Report that compares the performance of various name-brand compact fluorescent
lamps is now available from the National Lighting Product Information Program ("Screw-Base
Compact Fluorescent Lamp Products," Specifier Reports, Volume 1, Issue 6, April 1993).

High-Intensity Discharge Lamps

High-intensity discharge (HID) lamps are similar to fluorescents in that an arc is generated between
two electrodes. The arc in a HID source is shorter, yet it generates much more light, heat, and
pressure within the arc tube.

Originally developed for outdoor and industrial applications, HID lamps are also used in office,
retail, and other indoor applications. Their color rendering characteristics have been improved and
lower wattages have recently become available ( as low as 18 watts.

There are several advantages to HID sources:

z relatively long life (5,000 to 24,000+ hrs)

z relatively high lumen output per watt
z relatively small in physical size

However, the following operating limitations must also be considered. First, HID lamps require time
to warm up. It varies from lamp to lamp, but the average warm-up time is 2 to 6 minutes. Second,
HID lamps have a "restrike" time, meaning a momentary interruption of current or a voltage drop too
low to maintain the arc will extinguish the lamp. At that point, the gases inside the lamp are too hot
to ionize, and time is needed for the gases to cool and pressure to drop before the arc will restrike.
This process of restriking takes between 5 and 15 minutes, depending on which HID source is being
used. Therefore, good applications of HID lamps are areas where lamps are not switched on and off
intermittently.

The following HID sources are listed in increasing order of efficacy:

z mercury vapor
z metal halide
z high pressure sodium
z low pressure sodium

Mercury Vapor

Clear mercury vapor lamps, which produce a blue-green light, consist of a mercury-vapor arc tube
with tungsten electrodes at both ends. These lamps have the lowest efficacies of the HID family,
rapid lumen depreciation, and a low color rendering index. Because of these characteristics, other
HID sources have replaced mercury vapor lamps in many applications. However, mercury vapor
lamps are still popular sources for landscape illumination because of their 24,000 hour lamp life and
vivid portrayal of green landscapes.

The arc is contained in an inner bulb called the arc tube. The arc tube is filled with high purity
mercury and argon gas. The arc tube is enclosed within the outer bulb, which is filled with nitrogen.

Color-improved mercury lamps use a phosphor coating on the inner wall of the bulb to improve the
color rendering index, resulting in slight reductions in efficiency.
Metal Halide

These lamps are similar to mercury vapor lamps but use metal halide additives inside the arc tube
along with the mercury and argon. These additives enable the lamp to produce more visible light per
watt with improved color rendition.

Wattages range from 32 to 2,000, offering a wide range of indoor and outdoor applications. The
efficacy of metal halide lamps ranges from 50 to 115 lumens per watt ( typically about double that of
mercury vapor. In short, metal halide lamps have several advantages.

z high efficacy
z good color rendering
z wide range of wattages

However, they also have some operating limitations:

z The rated life of metal halide lamps is shorter than other HID sources; lower-wattage lamps
last less than 7500 hours while high-wattage lamps last an average of 15,000 to 20,000 hours.
z The color may vary from lamp to lamp and may shift over the life of the lamp and during
dimming.

Because of the good color rendition and high lumen output, these lamps are good for sports arenas
and stadiums. Indoor uses include large auditoriums and convention halls. These lamps are
sometimes used for general outdoor lighting, such as parking facilities, but a high pressure sodium
system is typically a better choice.

High Pressure Sodium

The high pressure sodium (HPS) lamp is widely used for outdoor and industrial applications. Its
higher efficacy makes it a better choice than metal halide for these applications, especially when
good color rendering is not a priority. HPS lamps differ from mercury and metal-halide lamps in that
they do not contain starting electrodes; the ballast circuit includes a high-voltage electronic starter.
The arc tube is made of a ceramic material which can withstand temperatures up to 2372F. It is filled
with xenon to help start the arc, as well as a sodium-mercury gas mixture.

The efficacy of the lamp is very high ( as much as 140 lumens per watt. For example, a 400-watt
high pressure sodium lamp produces 50,000 initial lumens. The same wattage metal halide lamp
produces 40,000 initial lumens, and the 400-watt mercury vapor lamp produces only 21,000 initially.

Sodium, the major element used, produces the "golden" color that is characteristic of HPS lamps.
Although HPS lamps are not generally recommended for applications where color rendering is
critical, HPS color rendering properties are being improved. Some HPS lamps are now available in
"deluxe" and "white" colors that provide higher color temperature and improved color rendition. The
efficacy of low-wattage "white" HPS lamps is lower than that of metal halide lamps (lumens per watt
of low-wattage metal halide is 75-85, while white HPS is 50-60 LPW).

Low Pressure Sodium

Although low pressure sodium (LPS) lamps are similar to fluorescent systems (because they are
low pressure systems), they are commonly included in the HID family. LPS lamps are the most
efficacious light sources, but they produce the poorest quality light of all the lamp types. Being a
monochromatic light source, all colors appear black, white, or shades of gray under an LPS source.
LPS lamps are available in wattages ranging from 18-180.

LPS lamp use has been generally limited to outdoor applications such as security or street lighting
and indoor, low-wattage applications where color quality is not important (e.g. stairwells). However,
because the color rendition is so poor, many municipalities do not allow them for roadway lighting.

Because the LPS lamps are "extended" (like fluorescent), they are less effective in directing and
controlling a light beam, compared with "point sources" like high-pressure sodium and metal halide.
Therefore, lower mounting heights will provide better results with LPS lamps. To compare a LPS
installation with other alternatives, calculate the installation efficacy as the average maintained
footcandles divided by the input watts per square foot of illuminated area. The input wattage of an
LPS system increases over time to maintain consistent light output over the lamp life.

The low-pressure sodium lamp can explode if the sodium comes in contact with water. Dispose of
these lamps according to the manufacturer's instructions.

Back to the Table of Contents

BALLASTS

z Fluorescent Ballasts
z HID Ballasts

All discharge lamps (fluorescent and HID) require an auxiliary piece of equipment called a ballast.
Ballasts have three main functions:

z provide correct starting voltage, because lamps require a higher voltage to start than to
operate
z match the line voltage to the operating voltage of the lamp
z limit the lamp current to prevent immediate destruction, because once the arc is struck the
lamp impedance decreases

Because ballasts are an integral component of the lighting system, they have a direct impact on light
output. The ballast factor is the ratio of a lamp's light output using a standard reference ballast,
compared to the lamp's rated light output on a laboratory standard ballast. General purpose ballasts
have a ballast factor that is less than one; special ballasts may have a ballast factor greater than one.

Fluorescent Ballasts

The two general types of fluorescent ballasts are magnetic and electronic ballasts:

Magnetic Ballasts

Magnetic ballasts (also referred to as electromagnetic ballasts) fall into one of the following
categories:
 z standard core-coil (no longer sold in the US for most applications)
z high-efficiency core-coil
z cathode cut-out or hybrid

Standard core-coil magnetic ballasts are essentially core-coil transformers that are relatively
inefficient in operating fluorescent lamps. The high-efficiency ballast replaces the aluminum wiring
and lower grade steel of the standard ballast with copper wiring and enhanced ferromagnetic
materials. The result of these material upgrades is a 10 percent system efficiency improvement.
However, note that these "high efficiency" ballasts are the least efficient magnetic ballasts that are
available for operating full-size fluorescent lamps. More efficient ballasts are described below.

"Cathode cut-out" (or "hybrid") ballasts are high-efficiency core-coil ballasts that incorporate
electronic components that cut off power to the lamp cathodes (filaments) after the lamps are lit,
resulting in an additional 2-watt savings per standard lamp. Also, many partial-output T12 hybrid
ballasts provide up to 10% less light output while consuming up to 17% less energy than energy-
efficient magnetic ballasts. Full-output T8 hybrid ballasts are nearly as efficient as rapid-start two-
lamp T8 electronic ballasts.

Electronic Ballasts

In nearly every full-size fluorescent lighting application, electronic ballasts can be used in place of
conventional magnetic "core-and-coil" ballasts. Electronic ballasts improve fluorescent system
efficacy by converting the standard 60 Hz input frequency to a higher frequency, usually 25,000 to
40,000 Hz. Lamps operating at these higher frequencies produce about the same amount of light,
while consuming 12 to 25 percent less power. Other advantages of electronic ballasts include less
audible noise, less weight, virtually no lamp flicker, and dimming capabilities (with specific ballast
models).

There are three electronic ballast designs available:

Standard T12 electronic ballasts (430 mA)

These ballasts are designed for use with conventional (T12 or T10) fluorescent lighting systems.
Some electronic ballasts that are designed for use with 4' lamps can operate up to four lamps at a
time. Parallel wiring is another feature now available that allows all companion lamps in the ballast
circuit to continue operating in the event of a lamp failure. Electronic ballasts are also available for 8'
standard and high-output T12 lamps.

T8 Electronic ballasts (265 mA)

Specifically designed for use with T8 (1-inch diameter) lamps, the T8 electronic ballast provides the
highest efficiency of any fluorescent lighting system. Some T8 electronic ballasts are designed to
start the lamps in the conventional rapid start mode, while others are operated in the instant start
mode. The use of instant start T8 electronic ballasts may result in up to 25 percent reduction in lamp
life (at 3 hours per start) but produces slight increases in efficiency and light output. (Note: Lamp life
ratings for instant start and rapid start are the same for 12 or more hours per start.)

Dimmable electronic ballasts

These ballasts permit the light output of the lamps to be dimmed based on input from manual
dimmer controls or from devices that sense daylight or occupancy.
Types of Fluorescent Circuits

There are three main types of fluorescent circuits:

z rapid start
z instant start
z preheat

The specific fluorescent circuit in use can be identified by the label on the ballast.

The rapid start circuit is the most used system today. Rapid start ballasts provide continuous lamp
filament heating during lamp operation (except when used with a cathode cut-out ballast or lamp).
Users notice a very short delay after "flipping the switch," before the lamp is started.

The instant start system ignites the arc within the lamp instantly. This ballast provides a higher
starting voltage, which eliminates the need for a separate starting circuit. This higher starting voltage
causes more wear on the filaments, resulting in reduced lamp life compared with rapid starting.

The preheat circuit was used when fluorescent lamps first became available. This technology is
used very little today, except for low-wattage magnetic ballast applications such as compact
fluorescents. A separate starting switch, called a starter, is used to aid in forming the arc. The
filament needs some time to reach proper temperature, so the lamp does not strike for a few seconds.

HID Ballasts

Like fluorescent lamps, HID lamps require a ballast to start and operate. The purposes of the ballast
are similar: to provide starting voltage, to limit the current, and to match the line voltage to the arc
voltage.

With HID ballasts, a major performance consideration is lamp wattage regulation when the line
voltage varies. With HPS lamps, the ballast must compensate for changes in the lamp voltage as well
as for changes in the line voltages.

Installing the wrong HID ballast can cause a variety of problems:

z waste energy and increase operating cost

z severely shorten lamp life
z significantly add to system maintenance costs
z produce lower-than-desired light levels
z increase wiring and circuit breaker installation costs
z result in lamp cycling when voltage dips occur

Capacitive switching is available in new HID luminaires with special HID ballasts. The most
common application for HID capacitive switching is in occupancy-sensed bi-level lighting control.
Upon sensing motion, the occupancy sensor will send a signal to the bi-level HID system that will
rapidly bring the light levels from a standby reduced level to approximately 80% of full output,
followed by the normal warm-up time between 80% and 100% of full light output. Depending on the
lamp type and wattage, the standby lumens are roughly 15-40% of full output and the input watts are
30-60% of full wattage. Therefore, during periods that the space is unoccupied and the system is
dimmed, savings of 40-70% are achieved.

Electronic ballasts for some types of HID lamps are starting to become commercially available.
These ballasts offer the advantages of reduced size and weight, as well as better color control;
however, electronic HID ballasts offer minimal efficiency gains over magnetic HID ballasts.

Back to the Table of Contents

LUMINAIRES

z Luminaire Efficiency
z Directing Light

A luminaire, or light fixture, is a unit consisting of the following components:

z lamps
z lamp sockets
z ballasts
z reflective material
z lenses, refractors, or louvers
z housing

Luminaire

The main function of the luminaire is to direct light using reflective and shielding materials. Many
lighting upgrade projects consist of replacing one or more of these components to improve fixture
efficiency. Alternatively, users may consider replacing the entire luminaire with one that I designed
to efficiently provide the appropriate quantity and quality of illumination.

There are several different types of luminaires. The following is a listing of some of the common
luminaire types:

z general illumination fixtures such as 2x4, 2x2, & 1x4 fluorescent troffers
z downlights
z indirect lighting (light reflected off the ceiling/walls)
z spot or accent lighting
z task lighting
z outdoor area and flood lighting

Luminaire Efficiency

The efficiency of a luminaire is the percentage of lamp lumens produced that actually exit the
fixture. The use of louvers can improve visual comfort, but because they reduce the lumen output of
the fixture, efficiency is reduced. Generally, the most efficient fixtures have the poorest visual
comfort (e.g. bare strip industrial fixtures). Conversely, the fixture that provides the highest visual
comfort level is the least efficient. Thus, a lighting designer must determine the best compromise
between efficiency and VCP when specifying luminaires. Recently, some manufacturers have started
offering fixtures with excellent VCP and efficiency. These so-called "super fixtures" combine state-
of-the-art lens or louver designs to provide the best of both worlds.

Surface deterioration and accumulated dirt in older, poorly maintained fixtures can also cause
reductions in luminaire efficiency. Refer to Lighting Maintenance for more information.
Directing Light

Each of the above luminaire types consist of a number of components that are designed to work
together to produce and direct light. Because the subject of light production has been covered by the
previous section, the text below focuses on the components used to direct the light produced by the
lamps.

Reflectors

Reflectors are designed to redirect the light emitted from a lamp in order to achieve a desired
distribution of light intensity outside of the luminaire.

In most incandescent spot and flood lights, highly specular (mirror-like) reflectors are usually built
into the lamps.

One energy-efficient upgrade option is to install a custom-designed reflector to enhance the light
control and efficiency of the fixture, which may allow partial delamping. Retrofit reflectors are
useful for upgrading the efficiency of older, deteriorated luminaire surfaces. A variety of reflector
materials are available: highly reflective white paint, silver film laminate, and two grades of
anodized aluminum sheet (standard or enhanced reflectivity). Silver film laminate is generally
considered to have the highest reflectance, but is considered less durable.

Proper design and installation of reflectors can have more effect on performance than the reflector
materials. In combination with delamping, however, the use of reflectors may result in reduced light
output and may redistribute the light, which may or may not be acceptable for a specific space or
application. To ensure acceptable performance from reflectors, arrange for a trial installation and
measure "before" and "after" light levels using the procedures outlined in Lighting Evaluations. For
specific name-brand performance data, refer to Specifier Reports, "Specular Reflectors," Volume 1,
Issue 3, National Lighting Product Information Program.

Lenses and Louvers

Most indoor commercial fluorescent fixtures use either a lens or a louver to prevent direct viewing of
the lamps. Light that is emitted in the so-called "glare zone" (angles above 45 degrees from the
fixture's vertical axis) can cause visual discomfort and reflections, which reduce contrast on work
surfaces or computer screens. Lenses and louvers attempt to control these problems.

Lenses. Lenses made from clear ultraviolet-stabilized acrylic plastic deliver the most light output and
uniformity of all shielding media. However, they provide less glare control than louvered fixtures.
Clear lens types include prismatic, batwing, linear batwing, and polarized lenses. Lenses are usually
much less expensive than louvers. White translucent diffusers are much less efficient than clear
lenses, and they result in relatively low visual comfort probability. New low-glare lens materials are
available for retrofit and provide high visual comfort (VCP>80) and high efficiency.

Louvers. Louvers provide superior glare control and high visual comfort compared with lens-
diffuser systems. The most common application of louvers is to eliminate the fixture glare reflected
on computer screens. So-called "deep-cell" parabolic louvers ( with 5-7" cell apertures and depths of
2-4" ( provide a good balance between visual comfort and luminaire efficiency. Although small-cell
parabolic louvers provide the highest level of visual comfort, they reduce luminaire efficiency to
about 35-45 percent. For retrofit applications, both deep-cell and small-cell louvers are available for
use with existing fixtures. Note that the deep-cell louver retrofit adds 2-4" to the overall depth of a
troffer; verify that sufficient plenum depth is available before specifying the deep-cell retrofit.

Distribution

One of the primary functions of a luminaire is to direct the light to where it is needed. The light
distribution produced by luminaires is characterized by the Illuminating Engineering Society as
follows:

z Direct ( 90 to 100 percent of the light is directed downward for maximum use.
z Indirect ( 90 to 100 percent of the light is directed to the ceilings and upper walls and is
reflected to all parts of a room.
z Semi-Direct ( 60 to 90 percent of the light is directed downward with the remainder directed
upward.
z General Diffuse or Direct-Indirect ( equal portions of the light are directed upward and
downward.
z Highlighting ( the beam projection distance and focusing ability characterize this luminaire.

The lighting distribution that is characteristic of a given luminaire is described using the candela
distribution provided by the luminaire manufacturer (see diagram on next page). The candela
distribution is represented by a curve on a polar graph showing the relative luminous intensity 360
around the fixture ( looking at a cross-section of the fixture. This information is useful because it
shows how much light is emitted in each direction and the relative proportions of downlighting and
uplighting. The cut-off angle is the angle, measured from straight down, where the fixture begins to
shield the light source and no direct light from the source is visible. The shielding angle is the angle,
measured from horizontal, through which the fixture provides shielding to prevent direct viewing of
the light source. The shielding and cut-off angles add up to 90 degrees.

The lighting upgrade products mentioned in this document are described in more detail in Lighting
Upgrade Technologies.

Back to the Table of Contents

SELECTED REFERENCES
z Individual Listings
z Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)
z Illuminating Engineering Society (IES)
z National Lighting Bureau (NLB)
z National Lighting Product Information Program (NLPIP)
z Periodicals
z Other EPA Green Lights Publications

Individual Listings

Advanced Lighting Guidelines: 1993, Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)/California

Energy Commission (CEC)/United States Department of Energy (DOE), May 1993.

EPRI, the CEC, and the DOE have collaborated to produce the 1993 update of the Advanced
Lighting Guidelines (originally published in 1990 by the CEC). The Guidelines include four new
chapters that address lighting controls. This series of guidelines provides comprehensive and
objective information about current lighting equipment and controls.

The Guidelines address the following areas:

z lighting design practice

z computer-aided lighting design
z luminaires and lighting systems
z energy-efficient fluorescent ballasts
z full-size fluorescent lamps
z compact fluorescent lamps
z tungsten-halogen lamps
z metal halide and HPS lamps
z daylighting and lumen maintenance
z occupant sensors
z time-scheduling systems
z retrofit control technologies

Besides providing technology overviews and applications, each chapter concludes with guideline
specifications to use in accurately designating lighting upgrade components. The Guidelines also
tabulate representative performance data, which can be very difficult to locate in product literature.

To obtain a copy of the Advanced Lighting Guidelines (1993), contact your local utility (if your
utility is a member of EPRI). Otherwise, call the CEC at (916) 654-5200.

The Association of Energy Engineers uses this text to prepare applicants to take the Certified
Lighting Efficiency Professional (CLEP) examination. This 480-page book is particularly useful for
learning about illuminance calculations, basic design considerations, and the operating characteristics
of each light source family. It also provides application guidelines for industrial, office, retail, and
outdoor lighting.

You can order this textbook from the Association of Energy Engineers by calling (404) 925-
9558.

ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1-1989, American Society of Heating Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning

Engineers (ASHRAE) and Illuminating Engineering Society (IES), 1989.

Commonly known as "Standard 90.1," ASHRAE/IES 90.1-1989 is the efficiency standard that Green
Lights participants agree to follow when designing new lighting systems. Standard 90.1 is currently a
national, voluntary consensus standard. However, this standard is becoming law in many states. The
Energy Policy Act of 1992 requires that all states certify by October 1994 that their commercial
energy code provisions meet or exceed the requirements Standard 90.1.

Green Lights participants only need to meet the lighting system portion of the standard. Standard
90.1 sets maximum wattage densities (W/SF) for lighting systems based on the type of building or
expected uses within each space. The lighting portion of Standard 90.1 does not apply to the
following: outdoor manufacturing or processing facilities, theatrical lighting, specialty lighting,
emergency lighting, signage, retail display windows, and dwelling unit lighting. Daylighting and
lighting controls receive consideration and credits, and minimum efficiency standards are specified
for fluorescent lamp ballasts based on the Federal Ballast Standards.

You can purchase Standard 90.1 by contacting ASHRAE at (404) 636-8400 or IES at (212) 248-
5000.
Lighting Management Handbook, Craig DiLouie, 1993.

This 300-page non-technical reference provides a clear overview of lighting management principles.
It places special emphasis on the importance of effective maintenance and the benefits of a well
planned and executed lighting management program. The contents are organized as follows:

z Fundamentals and Technology

z The Building Survey
z Effective Illumination (for People)
z Retrofitting Economics
z Maintenance
z Retrofitting Financing
z Green Engineering (Environmental Impacts)
z Getting Help
z Success Stories

In addition, the book's appendices include general technical information, worksheets, and product
guides. To purchase this reference, call the Association of Energy Engineers at (404) 925-9558.

Illuminations: A Training Textbook for Senior Lighting Technicians, interNational Association

of Lighting Management Companies (NALMCO), First Edition, 1993.

Illuminations is a 74-page course workbook for use by Apprentice Lighting Technicians (NALMCO
designation) for upgrading their status to Senior Lighting Technician. The workbook consists of
seven chapters, each with a quiz for self-testing. Answers are provided in the back of the book.

z Service Basics (e.g., electricity, instrumentation, disposal issues, etc.)

z Lamp Operation (e.g., lamp construction and operation ( all types, color effects)

z Ballast Operation (e.g., fluorescent & HID ballast components, types, wattage, ballast factor,
harmonics, starting temperature, efficacy, replacement)

z Troubleshooting (e.g., visual symptoms, possible causes, explanations and/or remedies)

z Controls (e.g., photocells, time clocks, occupancy sensors, dimmers, EMS)

z Lighting Upgrade Devices and Technologies (e.g., reflectors, compact fluorescents, ballast
upgrades, correcting overlit situations, lenses and louvers, HID conversions, measuring energy
effectiveness)

z Emergency Lighting (e.g., exit signs, fixture types, applications, batteries, maintenance)

Illuminations is clear and understandable. The publication's greatest strength is its extensive
illustrations and photos, which help to clarify the ideas discussed. The textbook for Apprentice
Lighting Technicians is also available ( entitled Lighten Up ( and is recommended for newcomers to
the lighting field.

To order, call the NALMCO at (609) 799-5501.

Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)

Commercial Lighting Efficiency Resource Book, EPRI, CU-7427, September 1991.

The Commercial Lighting Efficiency Resource Book provides an overview of efficient commercial
lighting technologies and programs available to the end-user. Besides providing an overview of
lighting conservation opportunities, this 144-page document provides valuable information about
lighting education and information in the following areas:

z directory of energy and environmental groups extensive annotated lighting reference

bibliographies
z directory of lighting demonstration centers
z summaries of regulations and codes related to lighting
z directory of lighting education institutions, courses, and seminars
z listings of lighting magazines and journals
z directory and descriptions of lighting research organizations
z directory of lighting professional groups and trade associations

To obtain a copy of EPRI Lighting Publications, contact your local utility (if your utility is a
member of EPRI) or contact the EPRI Publications Distribution Center at (510) 934-4212.

The following lighting publications are available from EPRI. Each publication contains a thorough
description of the technologies, their advantages, their applications, and case studies.

z High Intensity Discharge Lighting (10 pages), BR-101739

z Electronic Ballasts (6 pages), BR-101886
z Occupancy Sensors (6 pages), BR-100323
z Compact Fluorescent Lamps (6 pages), CU.2042R.4.93
z Specular Retrofit Reflectors (6 pages), CU.2046R.6.92
z Retrofit Lighting Technologies (10 pages), CU.3040R.7.91

In addition, EPRI offers a series of 2-page informational bulletins that cover such topics as lighting
maintenance, lighting quality, VDT lighting, and lamp life.

To obtain a copy of EPRI Lighting Publications, contact your local utility (if your utility is a
member of EPRI). Otherwise, contact the EPRI Publications Distribution Center at (510) 934-
4212.

Lighting Fundamentals Handbook, Electric Power Research Institute, TR-101710, March

1993.

This handbook provides basic information on lighting principles, lighting equipment, and other
considerations related to lighting design. It is not intended to be an up-to-date reference on current
lighting products and equipment. The handbook has three major sections:

z Physics of Light (e.g., light, vision, optics, photometry)

z Lighting Equipment and Technology (e.g., lamps, luminaires, lighting controls)
z Lighting Design Decisions (e.g., illuminance targets, quality, economics, codes, power quality,
photobiology and waste disposal)

To obtain a copy of EPRI Lighting Publications, contact your local utility (if your utility is a
member of EPRI) or contact the EPRI Publications Distribution Center at (510) 934-4212.

Illuminating Engineering Society (IES)

ED-100 Introductory Lighting

Consisting of approximately 300 pages in a binder, this education program is an updated version of
the 1985 fundamentals training materials. This set of 10 lessons is intended for those who want a
thorough overview of the lighting field.

z Light and Color

z Light, Vision, and Perception
z Light Sources
z Luminaires and their Photometric Data
z Illuminance Calculations
z Lighting Applications for Visual Performance
z Lighting for Visual Impact
z Exterior Lighting
z Energy Management/Lighting Economics
z Daylighting

ED-150 Intermediate Lighting

This course is the "next step" for those who have already completed the ED-100 fundamentals
program or who wish to increase their knowledge gained through practical experience. The IES
Technical Knowledge Examination is based on the ED-150 level of knowledge. A 2-inch binder
contains thirteen lessons.

z Vision
z Color
z Light Sources & Ballasts
z Optical Control
z Illuminance Calculations
z Psychological Aspects of Lighting
z Design Concepts
z Computers in Lighting Design and Analysis
z Lighting Economics
z Daylighting Calculations
z Electrical Quantities/Distribution
z Electrical Controls
z Lighting Mathematics

IES Lighting Handbook, 8th Edition, IES of North America, 1993.

This 1000-page technical reference is a combination of two earlier volumes that separately addressed
reference information and applications. Considered the "bible" of illumination engineering, the
Handbook provides broad coverage of all phases of lighting disciplines. The 34 chapters are
organized into five general areas.

z Science of Lighting (e.g., optics, measurement, vision, color, photobiology)

z Lighting Engineering (e.g., sources, luminaires, daylighting, calculations)
z Elements of Design (e.g., process, illuminance selection, economics, codes & standards)
z Lighting Applications, which discusses 15 unique case studies
z Special Topics (e.g., energy management, controls, maintenance, environmental issues)

In addition, the Handbook contains an extensive GLOSSARY and index, as well as many
illustrations, graphs, charts, equations, photographs and references.

The Handbook is an essential reference for the practicing lighting engineer. You can purchase the
manual from the publications office of IES at (212) 248-5000. IES members receive a price discount
on the Handbook.

IES Lighting Ready Reference, IES, 1989.

This book is a compendium of lighting information, including the following: terminology,

conversion factors, light source tables, illuminance recommendations, calculation data, energy
management considerations, cost analysis methods, and lighting survey procedures. The Ready
Reference includes the most often used material from the IES Lighting Handbook.

You can purchase the 168-page reference from the publications office of IES at (212) 248-5000.
IES members receive the Ready Reference upon joining the society.

VDT Lighting: IES Recommended Practice for Lighting Offices Containing Computer Visual
Display Terminals. IES of North America, 1990. IES RP-24-1989.

This lighting practice handbook provides recommendations for lighting offices where computer
VDTs are used. It also offers guidelines regarding light requirements for visual comfort and good
visibility, with an analysis of the impact of general lighting on VDT visual tasks.

To purchase a copy of RP-24, contact the IES at (212) 248-5000.

National Lighting Bureau (NLB)

The NLB is an information service established by the National Electrical Manufacturers Association
(NEMA). Its purpose is to create more awareness and appreciation of the benefits of good lighting.
NLB promotes all aspects of lighting energy management, ranging from productivity to lumen
output. Each year the NLB publishes articles in various periodicals and guidebooks written for the
lay person. These articles discuss specific lighting systems design, operation, maintenance
techniques, and system components.

The following publications are basic references that provide an overview of the subject and include
lighting applications.

z Office Lighting and Productivity

z Profiting from Lighting Modernization
z Getting the Most from Your Lighting Dollar
z Solving the Puzzle of VDT Viewing Problems
z NLB Guide to Industrial Lighting
z NLB Guide to Retail Lighting Management
z NLB Guide to Energy Efficient Lighting Systems
z Lighting for Safety and Security
z Performing a Lighting System Audit
z Lighting and Human Performance

To request a catalog or to order publications, call NLB at (202) 457-8437.

NEMA Guide to Lighting Controls, National Electrical Manufacturers Association, 1992.

This guide provides an overview of the following lighting control strategies: on/off, occupancy
recognition, scheduling, tuning, daylight harvesting, lumen depreciation compensation, and demand
control. In addition, it discusses hardware options and applications for each control strategy.

To order, call NLB at (202) 457-8437.

National Lighting Product Information Program (NLPIP)

This program publishes objective information about lighting upgrade products, and is co-sponsored
by four organizations: EPA's Green Lights, the Lighting Research Center, the New York State
Energy Research and Development Authority, and Northern States Power Company. Two types of
publications are available ( Specifier Reports and Lighting Answers.

To purchase these publications, fax your request to the Lighting Research Center, Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute at (518) 276-2999 (fax).

Specifier Reports

Each Specifier Report examines a particular lighting upgrade technology. Specifier Reports provide
background information about the technology and independent performance test results of name-
brand lighting upgrade products. NineSpecifier Reports have been published as of July 1994.

z Electronic Ballasts, December 1991

z Power Reducers, March 1992
z Specular Reflectors, July 1992
z Occupancy Sensors, October 1992
z Parking Lot Luminaires, January 1993
z Screwbase Compact Fluorescent Lamp Products, April 1993
z Cathode-Disconnect Ballasts, June 1993
z Exit Sign Technologies, January 1994
z Electronic Ballasts, May 1994

The Specifier Reports to be published in 1994 will address five topics: exit signs, electronic ballasts,
daylighting controls, compact fluorescent lamp luminaires, and replacements for incandescent
reflector lamps. HID systems for retail display lighting will also be researched in 1994.

Lighting Answers

Lighting Answers provide informative text about the performance characteristics of specific lighting
technologies but do not include comparative performance test results. Lighting Answers published in
1993 addressed T8 fluorescent systems and polarizing panels for fluorescent luminaires. Additional
Lighting Answers planned for publication in 1994 will cover task lighting and HID dimming. Other
topics under consideration are electronic ballast electromagnetic interference (EMI) and 2'x4'
lighting systems.

Periodicals

Energy User News, Chilton Publications, Published Monthly.

This monthly publication addresses many aspects of the energy industry. Each edition contains a
section devoted to lighting, usually featuring a case study and at least one article discussing a
lighting product or issue. Some Energy User News issues feature product guides, which are
technology-specific tables that list the participating manufacturers (with phone numbers) and the
attributes of their products. The September 1993 edition featured lighting as the centerpiece, and
contained the following information.

z several lighting articles and product announcements

z special report about lighting retrofit planning and power quality
 z technology report on tungsten-halogen lamps
z commentary on successful occupancy sensor retrofits
z product guides for CFLs, halogens, HIDs, reflectors, electronic ballasts

To order back issues, call (215) 964-4028.

Lighting Management & Maintenance, NALMCO, Published Monthly.

This monthly publication addresses issues and technologies directly related to upgrading and
maintaining commercial and industrial lighting systems. The following are some topics addressed in
Lighting Management and Maintenance: the lighting industry, legislation, new products and
applications, waste disposal, surveying, and the lighting management business.

To order a subscription, call NALMCO at (609) 799-5501.

Other EPA Green Lights Publications

Besides the Lighting Upgrade Manual, EPA publishes other documents, which are available free of
charge from the Green Lights Customer Service Center. Additionally, EPA's new faxline system
enables users to request and receive Green Lights marketing and technical information within
minutes by calling (202) 233-9659.

Green Lights Update

This monthly newsletter is the primary vehicle for informing Green Lights participants (and other
interested parties) about the latest program enhancements. Each month's newsletter addresses
lighting technologies, applications, case studies, and special events. Every issue contains the latest
schedule for Lighting Upgrade Workshops and a copy of the reporting form used by participants to
report completed projects for EPA.

To receive a free subscription to the Update, contact Green Lights Customer Service at (202)
775-6650 or fax (202) 775-6680.

Power Pages

Power Pages are short publications that address lighting technologies, applications, and specific
questions or issues about the Green Lights program. Look for announcements of Power Pages in the
Update newsletter.

These documents are available through the Green Lights faxline. To request fax delivery, call the
faxline at (202) 233-9659. Periodically contact the faxline to retrieve the latest information
from Green Lights. If you do not have a fax machine, contact Green Lights Customer Service
at (202) 775-6650.

Light Briefs

EPA publishes 2-page Light Briefs on various implementation issues. These publications are
intended to provide an introduction to technical and financial issues affecting upgrade decisions.
Four Light Briefs focus on technologies: occupancy sensors, electronic ballasts, specular reflectors,
and efficient fluorescent lamps. Other releases cover rolling financing strategies, financing options,
measuring lighting upgrade profitability, and waste disposal. Current copies have been mailed to all
Green Lights participants.

For additional information, please contact Green Lights Customer Service at (202) 775-6650 or
fax (202) 775-6680.

Green Lights Brochure

EPA has produced a four-color brochure for marketing the Green Lights program. It outlines the
program's goals and commitments, while describing what some of the participants are doing. This
document is an essential tool for any Green Lights marketing presentation.

To order copies of the brochure, please contact Green Lights Customer Service at (202) 775-
6650 or fax (202) 775-6680

Back to the Table of Contents

GLOSSARY

A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,I,L,M,N,O,P,Q,R,S,T,U,V,W,Z

AMPERE: The standard unit of measurement for electric current that is equal to one coulomb per
second. It defines the quantity of electrons moving past a given point in a circuit during a specific
period. Amp is an abbreviation.

ANSI: Abbreviation for American National Standards Institute.

ARC TUBE: A tube enclosed by the outer glass envelope of a HID lamp and made of clear quartz or
ceramic that contains the arc stream.

ASHRAE: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers

BAFFLE: A single opaque or translucent element used to control light distribution at certain angles.

BALLAST: A device used to operate fluorescent and HID lamps. The ballast provides the necessary
starting voltage, while limiting and regulating the lamp current during operation.

BALLAST CYCLING: Undesirable condition under which the ballast turns lamps on and off
(cycles) due to the overheating of the thermal switch inside the ballast. This may be due to incorrect
lamps, improper voltage being supplied, high ambient temperature around the fixture, or the early
stage of ballast failure.

BALLAST EFFICIENCY FACTOR: The ballast efficiency factor (BEF) is the ballast factor (see
below) divided by the input power of the ballast. The higher the BEF ( within the same lamp-ballast
type ( the more efficient the ballast.

BALLAST FACTOR: The ballast factor (BF) for a specific lamp-ballast combination represents the
percentage of the rated lamp lumens that will be produced by the combination.

CANDELA: Unit of luminous intensity, describing the intensity of a light source in a specific
direction.

CANDELA DISTRIBUTION: A curve, often on polar coordinates, illustrating the variation of

luminous intensity of a lamp or luminaire in a plane through the light center.
CANDLEPOWER: A measure of luminous intensity of a light source in a specific direction,
measured in candelas (see above).

CBM: Abbreviation for Certified Ballast Manufacturers Association.

CEC: Abbreviation for California Energy Commission.

COEFFICIENT OF UTILIZATION: The ratio of lumens from a luminaire received on the work
plane to the lumens produced by the lamps alone. (Also called "CU")

COLOR RENDERING INDEX (CRI): A scale of the effect of a light source on the color
appearance of an object compared to its color appearance under a reference light source. Expressed
on a scale of 1 to 100, where 100 indicates no color shift. A low CRI rating suggests that the colors
of objects will appear unnatural under that particular light source.

COLOR TEMPERATURE: The color temperature is a specification of the color appearance of a

light source, relating the color to a reference source heated to a particular temperature, measured by
the thermal unit Kelvin. The measurement can also be described as the "warmth" or "coolness" of a
light source. Generally, sources below 3200K are considered "warm;" while those above 4000K are
considered "cool" sources.

COMPACT FLUORESCENT: A small fluorescent lamp that is often used as an alternative to

incandescent lighting. The lamp life is about 10 times longer than incandescent lamps and is 3-4
times more efficacious. Also called PL, Twin-Tube, CFL, or BIAX lamps.

CONSTANT WATTAGE (CW) BALLAST: A premium type of HID ballast in which the primary
and secondary coils are isolated. It is considered a high performance, high loss ballast featuring
excellent output regulation.

CONSTANT WATTAGE AUTOTRANSFORMER (CWA) BALLAST: A popular type of HID

ballast in which the primary and secondary coils are electrically connected. Considered an
appropriate balance between cost and performance.

CONTRAST: The relationship between the luminance of an object and its background.

CRI: (SEE COLOR RENDERING INDEX)

CUT-OFF ANGLE: The angle from a fixture's vertical axis at which a reflector, louver, or other
shielding device cuts off direct visibility of a lamp. It is the complementary angle of the shielding
angle.

DAYLIGHT COMPENSATION: A dimming system controlled by a photocell that reduces the

output of the lamps when daylight is present. As daylight levels increase, lamp intensity decreases.
An energy-saving technique used in areas with significant daylight contribution.

DIFFUSE: Term describing dispersed light distribution. Refers to the scattering or softening of
light.

DIFFUSER: A translucent piece of glass or plastic sheet that shields the light source in a fixture.
The light transmitted throughout the diffuser will be redirected and scattered.

DIRECT GLARE: Glare produced by a direct view of light sources. Often the result of
insufficiently shielded light sources. (See GLARE)
DOWNLIGHT: A type of ceiling luminaire, usually fully recessed, where most of the light is
directed downward. May feature an open reflector and/or shielding device.

EFFICACY: A metric used to compare light output to energy consumption. Efficacy is measured in
lumens per watt. Efficacy is similar to efficiency, but is expressed in dissimilar units. For example, if
a 100-watt source produces 9000 lumens, then the efficacy is 90 lumens per watt.

ELECTROLUMINESCENT: A light source technology used in exit signs that provides uniform
brightness, long lamp life (approximately eight years), while consuming very little energy (less than
one watt per lamp).

ELECTRONIC BALLAST: A ballast that uses semi-conductor components to increase the

frequency of fluorescent lamp operation ( typically in the 20-40 kHz range. Smaller inductive
components provide the lamp current control. Fluorescent system efficiency is increased due to high
frequency lamp operation.

ELECTRONIC DIMMING BALLAST: A variable output electronic fluorescent ballast.

EMI: Abbreviation for electromagnetic interference. High frequency interference (electrical noise)
caused by electronic components or fluorescent lamps that interferes with the operation of electrical
equipment. EMI is measured in micro-volts, and can be controlled by filters. Because EMI can
interfere with communication devices, the Federal Communication Commission (FCC) has
established limits for EMI.

ENERGY-SAVING BALLAST: A type of magnetic ballast designed so that the components

operate more efficiently, cooler and longer than a "standard magnetic" ballast. By US law, standard
magnetic ballasts can no longer be manufactured.

ENERGY-SAVING LAMP: A lower wattage lamp, generally producing fewer lumens.

FC: (SEE FOOTCANDLE)

FLUORESCENT LAMP: A light source consisting of a tube filled with argon, along with krypton
or other inert gas. When electrical current is applied, the resulting arc emits ultraviolet radiation that
excites the phosphors inside the lamp wall, causing them to radiate visible light.

FOOTCANDLE (FC): The English unit of measurement of the illuminance (or light level) on a
surface. One footcandle is equal to one lumen per square foot.

FOOTLAMBERT: English unit of luminance. One footlambert is equal to 1/p candelas per square
foot.

GLARE: The effect of brightness or differences in brightness within the visual field sufficiently
high to cause annoyance, discomfort or loss of visual performance.

HALOGEN: (SEE TUNGSTEN HALOGEN LAMP)

HARMONIC DISTORTION: A harmonic is a sinusoidal component of a periodic wave having a

frequency that is a multiple of the fundamental frequency. Harmonic distortion from lighting
equipment can interfere with other appliances and the operation of electric power networks. The total
harmonic distortion (THD) is usually expressed as a percentage of the fundamental line current.
THD for 4-foot fluorescent ballasts usually range from 20% to 40%. For compact fluorescent
ballasts, THD levels greater than 50% are not uncommon.
HID: Abbreviation for high intensity discharge. Generic term describing mercury vapor, metal
halide, high pressure sodium, and (informally) low pressure sodium light sources and luminaires.

HIGH-BAY: Pertains to the type of lighting in an industrial application where the ceiling is 20 feet
or higher. Also describes the application itself.

HIGH OUTPUT (HO): A lamp or ballast designed to operate at higher currents (800 mA) and
produce more light.

HIGH POWER FACTOR: A ballast with a 0.9 or higher rated power factor, which is achieved by
using a capacitor.

HIGH PRESSURE SODIUM LAMP: A high intensity discharge (HID) lamp whose light is
produced by radiation from sodium vapor (and mercury).

HOT RESTART or HOT RESTRIKE: The phenomenon of re-striking the arc in an HID light
source after a momentary power loss. Hot restart occurs when the arc tube has cooled a sufficient
amount.

IESNA: Abbreviation for Illuminating Engineering Society of North America.

ILLUMINANCE: A photometric term that quantifies light incident on a surface or plane.

Illuminance is commonly called light level. It is expressed as lumens per square foot (footcandles),
or lumens per square meter (lux).

INDIRECT GLARE: Glare produced from a reflective surface.

INSTANT START: A fluorescent circuit that ignites the lamp instantly with a very high starting
voltage from the ballast. Instant start lamps have single-pin bases.

LAMP CURRENT CREST FACTOR (LCCF): The peak lamp current divided by the RMS
(average) lamp current. Lamp manufacturers require <1.7 for best lamp life. An LCCF of 1.414 is a
perfect sine wave.

LAMP LUMEN DEPRECIATION FACTOR (LLD): A factor that represents the reduction of
lumen output over time. The factor is commonly used as a multiplier to the initial lumen rating in
illuminance calculations, which compensates for the lumen depreciation. The LLD factor is a
dimensionless value between 0 and 1.

LAY-IN-TROFFER: A fluorescent fixture; usually a 2' x 4' fixture that sets or "lays" into a specific
ceiling grid.

LED: Abbreviation for light emitting diode. An illumination technology used for exit signs.
Consumes low wattage and has a rated life of greater than 80 years.

LENS: Transparent or translucent medium that alters the directional characteristics of light passing
through it. Usually made of glass or acrylic.

LIGHT LOSS FACTOR (LLF): Factors that allow for a lighting system's operation at less than
initial conditions. These factors are used to calculate maintained light levels. LLFs are divided into
two categories, recoverable and non-recoverable. Examples are lamp lumen depreciation and
luminaire surface depreciation.

LIFE-CYCLE COST: The total costs associated with purchasing, operating, and maintaining a
system over the life of that system.

LOUVER: Grid type of optical assembly used to control light distribution from a fixture. Can range
from small-cell plastic to the large-cell anodized aluminum louvers used in parabolic fluorescent
fixtures.

LOW POWER FACTOR: Essentially, an uncorrected ballast power factor of less than 0.9 (SEE
NPF)

LOW-PRESSURE SODIUM: A low-pressure discharge lamp in which light is produced by

radiation from sodium vapor. Considered a monochromatic light source (most colors are rendered as
gray).

LOW-VOLTAGE LAMP: A lamp ( typically compact halogen ( that provides both intensity and
good color rendition. Lamp operates at 12V and requires the use of a transformer. Popular lamps are
MR11, MR16, and PAR36.

LOW-VOLTAGE SWITCH: A relay (magnetically-operated switch) that allows local and remote
control of lights, including centralized time clock or computer control.

LUMEN: A unit of light flow, or luminous flux. The lumen rating of a lamp is a measure of the total
light output of the lamp.

LUMINAIRE: A complete lighting unit consisting of a lamp or lamps, along with the parts designed
to distribute the light, hold the lamps, and connect the lamps to a power source. Also called a fixture.

LUMINAIRE EFFICIENCY: The ratio of total lumen output of a luminaire and the lumen output
of the lamps, expressed as a percentage. For example, if two luminaires use the same lamps, more
light will be emitted from the fixture with the higher efficiency.

LUMINANCE: A photometric term that quantifies brightness of a light source or of an illuminated

surface that reflects light. It is expressed as footlamberts (English units) or candelas per square meter
(Metric units).

LUX (LX): The metric unit of measure for illuminance of a surface. One lux is equal to one lumen
per square meter. One lux equals 0.093 footcandles.

MAINTAINED ILLUMINANCE: Refers to light levels of a space at other than initial or rated
conditions. This terms considers light loss factors such as lamp lumen depreciation, luminaire dirt
depreciation, and room surface dirt depreciation.

MERCURY VAPOR LAMP: A type of high intensity discharge (HID) lamp in which most of the
light is produced by radiation from mercury vapor. Emits a blue-green cast of light. Available in
clear and phosphor-coated lamps.

METAL HALIDE: A type of high intensity discharge (HID) lamp in which most of the light is
produced by radiation of metal halide and mercury vapors in the arc tube. Available in clear and
phosphor-coated lamps.

MR-16: A low-voltage quartz reflector lamp, only 2" in diameter. Typically the lamp and reflector
are one unit, which directs a sharp, precise beam of light.

NADIR: A reference direction directly below a luminaire, or "straight down" (0 degree angle).
NEMA: Abbreviation for National Electrical Manufacturers Association.

NIST: Abbreviation for National Institute of Standards and Technology.

NPF (NORMAL POWER FACTOR): A ballast/lamp combination in which no components (e.g.,

capacitors) have been added to correct the power factor, making it normal (essentially low, typically
0.5 or 50%).

OCCUPANCY SENSOR: Control device that turns lights off after the space becomes unoccupied.
May be ultrasonic, infrared or other type.

OPTICS: A term referring to the components of a light fixture (such as reflectors, refractors, lenses,
louvers) or to the light emitting or light-controlling performance of a fixture.

PAR LAMP: A parabolic aluminized reflector lamp. An incandescent, metal halide, or compact
fluorescent lamp used to redirect light from the source using a parabolic reflector. Lamps are
available with flood or spot distributions.

PAR 36: A PAR lamp that is 36 one-eighths of an inch in diameter with a parabolic shaped reflector
(SEE PAR LAMP).

PARABOLIC LUMINAIRE: A popular type of fluorescent fixture that has a louver composed of
aluminum baffles curved in a parabolic shape. The resultant light distribution produced by this shape
provides reduced glare, better light control, and is considered to have greater aesthetic appeal.

PARACUBE: A metallic coated plastic louver made up of small squares. Often used to replace the
lens in an installed troffer to enhance its appearance. The paracube is visually comfortable, but the
luminaire efficiency is lowered. Also used in rooms with computer screens because of their glare-
reducing qualities.

PHOTOCELL: A light sensing device used to control luminaires and dimmers in response to
detected light levels.

PHOTOMETRIC REPORT: A photometric report is a set of printed data describing the light
distribution, efficiency, and zonal lumen output of a luminaire. This report is generated from
laboratory testing.

POWER FACTOR: The ratio of AC volts x amps through a device to AC wattage of the device. A
device such as a ballast that measures 120 volts, 1 amp, and 60 watts has a power factor of 50%
(volts x amps = 120 VA, therefore 60 watts/120 VA = 0.5). Some utilities charge customers for low
power factor systems.

PREHEAT: A type of ballast/lamp circuit that uses a separate starter to heat up a fluorescent lamp
before high voltage is applied to start the lamp.

QUAD-TUBE LAMP: A compact fluorescent lamp with a double twin tube configuration.

RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFERENCE (RFI): Interference to the radio frequency band caused
by other high frequency equipment or devices in the immediate area. Fluorescent lighting systems
generate RFI.

RAPID START (RS): The most popular fluorescent lamp/ballast combination used today. This
ballast quickly and efficiently preheats lamp cathodes to start the lamp. Uses a "bi-pin" base.
ROOM CAVITY RATIO (RCR): A ratio of room dimensions used to quantify how light will
interact with room surfaces. A factor used in illuminance calculations.

REFLECTANCE: The ratio of light reflected from a surface to the light incident on the surface.
Reflectances are often used for lighting calculations. The reflectance of a dark carpet is around 20%,
and a clean white wall is roughly 50% to 60%.

REFLECTOR: The part of a light fixture that shrouds the lamps and redirects some light emitted
from the lamp.

REFRACTOR: A device used to redirect the light output from a source, primarily by bending the
waves of light.

RECESSED: The term used to describe the doorframe of a troffer where the lens or louver lies
above the surface of the ceiling.

REGULATION: The ability of a ballast to hold constant (or nearly constant) the output watts (light
output) during fluctuations in the voltage feeding of the ballast. Normally specified as +/- percent
change in output compared to +/- percent change in input.

RELAY: A device that switches an electrical load on or off based on small changes in current or
voltage. Examples: low voltage relay and solid state relay.

RETROFIT: Refers to upgrading a fixture, room, or building by installing new parts or equipment.

SELF-LUMINOUS EXIT SIGN: An illumination technology using phosphor-coated glass tubes

filled with radioactive tritium gas. The exit sign uses no electricity and thus does not need to be
hardwired.

SEMI-SPECULAR: Term describing the light reflection characteristics of a material. Some light is
reflected directionally, with some amount of scatter.

SHIELDING ANGLE: The angle measured from the ceiling plane to the line of sight where the
bare lamp in a luminaire becomes visible. Higher shielding angles reduce direct glare. It is the
complementary angle of the cutoff angle. (See CUTOFF ANGLE).

SPACING CRITERION: A maximum distance that interior fixtures may be spaced that ensures
uniform illumination on the work plane. The luminaire height above the work plane multiplied by the
spacing criterion equals the center-to-center luminaire spacing.

SPECULAR: Mirrored or polished surface. The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of
incidence. This word describes the finish of the material used in some louvers and reflectors.

STARTER: A device used with a ballast to start preheat fluorescent lamps.

STROBOSCOPIC EFFECT: Condition where rotating machinery or other rapidly moving objects
appear to be standing still due to the alternating current supplied to light sources. Sometimes called
"strobe effect."

T12 LAMP: Industry standard for a fluorescent lamp that is 12 one-eighths (1 inches) in diameter.
Other sizes are T10 (1 inches) and T8 (1 inch) lamps.

TANDEM WIRING: A wiring option in which a ballasts is shared by two or more luminaires. This
reduces labor, materials, and energy costs. Also called "master-slave" wiring.
THERMAL FACTOR: A factor used in lighting calculations that compensates for the change in
light output of a fluorescent lamp due to a change in bulb wall temperature. It is applied when the
lamp-ballast combination under consideration is different from that used in the photometric tests.

TRIGGER START: Type of ballast commonly used with 15-watt and 20-watt straight fluorescent
lamps.

TROFFER: The term used to refer to a recessed fluorescent light fixture (combination of trough and
coffer).

TUNGSTEN HALOGEN LAMP: A gas-filled tungsten filament incandescent lamp with a lamp
envelope made of quartz to withstand the high temperature. This lamp contains some halogens
(namely iodine, chlorine, bromine, and fluorine), which slow the evaporation of the tungsten. Also,
commonly called a quartz lamp.

TWIN-TUBE: (SEE COMPACT FLUORESCENT LAMP)

ULTRA VIOLET (UV): Invisible radiation that is shorter in wavelength and higher in frequency
than visible violet light (literally beyond the violet light).

UNDERWRITERS' LABORATORIES (UL): An independent organization whose responsibilities

include rigorous testing of electrical products. When products pass these tests, they can be labeled
(and advertised) as "UL listed." UL tests for product safety only.

VANDAL-RESISTANT: Fixtures with rugged housings, break-resistant type shielding, and tamper-
proof screws.

VCP: Abbreviation for visual comfort probability. A rating system for evaluating direct discomfort
glare. This method is a subjective evaluation of visual comfort expressed as the percent of occupants
of a space who will be bothered by direct glare. VCP allows for several factors: luminaire
luminances at different angles of view, luminaire size, room size, luminaire mounting height,
illuminance, and room surface reflectivity. VCP tables are often provided as part of photometric
reports.

VERY HIGH OUTPUT (VHO): A fluorescent lamp that operates at a "very high" current (1500
mA), producing more light output than a "high output" lamp (800 mA) or standard output lamp (430
mA).

VOLT: The standard unit of measurement for electrical potential. It defines the "force" or "pressure"
of electricity.

VOLTAGE: The difference in electrical potential between two points of an electrical circuit.

WALLWASHER: Describes luminaires that illuminate vertical surfaces.

WATT (W): The unit for measuring electrical power. It defines the rate of energy consumption by
an electrical device when it is in operation. The energy cost of operating an electrical device is
calculated as its wattage times the hours of use. In single phase circuits, it is related to volts and
amps by the formula: Volts x Amps x PF = Watts. (Note: For AC circuits, PF must be included.)

WORK PLANE: The level at which work is done and at which illuminance is specified and
measured. For office applications, this is typically a horizontal plane 30 inches above the floor (desk
height).
ZENITH: The direction directly above the luminaire (180( angle).

GREEN LIGHTS: A Bright Investment in the Environment

For more information or to order other documents or appendices in this series, contact the Green
Lights program office at:

Green Lights Program

US EPA
401 M Street, SW (6202J)
Washington, DC 20460

or call the Green Lights Information Hotline at (202) 775-6650, Fax (202) 775-6680. Look in the
monthly Green Lights & Energy Star Update newsletter for announcements of new publications.
 BEST PRACTICE MANUAL

LIGHTING

Prepared for

Bureau of Energy Efficiency, Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency,

(under Ministry of Power, Government of India) Core 4A, East Court,
nd st
Hall no.4, 2 Floor, 1 Floor, India Habitat Centre,
NBCC Tower, Lodhi Road,
Bhikaji Cama Place, New Delhi – 110003.
New Delhi – 110066.

By

Devki Energy Consultancy Pvt. Ltd.,

405, Ivory Terrace,
R.C. Dutt Road,
Vadodara – 390007.

2006
 CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4
1.1 BACKGROUND ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4
2 LIGHTING FUNDAMENTALS ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5
2.1 BASIC THEORY ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5
2.2 LUMINOUS INTENSITY AND FLUX: ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 6
2.3 THE INVERSE SQUARE LAW ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 7
2.4 COLOUR TEMPERATURE ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 7
2.5 COLOUR RENDERING -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
3 LIGHTING SYSTEM COMPONENTS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 9
3.1 INCANDESCENT (GLS) LAMPS---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 9
3.2 TUNGSTEN-HALOGEN LAMPS--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 10
3.3 FLUORESCENT LAMPS ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 10
3.4 COMPACT FLUORESCENT LAMPS ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 12
3.5 HIGH PRESSURE SODIUM LAMPS ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 12
3.6 LOW PRESSURE SODIUM LAMPS ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 13
3.7 MERCURY VAPOUR LAMPS------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 14
3.8 BLENDED LAMPS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 15
3.9 METAL HALIDE LAMPS ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 16
3.10 LED LAMPS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 17
3.11 LUMINAIRES/REFLECTORS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 18
4 DESIGNING WITH LIGHT ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 20
4.1 HOW MUCH LIGHT IS NEEDED? ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 20
4.2 LIGHTING DESIGN FOR INTERIORS --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 20
4.3 ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN DESIGN ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 23
5 ENERGY SAVING OPPORTUNITIES---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 25
5.1 USE NATURAL DAY LIGHTING -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 25
5.2 DE-LAMPING TO REDUCE EXCESS LIGHTING --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 27
5.3 TASK LIGHTING -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 27
5.4 SELECTION OF HIGH EFFICIENCY LAMPS AND LUMINAIRES--------------------------------------------------------------------- 28
5.5 REDUCTION OF LIGHTING FEEDER VOLTAGE -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 30
5.6 ELECTRONIC BALLASTS --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 31
5.7 LOW LOSS ELECTROMAGNETIC CHOKES FOR TUBE LIGHTS ------------------------------------------------------------------- 32
5.8 TIMERS, TW ILIGHT SW ITCHES & OCCUPANCY SENSORS ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 32
5.9 T5 FLUORESCENT TUBE LIGHT------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 33
5.10 LIGHTING MAINTENANCE -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 34
6 CASE STUDIES -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 35
6.1 USE OF TRANSLUCENT ROOF SHEETS TO UTILIZE NATURAL LIGHT ---------------------------------------------------------- 35
6.2 REDUCTION OF LAMP MOUNTING HEIGHT & DE-LAMPING AT FMCG PLANT ------------------------------------------------ 35
6.3 DAYLIGHT-DIMMING LIGHTING SYSTEM -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 35
6.4 USE OF LIGHTING VOLTAGE CONTROLLER TO REDUCE LIGHTING ENERGY CONSUMPTION -------------------------------- 36
6.5 USE OF OCCUPANCY CONTROL------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 37
6.6 SAVINGS IN LIGHTING AT ENGINEERING PLANT ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 37
6.7 USE OF ELECTRONIC BALLASTS AT ELECTRICAL SW ITCHGEAR MANUFACTURING PLANT -------------------------------- 37
6.8 USE OF T5 FLUORESCENT LAMPS IN PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY ----------------------------------------------------------- 37
6.9 STREET LIGHTING MODIFICATIONS AT MUNICIPAL CORPORATION ------------------------------------------------------------- 38
6.10 LED LAMPS FOR SIGNAGE LIGHTING ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 39
REFERENCES------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 40
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2-1: Visible radiation ................................................................................................................................................ 5

Figure 2-2: Relative eye sensitivity and luminous efficacy................................................................................................... 6
Figure 2-3: Illuminance and lumens .................................................................................................................................... 7
Figure 3-1: Incandescent lamp............................................................................................................................................ 9
Figure 3-2: Energy flow diagram of incandescent lamp ....................................................................................................... 9
Figure 3-3: Tungsten Halogen Lamps ............................................................................................................................... 10
Figure 3-4: Fluorescent lamp ............................................................................................................................................ 11
Figure 3-5: Energy flow diagram of fluorescent lamp ........................................................................................................ 11
Figure 3-6: CFL ................................................................................................................................................................ 12
Figure 3-7: Sodium Vapor Lamp ....................................................................................................................................... 13
Figure 3-8: Energy Flow diagram of high pressure sodium lamp ....................................................................................... 13
Figure 3-9: Mercury vapour lamp ...................................................................................................................................... 14

2
Figure 3-10: Energy flow diagram of mercury vapor lamp ................................................................................................. 15
Figure 3-11: Blended lamp................................................................................................................................................ 15
Figure 3-12: Metal halide lamp.......................................................................................................................................... 16
Figure 3-13: Energy flow diagram of metal halide lamp..................................................................................................... 17
Figure 3-14: LED lamp...................................................................................................................................................... 18
Figure 3-15: Mirror optics luminaire................................................................................................................................... 19
Figure 4-1: Room dimensions ........................................................................................................................................... 21
Figure 4-2: Luminaire spacing........................................................................................................................................... 23
Figure 5-1: Day lighting using polycarbonate sheets ......................................................................................................... 25
Figure 5-2: Atrium with FRP dome .................................................................................................................................... 26
Figure 5-3: Concept of Light Shelf to provide Natural Lighting without Glare ..................................................................... 26
Figure 5-4: Light pipes ...................................................................................................................................................... 27
Figure 5-5: Effect of Voltage Variation on Fluorescent Tube light Parameters.................................................................. 30
Figure 5-6:Increase in Light Output from Tube lights at Higher Operating Frequencies..................................................... 31
Figure 6-1: Lighting load profile......................................................................................................................................... 36

LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1: Colour Rendering Index ..................................................................................................................................... 8
Table 3-1: LED lamps ....................................................................................................................................................... 17
Table 4-1: Recommended lighting levels .......................................................................................................................... 20
Table 5-1:Information on Commonly Used Lamps ............................................................................................................ 28
Table 5-2: Variation in Light Output and Power Consumption ........................................................................................... 30
Table 5-3: Savings by use of Electronic Ballasts ............................................................................................................... 31
Table 6-1: Natural lighting................................................................................................................................................. 35

3
 1. INTRODUCTION

“Light is the first element of design; without it there is no color, form, or texture.”

1.1 Background
From the dawn of civilization until recent times, human beings created light solely from fire,
though it is more a source of heat than light. We are still using the same principle even in
st
the 21 century to produce some light and more heat through incandescent lamps. Only in
the past few decades have lighting products become much more sophisticated and varied.
For example, considerable chemistry and physics are required to create an electric arc
within a fluorescent lamp, and then to convert the energy from that arc into useful light.

Lighting energy consumption contribute to 20 to 45% in commercial buildings and about 3

to 10% in industrial plants. Most industrial and commercial energy users are aware of
energy savings in lighting systems. Manufacturers are aggressively marketing their
products these days and help the users to take a decision. Often times significant energy
savings can be realized with a minimal investment of capital and common sense. Replacing
mercury vapor or incandescent sources with metal halide or high pressure sodium will
generally result in reduced energy costs and increased visibility. Installing and maintaining
photo-controls, time clocks, and energy management systems can also achieve
extraordinary savings.

However in some cases it may be necessary to consider modifications of the lighting design
in order to achieve the desired energy savings. It is important to understand that efficient
lamps alone would not ensure efficient lighting systems.

Three primary considerations described in this guidebook to ensure energy efficiency in

lighting systems are:

1. Selection of the most efficient light source possible in order to minimize power costs
and energy consumption.
2. Matching the proper lamp type to the intended work task or aesthetic application,
consistent with color, brightness control and other requirements.
3. Establishing adequate light levels to maintain productivity improve security and
increase safety.

4
 2 LIGHTING FUNDAMENTALS
2.1 Basic Theory

Light is just one portion of the various electromagnetic waves flying through space. These
waves have both a frequency and a length, the values of which distinguish light from other
forms of energy on the electromagnetic spectrum.

Light is emitted from a body due to any of the following phenomenon.

Incandescence Solids and liquids emit visible radiation when they are heated to
temperatures about 1000K. The intensity increases and the appearance become whiter as
the temperature increases.

Electric Discharge: When an electric current is passed through a gas the atoms and
molecules emit radiation whose spectrum is characteristic of the elements present.

Electro luminescence: Light is generated when electric current is passed through certain
solids such as semiconductor or phosphor materials.

Photoluminescence: Radiation at one wavelength is absorbed, usually by a solid, and re-

emitted at a different wavelength. When the re-emitted radiation is visible the phenomenon
may be termed either fluorescence or phosphorescence.

Visible light, as can be seen on the electromagnetic spectrum, as given in fig 2.1,
represents a narrow band between ultraviolet light (UV) and infrared energy (heat). These
light waves are capable of exciting the eye's retina, which results in a visual sensation
called sight. Therefore, seeing requires a functioning eye and visible light.

Figure 2-1: Visible radiation

The lumen (lm) is the photometric equivalent of the watt, weighted to match the eye
response of the “standard observer”. Yellowish-green light receives the greatest weight
because it stimulates the eye more than blue or red light of equal radiometric power:

1 watt = 683 lumens at 555 nm wavelength.

The human eye can detect a minimum flux of about 10 photons per second at a wavelength
of 555 nm. Similarly, the eye can detect a minimum flux of 214 and 126 photons per second
at 450 and 650 nm, respectively. This is due to the ‘relative eye sensitivity’ on different

5
 wavelengths. This non-linear response is not normally a problem as the eye is not a precise
optical instrument able to accurately measure light levels. In fact, it is a very flexible and
forgiving instrument able to adapt to an extremely wide range of conditions. The best
sensitivity, as seen from figure 2.2 is at 555 nm wavelength having greenish yellow colour
with a luminous efficacy of 683 lumens/Watt.

From figure 2.2, note that a light source, which is bluish in colour having wavelength 480
nm, has relative eye sensitivity of 0.1 and the theoretical luminous efficacy is likely to be 60
to 70 lm/W.

Figure 2-2: Relative eye sensitivity and luminous efficacy

2.2 Luminous Intensity and Flux:

The unit of luminous intensity I is the candela (Cd) also known as the international candle.
2
One lumen is equal to the luminous flux, which falls on each square meter (m ) of a sphere
one meter (1m) in radius when a 1-candela isotropic light source (one that radiates equally
2
in all directions) is at the center of the sphere. Since the area of a sphere of radius r is 4πr ,
2
a sphere whose radius is 1m has 4πm of area, and the total luminous flux emitted by a 1-
cd source is therefore 4π1m.

Thus the luminous flux emitted by an isotropic light source of intensity I is given by:

Luminous flux (lm) = 4π × luminous intensity (Cd)

The difference between the lux and the lumen is that the lux takes into account the area
over which the luminous flux is spread. 1000 lumens, concentrated into an area of one
square meter, lights up that square meter with an Illuminance of 1000 lux. The same 1000
lumens, spread out over ten square meters, produce a dimmer Illuminance of only 100 lux.
Figure 2.3 explains the difference.

6
 Figure 2-3: Illuminance and lumens

2.3 The Inverse Square Law

The inverse square law defines the relationship between the illuminance from a point
source and distance. It states that the intensity of light per unit area is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance from the source (essentially the radius).

I
E=
d2

Where E = Illuminance, I = Luminous intensity and d = distance

An alternate form of this equation which is sometimes more convenient is:

E1 d1² = E2 d2²

Distance is measured from the test point to the first luminating surface - the filament of a
clear bulb, or the glass envelope of a frosted bulb.

You measure 10.0 lm/m² from a light bulb at 1.0 meter. What will the flux density be at half
the distance?

Solution:

E1m = (d2 / d1)² * E2

= (1.0 / 0.5)² * 10.0

= 40 lm/m²

2.4 Colour Temperature

Color temperature, expressed on the Kelvin scale (K), is the color appearance of the lamp
itself and the light it produces.

Imagine a block of steel that is steadily heated until it glows first orange, then yellow and so
on until it becomes “white hot.” At any time during the heating, we could measure the

7
 temperature of the metal in Kelvin (Celsius + 273) and assign that value to the color being
produced. This is the theoretical foundation behind color temperature.

For incandescent lamps, the color temperature is a "true" value; for fluorescent and high-
intensity discharge (HID) lamps, the value is approximate and is therefore called correlated
color temperature. In the industry, “color temperature” and “correlated color temperature”
are often used interchangeably. The color temperature of lamps makes them visually
"warm," "neutral" or "cool" light sources. Generally speaking, the lower the temperature is,
the warmer the source, and vice versa.

2.5 Colour Rendering

The ability of a light source to render colour of surfaces accurately can be conveniently
quantified by the colour-rendering index. This index is based on the accuracy with which a
set of test colours is reproduced by the lamp of interest relative to a test lamp, perfect
agreement being given a score of 100. The CIE index has some limitations, but is the most
widely accepted measure of the colour rendering properties of light sources.
Table 2-1: Colour Rendering Index

Colour CIE general colour Typical application

rendering rendering Index
groups (Ra)
1A Ra > 90 Wherever accurate colour rendering is required e.g. colour
printing inspection
1B 80 < Ra < 90 Wherever accurate colour judgments are necessary or good
colour rendering is required for reasons of appearance e.g.
display lighting
2 60 < Ra < 80 Wherever moderate colour rendering is required
3 40 < Ra < 60 Wherever colour rendering is of little significance but marked
distortion of colour is unacceptable
4 20 < Ra < 40 Wherever colour rendering is of no importance at all and
marked distortion of colour is acceptable

Color temperature is how cool or warm the light source appears. Incandescent lamps have
a warmer appearance than mercury vapor yard lights, for example.

A common misconception is that color temperature and color rendering both describe the
same properties of the lamp. Again, color temperature describes the color appearance of
the light source and the light emitted from it. Color rendering describes how well the light
renders colors in objects.

8
 3 LIGHTING SYSTEM COMPONENTS

3.1 Incandescent (GLS) Lamps

An incandescent lamp acts as a ‘grey body’, selectively emitting radiation, with most of it
occurring in the visible region. The bulb contains a vacuum or gas filling. Although this
stops oxidation of the tungsten filament, it will not stop evaporation. The darkening of bulbs
is due to evaporated tungsten condensing on the relatively cool bulb surface. With an inert
gas filling, the evaporation will be suppressed, and the heavier the molecular weight, the
more successful it will be. For normal lamps an argon: nitrogen mixture of ratio 9/1 is used
because of its low cost. Krypton or Xenon is only used in specialized applications such as
cycle lamps where the small bulb size helps to offset the increased cost, and where
performance is critical.

Gas filling can conduct heat away from the filament, so low conductivity is important. Gas
filled lamps normally incorporate fuses in the lead wires. A small break can cause an
electrical discharge, which can draw very high currents. As filament fracture is the normal
end of lamp life it would not be convenient for sub circuits fuses to fail.

Figure 3-1: Incandescent lamp

Figure 3-2: Energy flow diagram of incandescent lamp

9
 Features

Efficacy – 12 lumens/Watt
Colour Rendering Index – 1A
Colour Temperature - Warm (2,500K – 2,700K)
Lamp Life – 1-2,000 hours

3.2 Tungsten-Halogen Lamps

Halogen lamp is a type of incandescent lamp. It has a tungsten filament just like a regular
incandescent that you may use in your home, however the bulb is filled with halogen gas.

Tungsten atoms evaporate from the hot filament and move toward the cooler wall of the
bulb. Tungsten, oxygen and halogen atoms combine at the bulb-wall to form tungsten
oxyhalide molecules. The bulb-wall temperature keeps the tungsten oxyhalide molecules in
a vapor. The molecules move toward the hot filament where the higher temperature breaks
them apart. Tungsten atoms are re-deposited on the cooler regions of the filament–not in
the exact places from which they evaporated. Breaks usually occur near the connections
between the tungsten filament and its molybdenum lead-in wires where the temperature
drops sharply.

Figure 3-3: Tungsten Halogen Lamps

Features

Efficacy – 18 lumens/Watt
Colour Rendering Index – 1A
Colour Temperature – Warm (3,000K-3,200K)
Lamp Life – 2-4,000 hours

Advantages
More compact
Longer life
More light
Whiter light (higher colour temp.)
Disadvantages
Cost more
Increased IR
Increased UV
Handling problem

3.3 Fluorescent Lamps

Fluorescent Lamps are about 3 to 5 times as efficient as standard incandescent lamps and
can last about 10 to 20 times longer. Passing electricity through a gas or metallic vapour will
cause electromagnetic radiation at specific wavelengths according to the chemical
constitution and the gas pressure. The fluorescent tube has a low pressure of mercury
vapour, and will emit a small amount of blue/green radiation, but the majority will be in the
UV at 253.7nm and 185nm.

10
 Figure 3-4: Fluorescent lamp

Figure 3-5: Energy flow diagram of fluorescent lamp

The inside of the glass wall has a thin phosphor coating, selected to absorb the UV
radiation and transmit it in the visible region. This process is approx. 50% efficient.

Fluorescent tubes are ‘hot cathode’ lamps, since the cathodes are heated as part of the
starting process. The cathodes are tungsten filaments with a layer of barium carbonate.
When heated, this coating will provide additional electrons to help start the discharge. This
emissive coating must not be over-heated, as lamp life will be reduced. The lamps use a
soda lime glass, which is a poor transmitter of UV.

The amount of mercury is small, typically 12mg. The latest lamps are using a mercury
amalgam, which enables doses closer to 5mg. This enables the optimum mercury pressure
to be sustained over a wider temperature range. This is useful for exterior lighting as well
as compact recessed fittings.

How do T12, T10, T8, and T5 fluorescent lamps differ?

These four lamps vary in diameter (ranging from 1.5 inches that is 12/8 of an inch for T12 to
0.625 or 5/8 of an inch in diameter for T5 lamps). Efficacy is another area that distinguishes
one from another. T5 & T8 lamps offer a 5-percent increase in efficacy over 40-watt T12
lamps, and have become the most popular choice for new installations.

Effect of Temperature

The most efficient lamp operation is achieved when the ambient temperature is between 20
and 30°C for a fluorescent lamp. Lower temperatures cause a reduction in mercury
pressure, which means that less ultraviolet energy is produced; therefore, less UV energy is
available to act on the phosphor and less light is the result. High temperatures cause a shift
in the wavelength of UV produced so that it is nearer to the visual spectrum. The longer
wavelengths of UV have less effect on the phosphor, and therefore light output is also
reduced. The overall effect is that light output falls off both above and below the optimum
ambient temperature range.

11
 Features

Halo phosphate
Efficacy – 80 lumens/Watt (HF gear increases this by 10%)
Colour Rendering Index –2-3
Colour Temperature – Any
Lamp Life – 7-15,000 hours

Tri-phosphor
Efficacy – 90 lumens/Watt
Colour Rendering Index –1A-1B
Colour Temperature – Any
Lamp Life – 7-15,000 hours

3.4 Compact Fluorescent Lamps

The recent compact fluorescent lamps open up a whole new market for fluorescent
sources. These lamps permit design of much smaller luminaires, which can compete with
incandescent and mercury vapour in the market of lighting fixtures having round or square
shapes. Products in the market are available with either built in control gear (CFG) or
separate control gear (CFN).

Figure 3-6: CFL

Features
Efficacy – 60 lumens/Watt
Colour Rendering Index – 1B
Colour Temperature – Warm, Intermediate
Lamp Life – 7-10,000 hours

3.5 High Pressure Sodium Lamps

The high pressure sodium (HPS) lamp is widely used for outdoor and industrial
applications. Its higher efficacy makes it a better choice than metal halide for these
applications, especially when good color rendering is not a priority. HPS lamps differ from
mercury and metal-halide lamps in that they do not contain starting electrodes; the ballast
circuit includes a high-voltage electronic starter. The arc tube is made of a ceramic material,
which can withstand temperatures up to 2372F. It is filled with xenon to help start the arc,
as well as a sodium-mercury gas mixture.

12
 Figure 3-7: Sodium Vapor Lamp

Figure 3-8: Energy Flow diagram of high pressure sodium lamp

Features

Efficacy – 50 - 90 lumens/Watt ( better CRI, lower Efficacy)

Colour Rendering Index – 1 – 2
Colour Temperature – Warm
Lamp Life – upto 24,000 hours, excellent lumen maintenance
Warm up – 10 minutes, hot re-strike – within 60 seconds
Operating sodium at higher pressures and temperatures makes it highly reactive.
Contains 1-6 mg sodium and 20mg mercury
The gas filling is Xenon. Increasing the amount of gas allows the mercury to be reduced,
but makes the lamp harder to start
The arc tube is contained in an outer bulb that has a diffusing layer to reduce glare.

The higher the pressure, the broader the wavelength band, and the better CRI, lower
efficacy.

3.6 Low Pressure Sodium Lamps

Although low pressure sodium (LPS) lamps are similar to fluorescent systems (because
they are low pressure systems), they are commonly included in the HID family. LPS lamps
are the most efficacious light sources, but they produce the poorest quality light of all the
lamp types. Being a monochromatic light source, all colors appear black, white, or shades
of gray under an LPS source. LPS lamps are available in wattages ranging from 18-180.

LPS lamp use has been generally limited to outdoor applications such as security or street
lighting and indoor, low-wattage applications where color quality is not important (e.g.
stairwells). However, because the color rendition is so poor, many municipalities do not
allow them for roadway lighting.

13
 Features

Efficacy – 100 – 200 lumens/Watt

Colour Rendering Index – 3
Colour Temperature – Yellow (2,200K)
Lamp Life – upto 16,000 hours
Warm up – 10 minutes, hot re-strike – up to 3 minutes

3.7 Mercury Vapour Lamps

Mercury vapor lamps are the oldest style of HID lamp. Although they have long life and low
initial cost, they have poor efficacy (30 to 65 lumens per watt, excluding ballast losses) and
exude a pale green color. Perhaps the most important issue concerning mercury vapor
lamps is how to best avoid them by using other types of HID or fluorescent sources that
have better efficacy and color rendering.

Clear mercury vapor lamps, which produce a blue-green light, consist of a mercury-vapor
arc tube with tungsten electrodes at both ends. These lamps have the lowest efficacies of
the HID family, rapid lumen depreciation, and a low color rendering index. Because of these
characteristics, other HID sources have replaced mercury vapor lamps in many
applications. However, mercury vapor lamps are still popular sources for landscape
illumination because of their 24,000 hour lamp life and vivid portrayal of green landscapes.

The arc is contained in an inner bulb called the arc tube. The arc tube is filled with high
purity mercury and argon gas. The arc tube is enclosed within the outer bulb, which is filled
with nitrogen.

Figure 3-9: Mercury vapour lamp

14
 Figure 3-10: Energy flow diagram of mercury vapor lamp

Features

Efficacy – 50 - 60 lumens/Watt ( excluded from part L)

Colour Rendering Index – 3

Colour Temperature –Intermediate

Lamp Life – upto 16,000 hours, poor lumen maintenance

Third electrode means control gear is simpler and cheaper to make. Some countries
has used MBF for road lighting where the yellow SOX lamp was considered
inappropriate

Arc tube contains 100 mg mercury and argon gas. Envelope is quartz

No cathode pre-heating; third electrode with shorter gap to initiate discharge

Outer phosphor coated bulb. It provides additional red light using UV, to correct the
blue/green bias of the mercury discharge

The outer glass envelope prevents UV radiation escaping

3.8 Blended Lamps

Blended lamps are often described as two-in-one lamps. This combines two source of light
enclosed in one gas filled bulb. One source is a quartz mercury discharge tube (like a
mercury lamp) and the other is a tungsten filament connected in series to it. This filament
acts as a ballast for the discharge tube to stabilize the lam current; hence no other ballast is
needed.

Figure 3-11: Blended lamp

15
 The tungsten filament coiled in construction encircles the discharge tube and is connected in
series with it. The fluorescent powder coating is given on inside of the bulb wall to convert the
emitted ultraviolet rays from the discharge tube to visible light. At ignition, the lamp emits only
light from the tungsten filament and during the course of about 3 minutes, the arc in the
discharge tube runs up to reach full light output.

These lamps are suitable for flame proof areas and can fit into incandescent lamp fixtures
without any modification.

Features

Typical rating 160 W

Efficacy of 20 to 30 Lm/W

High power factor of 0.95

Life of 8000 hours

3.9 Metal Halide Lamps

The halides act in a similar manner to the tungsten halogen cycle. As the temperature
increases there is disassociation of the halide compound releasing the metal into the arc.
The halides prevent the quartz wall getting attacked by the alkali metals.

Features

Efficacy – 80 lumens/Watt
Colour Rendering Index – 1A –2 depends on halide mix
Colour Temperature – 3,000K – 6,000K
Lamp Life – 6,000 - 20,000 hours, poor lumen maintenance
Warm-up – 2-3 minutes, hot re-strike 10-20 minutes
The choice of colour, size and rating is greater for MBI than any other lamp type
They are a developed version of the two other high intensity discharge lamps, as they
tend to have a better efficacy
By adding other metals to the mercury different spectrum can be emitted
Some MBI lamps use a third electrode for starting, but other, especially the smaller
display lamps, require a high voltage ignition pulse

Figure 3-12: Metal halide lamp

16
 Figure 3-13: Energy flow diagram of metal halide lamp

3.10 LED Lamps

LED technology has improved significantly over the past 5 to 10 years. Light output has
reached a point where LEDs are viable for many applications, especially colored light
applications. More importantly, LED manufacturers see improvements in light output
continuing for years to come such that LEDs could make sense for virtually any lighting
application.

Basic components are:

• LEDs
• Driver (power conversion device)
• Control devices (dimming controls, color mixing controls)
• Optics
• Fixture (housing, including heat sink devices, to contain all components)

An LED driver converts a system voltage (e.g., 120vac) into power required by the LED
system. Delivering proper power to an LED system is crucial to maintaining correct light
levels and life expectancy of the LEDs. The driver also regulates power delivered to the LEDs
to counter any fluctuations in system conditions. Drivers also isolate the LED system from the
high voltage system to reduce shock hazards and make a lighting system safer.

LED lamps are the newest addition to the list of energy efficient light sources. While LED
lamps emit visible light in a very narrow spectral band, they can produce "white light". This is
accomplished with either a red-blue-green array or a phosphor-coated blue LED lamp. LED
lamps last 40,000 to 100,000 hours depending on color. LED lamps have made their way
into numerous lighting applications including exit signs, traffic signals, under-cabinet lights,
and various decorative applications. Though still in their infancy, LED lamp technologies are
rapidly progressing and show promise for the future.

The luminous efficacy of LEDs in comparison with other lamps is given below.

Table 3-1: LED lamps

Source Efficacy (Lu/W)
LED 10-45
Incandescent 10-30
Fluorescent 60-90
Neon 5-20
HID 70-110

17
 This does not tell the whole story. Efficiency of the complete system must be considered
while making comparison. Colored LEDs used in applications such as traffic signals and
channel letters can be up to 90% more efficient than neon and incandescent. This is true
because these applications have historically filtered white light to get a specific color of light .
So most of the light is wasted in the filtering process. Plus, the point source nature of LEDs
offers the opportunity to engineer optically superior fixtures (i.e., less light losses for more
usable light).

Increases in LED efficacy is a major area of research in the industry, and significant
improvements are anticipated for years to come.

Figure 3-14: LED lamp

In traffic signal lights, a strong market for LEDs, a red traffic signal head that contains 196
LEDs draws 10W versus its incandescent counterpart that draws 150W. Various estimates of
potential energy savings range from 82% to 93%.

LED retrofit products, which come in various forms including light bars, panels and screw in
LED lamps, typically draw 2-5W per sign, resulting in significant savings versus incandescent
lamps with the bonus benefit of much longer life, which in turn reduces maintenance
requirements.

3.11 Luminaires/Reflectors

The most important element in a light fitting, apart from the lamp(s), is the reflector. They
impact on how much of the lamp’s light reaches the area to be lit as well as the lighting
distribution pattern. Reflectors are generally either diffuse (painted or powder coated white
finish) or specular (polished or mirror-like). The degree of reflectance of the reflector material
and the reflector’s shape directly influence the effectiveness and efficiency of the fitting.

Conventional diffuse reflectors have a reflectance of 70-80% when new. Newer high-
reflectance or semi-diffuse materials have reflectance as high as 85%. Conventional diffusers
absorb much of the light and scatter it rather than reflecting it to the area required. Over time
the reflectance values can decline due to the accumulation of dust and dirt as well as
yellowing caused by the UV light.

Specular reflectors are much more effective in that they maximise optics and specular
reflectivity thus allowing more precise control of light and sharper cutoffs. In new-condition
they have total reflectance values in the range of 85-96%. These values do not deteriorate as
much as they do for conventional reflectors as they age. The most common materials used

18
are anodized Aluminium (85-90% reflectance) and silver film laminated to a metal substrate
(91-95% reflectance). Enhanced (or coated) Aluminium is used to a lesser extent (88-96%
reflectance)

Figure 3-15: Mirror optics luminaire

Since they must remain clean to be effective, mirror optics reflectors should not be used in
industrial-type open strip fixtures where they are likely to be covered with dust.

19
 4 DESIGNING WITH LIGHT

4.1 How Much Light is Needed?

Every task requires some lighting level on the surface of the body. Good lighting is essential
to perform visual tasks. Better lighting permits people to work with more productivity.
However, just saying ‘good lighting’ does not specify how much is good.

Taj Mahal can be viewed in moonlight of 0.2 lux; measuring length using a micrometer
requires 500 to 1000 lux. Typical book reading can be done with 100 to 200 lux. The question
before the designer is hence, firstly, to choose the correct lighting level. CIE (Commission
International de l’Eclairage) and IES (Illuminating Engineers Society) have published
recommended lighting levels for various tasks. These recommended values have since made
their way into national and international standards for lighting design.

Table 4-1: Recommended lighting levels

Illuminance Examples of Area of Activity
level (lux)
General Lighting for 20 Minimum service illuminance in exterior
rooms and areas used circulating areas, outdoor stores , stockyards
either infrequently 50 Exterior walkways & platforms.
and/or casual or 70 Boiler house.
simple visual tasks 100 Transformer yards, furnace rooms etc.
150 Circulation areas in industry, stores and stock
rooms.
General lighting for 200 Minimum service illuminance on the task
interiors 300 Medium bench & machine work, general
process in chemical and food industries,
casual reading and filing activities.
450 Hangers, inspection, drawing offices, fine
bench and machine assembly, colour work,
critical drawing tasks.
1500 Very fine bench and machine work,
instrument & small precision mechanism
assembly; electronic components, gauging &
inspection of small intricate parts (may be
partly provided by local task lighting)
Additional localised 3000 Minutely detailed and precise work, e.g. Very
lighting for visually small parts of instruments, watch making,
exacting tasks engraving.

Indian standards IS 3646 & SP-32 describes the illuminance requirements at various work
environments in detail.

The second question is about the quality of light. In most contexts, quality is read as colour
rendering. Depending on the type of task, various light sources can be selected based on
their colour rendering index.

4.2 Lighting design for interiors

The step by step process of lighting design is illustrated below with the help of an example.

The following figure shows the parameters of a typical space.

20
 Figure 4-1: Room dimensions

Step-1: Decide the required illuminance on work plane, the type of lamp and luminaire

A preliminary assessment must be made of the type of lighting required, a decision

most often made as a function of both aesthetics and economics. For normal office
work, illuminance of 200 lux is desired.

For an air conditioned office space under consideration, we choose 36 W fluorescent

tube lights with twin tube fittings. The luminaire is porcelain-enameled suitable for the
above lamp. It is necessary to procure utilisation factor tables for this luminaire from
the manufacturer for further calculations.

Step-2: Collect the room data in the format given below.

Room dimensions Length L1 10 m

Width L2 10 m
2
Floor area L3 100 m
Ceiling height L4 3.0 m
Surface reflectance Ceiling L5 0.7 p.u
Wall L6 0.5 p.u
Floor L7 0.2 p.u
Work plane height from floor L8 0.9 m
Luminaire height from floor L9 2.9 m

Typical Reflectance Values for using in L5, L6, L7 are:

Ceiling Walls Floor

Air Conditioned Office 0.7 0.5 0.2

Light Industrial 0.5 0.3 0.1

Heavy Industrial 0.3 0.2 0.1

Step-3: Calculate room index:

Length × Width
Room Index =
Hight × (Length + Width)

21
 L1 × L 2 10 × 10
= =
(L9 − L8) × (L1 + L2) 2 × (10 + 10)
= 2.5

Step 4: Calculating the Utilisation factor

Utilisation factor is defined as the percent of rated bare-lamp lumens that exit the
luminaire and reach the workplane. It accounts for light directly from the luminaire
as well as light reflected off the room surfaces. Manufacturers will supply each
luminaire with its own CU table derived from a photometric test report.

Using tables available from manufacturers, it is possible to determine the utilisation

factor for different light fittings if the reflectance of both the walls and ceiling is
known, the room index has been determined and the type of luminaire is known.
For twin tube fixture, utilisation factor is 0.66, corresponding to room index of 2.5.

Step-5: To calculate the number of fittings required use the following formula:

E× A
N=
F × UF × LLF

Where: N = Number of Fittings

E = Lux Level Required on Working Plane
A = Area of Room (L x W)
F = Total Flux (Lumens) from all the Lamps in one Fitting
UF = Utilisation Factor from the Table for the Fitting to be Used
LLF = Light Loss Factor. This takes account of the depreciation over time of
lamp output and dirt accumulation on the fitting and walls of the building.

LLF = Lamp lumen MF x Luminaire MF x Room surface MF

Typical LLF Values

Air Conditioned Office 0.8

Clean Industrial 0.7
Dirty Industrial 0.6

200 × 100
N= = 6.2
2 × 3050 × 0.66 × 0.8

So, 6 nos twin tube fixtures are required. Total number of 36-Watt lamps is 12.

Step 6: Space the luminaires to achieve desired uniformity.

Every luminaire will have a recommended space to height ratio. In earlier design
methodologies, the uniformity ratio, which is the ratio of minimum illuminance to
average illuminance was kept at 0.8 and suitable space to height ratio is specified
to achieve the uniformity. In modern designs incorporating energy efficiency and
task lighting, the emerging concept is to provide a uniformity of 1/3 to 1/10
depending on the tasks.

Recommended value for the above luminaire is 1.5. If the actual ratio is more than
the recommended values, the uniformity of lighting will be less.

22
 For a sample of arrangement of fittings, refer fig 4.2. The luminaire closer to a wall
should be one half of a spacing or less.

S/2

Work space Lamp fitting

Figure 4-2: Luminaire spacing

Spacing between luminaires = 10/3 = 3.33 metres

Mounting height = 2.0 m
Space to height ratio = 3.33/2.0 = 1.66

This is close to the limits specified and hence accepted.

It is better to choose luminaires with larger SHR. This can reduce the number of fittings and
connected lighting load.

4.3 Energy efficiency in design

The above method of design is oriented towards providing required illumination at work plane
with a uniformity of at least 0.8. Energy efficiency by providing task lighting can be
accommodated in the above design method by specifying a lower value of general
illuminance and providing separate lighting above the task. The following options can be
considered in the above lighting design problem.

Suppose the above 10 m X 10m office space is to be designed for an illuminance of

100 lux. Using the above design method, we will finally arrive at a configuration of
using 3 nos twin tube ( 2X36 W fluorescent lamps). It is then possible to give
additional task lighting on the work space to provide 200 lux on the plane.

If in the original design, providing twin tube fixtures can be provided above the work
places and single tube fixtures at empty spaces, the total number of lamps required
can be reduced to 10 instead of 12.

It is also possible to do away with the luminaires placed in the middle row, reducing
the number of luminaires from 6 to 4. In this case, the space to height ratio will be
1.8. This design philosophy would ensure that light is available where it is required
and that sufficient general illumination is available in all areas.

The mounting height is 2.9 meter from the floor and 2.0 meter from the workplace. If
the mounting height can be reduced to 2.4 meter from the floor by properly bringing
down the lamps with suitable extensions, the illuminance at the work plane will be
vastly improved. For example, in the above system, the distance between the lamp
and the work plane is 2.0 meter in the original design. If it can be brought down to 1.5
meters, the illuminance will be 50% more on the work plane. Use of 6 nos single tube
23
 fixtures in the above layout may then be sufficient to give an average illuminance of
150 lux.

Use of specular (Mirror optics) reflectors in place of porcelain enameled reflectors

can also improve the illuminance.

24
 5 ENERGY SAVING OPPORTUNITIES

5.1 Use Natural Day Lighting

The utility of using natural day lighting instead of electric lighting during the day is well known,
but is being increasingly ignored especially in modern air-conditioned office spaces and
commercial establishments like hotels, shopping plazas etc. Industrial plants generally use
daylight in some fashion, but improperly designed day lighting systems can result in
complaints from personnel or supplementary use of electric lights during daytime.

Consider an application that needs an illumination level of 500 lux. To account for losses in
reflection and diffusion within the skylight assembly, assume that 40% of the sunlight entering
the skylight makes its way into the space. Thus, on a bright day, about 2% of the ceiling area
needs to be skylights. To compensate for low sun angles, hazy conditions, dirty skylights,
etc., double this to about 4%. To account for average cloudy conditions, increase this to 10%
or 15%.

Some of the methods to incorporate day lighting are:

1. North lighting by use if single-pitched truss of the saw-tooth type is a common

industrial practice; this design is suitable for latitudes north of 23 i.e. in North India. In
South India, north lighting may not be appropriate unless diffusing glasses are used
to cut out the direct sunlight.

2. Innovative designs are possible which eliminates the glare of daylight and blend well
with the interiors. Glass strips, running continuously across the breadth of the roof at
regular intervals, can provide good, uniform lighting on industrial shop floors and
storage bays.

Figure 5-1: Day lighting using polycarbonate sheets

3. A good design incorporating sky lights with FRP material along with transparent or
translucent false ceiling can provide good glare-free lighting; the false ceiling will also
cut out the heat that comes with natural light.

4. Use of atrium with FRP dome in the basic architecture can eliminate the use of
electric lights in passages of tall buildings.

25
 Figure 5-2: Atrium with FRP dome

5. Natural Light from windows should also be used. However, it should be well
designed to avoid glare. Light shelves can be used to provide natural light without
glare.

Figure 5-3: Concept of Light Shelf to provide Natural Lighting without Glare

Light pipe: This is a reflective tube that brings clean light from the sky into a room, no
need for lighting or incandescent bulbs. These are Aluminium tubes having sliver lining
inside. One 13” light pipe can illuminate about 250 sq.ft of floor area with an illuminance
of 200 lux. A 9” dia pipe can give the same iilluminance over a 100 sq.ft area.

A 4 ft length of light pipe of the above size provides a daytime average of 750 watts worth
of light in June, 250 watts in December. If the pipe length increases to 20 ft, 50% of the
light reaches the surface. These are expensive, costing between 150 to 250 dollars and
is one of the emerging technologies in day lighting.

26
 Figure 5-4: Light pipes

5.2 De-lamping to reduce excess lighting

De-lamping is an effective method to reduce lighting energy consumption. In some industries,
reducing the mounting height of lamps, providing efficient luminaires and then de-lamping
has ensured that the illuminance is hardly affected. De-lamping at empty spaces where active
work is not being performed is also a useful concept.

There are some issues rated to de-lamping with reference to the connection of lamps and
ballasts in a multi-lamp fixture. There are series and parallel-wired ballasts. Most magnetic
ballasts are series wired. It is about 50/50, series to parallel when using electronic ballasts.

With series wired ballasts, when one lamp is removed from the ballast the other lamp will not
light properly and will fail if left running. The non-removed lamp will probably not light or will
flicker or produce very little light. So, in a series wired ballast we need to remove all of the
lamps from the ballast. The ballast will continue to use energy, 10 to 12 watts for magnetic
and 1 to 2 watts for electronic.

Parallel wired ballasts can be decamped without too many problems and are often rated by
the manufacturer to run one less lamp than the label rating.

5.3 Task Lighting

Task Lighting implies providing the required good illuminance only in the actual small area
where the task is being performed, while the general illuminance of the shop floor or office is
kept at a lower level; e.g. Machine mounted lamps or table lamps. Energy saving takes place
because good task lighting can be achieved with low wattage lamps. The concept of task
lighting if sensibly implemented, can reduce the no of general lighting fixtures, reduce the
wattage of lamps, save considerable energy and provide better illuminance and also provide
aesthetically pleasing ambience.

In some textile mills, lowering of tube light fixtures has resulted in improved illuminance and
also elimination of almost 40% of the fixtures. The dual benefit of lower energy consumption
and lower replacement cost has been realised. In some engineering industries, task lighting
on machines is provided with CFLs. Even in offices, localised table lighting with CFLs may be
preferred instead of providing a large number of fluorescent tube lights of uniform general
lighting.

27
5.4 Selection of High Efficiency Lamps and Luminaires
Details of common types of lamps are summarised below. From this list , it is possible to
identify energy saving potential for lamps by replacing with more efficient types.
Table 5-1:Information on Commonly Used Lamps
Lamp Type Lamp Rating in Watts Efficacy Color Lamp
(Total Power including ballast (including ballast Rendering Life
losses in Watts) losses, where Index
applicable)
Lumens/Watt
General Lighting Service 15,25,40,60,75,100,150,200, 8 to 17 100 1000
(GLS) (Incandescent bulbs) 300,500 (no ballast)
Tungsten Halogen 75,100,150,500,1000,2000 13 to 25 100 2000
(Single ended) (no ballast)
Tungsten Halogen 200,300,500,750,1000,1500, 16 to 23 100 2000
(Double ended) 2000 (no ballast)
Fluorescent Tube lights 20,40,65 31 to 58 67 to 77 5000
(Argon filled) (32,51,79)
Fluorescent Tube lights 18,36,58 38 to 64 67 to 77 5000
(Krypton filled) (29,46,70)
Compact Fluorescent Lamps 5, 7, 9,11,18,24,36 26 to 64 85 8000
(CFLs) (without prismatic (8,12,13,15,28,32,45)
envelope)
Compact Fluorescent Lamps 9,13,18,25 48 to 50 85 8000
(CFLs) (with prismatic (9,13,18,25)
envelope) i.e. rating is inclusive of
ballast cons.
Mercury Blended Lamps 160 (internal ballast, rating is 18 50 5000
inclusive of ballast
consumption)
High Pressure Mercury 80,125,250,400,1000,2000 38 to 53 45 5000
Vapour (HPMV) (93,137,271,424,1040,2085)
Metal Halide Lamps 250,400,1000,2000 51 to 79 70 8000
(Single ended) (268,427,1040,2105)
Metal Halide Lamps 70,150,250 62 to 72 70 8000
(Double ended) (81,170,276)
High Pressure Sodium 70,150,250,400,1000 69 to 108 25 to 60 >12000
Vapour Lamps (HPSV) (81,170,276,431,1060)
Low Pressure Sodium Vapour 35,55,135 90 to 133 -- >12000
Lamps (LPSV) (48,68,159)

The following examples of lamp replacements are common.

Installation of metal halide lamps in place of mercury / sodium vapour lamps

Metal halide lamps provide high color rendering index when compared with mercury &
sodium vapour lamps. These lamps offer efficient white light. Hence, metal halide is the
choice for colour critical applications where, higher illumination levels are required. These
lamps are highly suitable for applications such as assembly line, inspection areas, painting
shops, etc. It is recommended to install metal halide lamps where colour rendering is more
critical.

Installation of High Pressure Sodium Vapour (HPSV) lamps for applications where colour
rendering is not critical

High pressure sodium vapour (HPSV) lamps offer more efficacy. But the colour rendering
property of HPSV is very low. Hence, it is recommended to install HPSV lamps for
applications such street lighting, yard lighting, etc.

28

Installation of LED panel indicator lamps in place of filament lamps.

Panel indicator lamps are used widely in industries for monitoring, fault indication,
signaling, etc. Conventionally filament lamps are used for the purpose, which has got the
following disadvantages

 High energy consumption (15 W/lamp)

 Failure of lamps is high (Operating life less than 10,000 hours)
 Very sensitive to voltage fluctuations

The LEDs have the following merits over the filament lamps.

 Lesser power consumption (Less than 1 W/lamp)

 Withstand high voltage fluctuation in power supply.
 Longer operating life (more than 1,00,000 hours)

It is recommended to install LEDs for panel indicator lamps at the design stage.

The types of lamps used depends on the mounting height, colour rendering may also be a
guiding factor. Table 5.2 summarises the replacement possibilities with the potential savings.

Table 5-2: Savings by Use of More Efficient Lamps

Existing Lamp Replace by Potential
Energy
Savings, %
GLS (Incandescent) Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL) 38 to 75
High Pressure Mercury Vapour (HPMV) 45 to 54
Metal Halide 66
High Pressure Sodium Vapour (HPSV) 66 to 73
Standard Tube light (Argon) Slim Tube light (Krypton) 9 to 11
Tungsten Halogen Tube light (Krypton) 31 to 61
High Pressure Mercury Vapour (HPMV) 54 to 61
Metal Halide 48 to 73
High Pressure Sodium Vapour (HPSV) 48 to 84
Mercury Blended Lamp High Pressure Mercury Vapour (HPMV) 41
High Pressure Mercury Vapour Metal Halide 37
(HPMV) High Pressure Sodium Vapour (HPSV) 34 to 57
Low Pressure Sodium Vapour (LPSV) 62
Metal Halide High Pressure Sodium Vapour (HPSV) 35
Low Pressure Sodium Vapour (LPSV) 42
High Pressure Sodium Vapour Low Pressure Sodium Vapour (LPSV) 42
(HPSV)

There may be some limitations if colour rendering is an important factor. It may be noted that,
in most cases, the luminaires and the control gear would also have to be changed. The
savings are large if the lighting scheme is redesigned with higher efficacy lamps and
luminaires.

Considerable development work is being done to improve the effectiveness of luminaires. For
tube lights in dust-free areas, luminaires with mirror optics may be used in place of the
conventional stove enamel painted trough type luminaires or recessed luminaires with acrylic
covers. This measure is well accepted and has been implemented in a large number of
offices and commercial buildings.

29
5.5 Reduction of Lighting Feeder Voltage
Fig. 5.5 shows the effect of variation of voltage on light output and power consumption for
fluorescent tube lights. Similar variations are observed on other gas discharge lamps like
mercury vapour lamps, metal halide lamps and sodium vapour lamps; table 5.3
summarises the effects. Hence reduction in lighting feeder voltage can save energy,
provided the drop in light output is acceptable. In many areas, night time grid voltages
are higher than normal; hence reduction in voltage can save energy and also provide the
rated light output. Some manufacturers are supplying reactors and transformers as
standard products. A large number of industries have used these devices and have
reported saving to the tune of 5% to 15%. Industries having a problem of higher night
time voltage can get an additional benefit of reduced premature lamp failures.

Figure 5-5: Effect of Voltage Variation on Fluorescent Tube light Parameters

Table 5-3: Variation in Light Output and Power Consumption

Particulars 10% lower voltage 10% higher voltage

Fluorescent lamps
Light output Decreases by 9 % Increases by 8 %
Power input Decreases by 15 % Increases by 8 1%
HPMV lamps
Light output Decreases by 20 % Increases by 20 %
Power input Decreases by 16 % Increases by 17 %
Mercury Blended lamps
Light output Decreases by 24 % Increases by 30 %
Power input Decreases by 20 % Increases by 20 %
Metal Halide lamps

30
 Light output Decreases by 30 % Increases by 30 %
Power input Decreases by 20 % Increases by 20 %
HPSV lamps
Light output Decreases by 28 % Increases by 30 %
Power input Decreases by 20 % Increases by 26 %
LPSV lamps
Light output Decreases by 4 % Decreases by 2 %
Power input Decreases by 8 % Increases by 3 %

5.6 Electronic Ballasts

Conventional electromagnetic ballasts (chokes) are used to provide higher voltage to start
the tube light and subsequently limit the current during normal operation. Electronic
ballasts are oscillators that convert the supply frequency to about 20,000 Hz to 30,000 Hz.
The losses in electronic ballasts for tube lights are only about 1 Watt, in place of 10 to 15
Watts in standard electromagnetic chokes. Table 5.4 shows the approximate savings by
use of electronic ballasts.

Table 5-4: Savings by use of Electronic Ballasts

Type of Lamp With With Power

Conventional Elect Savings
Electromagn ronic ,
etic ballast Balla Watts
st
40W Tube light 51 35 16
35W Low Pressure 48 32 16
Sodium
70W High Pressure 81 75 6
Sodium

The additional advantage is that the efficacy of tube lights improves at higher frequencies
(refer fig.5.6), resulting in additional savings if the ballast is optimised to provide the same
light output as with the conventional choke. Hence a saving of about 15 to 20 Watts per
tube light can be achieved by use of electronic ballasts. With electronic ballast, the starter is
eliminated and the tube light lights up instantly without flickering.

Figure 5-6:Increase in Light Output from Tube lights at Higher Operating Frequencies

A good number of industries have installed electronic ballasts for tube lights in large
numbers. The operation is reliable, provided the ballasts are purchased from established
manufacturers. Electronic ballasts have also been developed for 20W and 65W fluorescent

31
 tube lights, 9W & 11W CFLs, 35W LPSV lamps and 70W HPSV lamps. These are now
commercially available.

5.7 Low Loss Electromagnetic Chokes for Tube Lights

The loss in standard electromagnetic choke of a tube light is likely to be 10 to 15 Watts.
Use of low loss electromagnetic chokes can save about 8 to 10 Watts per tube light. The
saving is due to the use of more copper and low loss steel laminations in the choke, leading
to lower losses. A number of industries have implemented this measure.

5.8 Timers, Twilight Switches & Occupancy Sensors

Automatic control for switching off unnecessary lights can lead to good energy savings.

Simple timers or programmable timers can be used for this purpose. The timings may have
to change, once in about two months, depending upon the season. Use of timers is a very
reliable method of control.

Twilight switches can be used to switch the lighting depending on the availability of daylight.
Care should be taken to ensure that the sensor is installed in a place, which is free from
shadows, light beams of vehicles and interference from birds. Dimmers can also be used in
association with photo-control; however, electronic dimmers normally available in India are
suitable only for dimming incandescent lamps. Dimming of fluorescent tube lights is
possible, if these are operated with electronic ballasts; these can be dimmed using
motorised autotransformers or electronic dimmers (suitable for dimming fluorescent lamps;
presently, these have to be imported).

Infrared and Ultrasonic occupancy sensors can be used to control lighting in cabins as well
as in large offices. Simple infrared occupancy sensors are now available in India. However
ultrasonic occupancy sensors have to be imported. It may be noted that more sophisticated
occupancy sensors used abroad have a combination of both infrared and ultrasonic
detection; these sensors incorporate a microprocessor in each unit that continuously
monitors the sensors, adjusting the sensitivity levels to optimise performance. The
microprocessor is programmed to memorise the static and changing features of its
environment; this ensures that the signals received from repetitive heat and motion
equipment like fans is filtered out.

In developed countries, the concept of tube light fixtures with in-built electronic ballast,
photo-controlled dimmer and occupancy sensor is being promoted as a package.

The following control methodologies are useful.

General areas

Where day lighting is available, provide day lighting controls. Use continuous dimming
for spaces with minor motion activity such as reading, writing, and conferencing. Use
stepped dimming (on/off switching) for spaces with major motion activity such as
walking and shelf stocking.

Always mount ultrasonic occupancy sensors at least 6 to 8 ft away from HVAC ducts on
vibration free surfaces and place so there is no detection out the door or opening of the
space.

In spaces of high occupant ownership such as private offices and conference rooms,
always include switches for manual override control of the lighting.

If there is concern that lighting could be turned off automatically or manually when
people are still in the space, put in night lighting for safe egress.

32

Many lighting control devices have specific voltage and load ratings requirements. Be
sure to specify the device model that matches the correct voltage and load rating for the
application.

Conference Rooms

Use dual technology occupancy sensors in larger conference rooms for optimal
detection of both small hand motion and larger body movement.

Ceiling or corner-mounted passive infrared occupancy sensors are used for medium
and small conference rooms.

Always include switches that provide manual override control of the lighting.

Cubicles

Control plug loads such as task lighting, computer monitors, portable fans and heaters
with an occupancy sensor controlled plug strip.

Mount personal occupancy sensor beneath binder bin or desk and position so that it
cannot detect motion outside cubicle area.

Restrooms

Use ceiling mounted ultrasonic sensors for restrooms with stalls.

Exterior Lighting Control

Use a lighting control panel with time clock and photocell to control exterior lighting to
turn on at dusk and off at dawn and turn non-security lighting off earlier in the evening
for energy savings.

5.9 T5 Fluorescent Tube Light

The Fluorescent tube lights in use presently in India are of the T12 (40w) and T8 (36W).
T12 implies that the tube diameter is 12/8” (33.8mm), T8 implies diameter of 8/8” (26mm)
and T5 implies diameter of 5/8” (16mm). This means that the T5 lamp is slimmer than the
36W slim tube light. The advantage of the T5 lamps is that due to its small diameter,
luminaire efficiencies can be improved by about 5%. However, these lamps are about
50mm shorter in length than T12 and T8 lamps, which implies that the existing luminaires
cannot be used. In addition, T5 lamp can be operated only with electronic ballast. These
lamps are available abroad in ratings of 14W, 21W, 28W and 35W. The efficiency of the
35W T5 lamp is about 104 lm/W (lamp only) and 95 lm/W (with electronic ballasts), while
that of the 36W T8 lamp is about 100 lm/W (lamp only) and 89 lm/W (with electronic
ballast). This may appear to be a small improvement of about 7%, but with the use of
super-reflective aluminium luminaire of higher efficiency, T5 lamps can effect an overall
efficiency improvement ranging from 11% to 30%. T5 lamps have a coating on the inside
of the glass wall that stops mercury from being absorbed into the glass and the phosphors.
This drastically reduces the need for mercury from about 15 milligrams to 3 milligrams per
lamp. This may be advantageous in countries with strict waste disposal laws.

In Europe, the T5 lamps are being used in good numbers in place of 4 foot, 36W T8 lamps.
Their shorter lengths permit integration in standard building modules. With new miniature
ballasts, luminaires are light and flat, saving space and also resources used for their
production. The U.S.A. has been slow in accepting this technology, as the 4 foot, T8 lamps
consume only about 35 Watts. Secondly, the focus in the U.S.A. has generally been on
better optic control, rather than on lamp efficiency.

33
5.10 Lighting Maintenance

Maintenance is vital to lighting efficiency. Light levels decrease over time because of aging
lamps and dirt on fixtures, lamps and room surfaces. Together, these factors can reduce
total illumination by 50 percent or more, while lights continue drawing full power. The
following basic maintenance suggestions can help prevent this.

• Clean fixtures, lamps and lenses every 6 to 24 months by wiping off the dust.
• Replace lenses if they appear yellow.
• Clean or repaint small rooms every year and larger rooms every 2 to 3 years. Dirt
collects on surfaces, which reduces the amount of light they reflect.
• Consider group re-lamping. Common lamps, especially incandescent and fluorescent
lamps lose 20 percent to 30 percent of their light output over their service life. Many
lighting experts recommend replacing all the lamps in a lighting system at once. This
saves labor, keeps illumination high and avoids stressing any ballasts with dying
lamps.

34
 6 CASE STUDIES

6.1 Use of Translucent Roof Sheets to Utilize Natural Light

High bay fixtures of 250 W HPSV lamps were used for illumination in shop floor. It was
decided to replace some of the existing asbestos roof sheets with translucent
polycarbonate sheets. Total of 6 nos transparent sheets of 3.0 m X 0.5 m area were
used. The following table summarises energy saving.

Table 6-1: Natural lighting

Description Unit Qty.
Power consumption of lamp+ ballast Watts 285
Total strips installed nos 2
Total number of lamps switched off nos 8
Daily operating hours hours 8
Energy saved per day kWh 18.2
Annual energy savings ( @ 300 days/annum) kWh 5472
Annual energy cost saving ( @ Rs 5.0/kWh) Rs 27,300
Investment Rs 14,000
Payback period months 6

Additional benefits include better lamp life, lower replacement cost etc.

6.2 Reduction of Lamp Mounting Height & De-lamping at FMCG Plant

After a survey of the illuminance level in the plants and offices, trials were taken by
reducing the mounting height of selected tube lights by 1 metre and removing one tube
light and choke from the twin fixture. Reflective film (Aluminium foil) was applied on the
inside of the fixture to improve reflection.

In fixtures with acrylic diffusers, holes were drilled in a symmetrical fashion and one tube
light was removed. It was found that the illuminance on the working plane was almost
similar to the original levels with the twin tube lights.

Over a period of two years, about 1400 tube lights were removed. Total investment for
lowering the fixtures, reflective films etc was Rs 1.0 lakhs. Annual energy saving was
found to be 3,70,000 kWh.

6.3 Daylight-Dimming Lighting System

The coffee shop of a commercial building was lighted by 25.60 cm x 120 cm, recessed
luminaires, each with two magnetic ballasts and four 40 W cool white, T12 lamps. Lighting
is used only from Monday to Friday beginning at approximately 7AM and continuing
through approximately 6PM. The building's east and west facades are more than 70%
glazing which provides abundant natural daylight to the buildings interior During the
afternoon one or more of the three lighting circuits is usually switched off for a short
period (30 to 60 minutes).

The new controllable lighting system replaced the inefficient magnetic ballasts and poor
color rendering 40W T12 cool white lamps with a single electronic dimming ballast and
two high color rendering (85CRI) 32W T8 lamps in each luminaire. The building was
divided into five linear north-south zones, with each zone of five luminaires controlled by a
single ceiling mounted photo sensor. The photo sensor regulates the light level (to a
minimum of 20%) for the ballasts in each zone based on the available light measured in
35
 its conical field of view. The target illuminance was 300 lux. The overall lighting power
savings (nearly 76%) is a result of converting to a more efficient electronic ballast/lamps
system, adding ballast dimming capabilities, and tuning light levels through de-lamping.
The old system of magnetic ballasts and 40W T12 lamps consumed a maximum of 4.65
kW (186 watts/luminaire). The new system at full output was measured to consume a
maximum of 1.5 kW (60 watts/luminaire). The graphical representation of energy profile is
given below in fig 6.1.

Figure 6-1: Lighting load profile

6.4 Use of lighting voltage controller to reduce lighting energy

consumption

A paper manufacturing plant has a connected lighting load of nearly 370 kW. This consists
of fluorescent fittings, HPSV,HPMV & CFL lamps for plant, office and area lighting. The
lighting load is fed from 3.3 kV bus by 4 nos. of LT transformers. These transformers have
lighting loads apart from other loads. Each transformer is connected to a Lighting circuit
Distribution box. The total actual load varies between 300 to 350 kW during night. Meters
are fitted at each DB to measure power consumption.

The voltage levels at lighting DBs vary between 225 & 240 V. Lighting loads consume less
power at lower voltages. The plant lighting voltages were at a level, which could be brought
down further. The installation of lighting voltage controllers, of different kVA, on each DB
brought down the lighting consumption by 20%. The output voltages were set at 210 V.

Particulars Actual energy savings

No. of DB lighting circuits = 4
Total Power consumption = 338 kW

After installation
Total Power consumption= 275 kW
Annual Total energy savings, lakh kWh = 2.45
Annual Cost savings, Rs. lakh = 4.89
Cost of Implementation, Rs. lakh = 12.37
Simple payback period, Year = 2 year 6 months

36
6.5 Use of occupancy control

This project outlines the use of passive infrared control systems for occupancy-based
control in an office building. The room area was 55 sq.m and the power consumption
measured was 0.67 kW.

There are 4 nos twin tube fixtures having 2 X 36 W tube lights. Two circuits were used;
each one controls two nos fixtures. Lights were switched on in the morning and switched
off only in the evening.

After implementing the PIR scheme, the ON time of lights reduced from average 50
hours/week to 32.7 hours/week. Cost of implementing the scheme was 130 dollars. Annual
saving was found to be 70 dollars. Simple payback period was 2 years.

6.6 Savings in Lighting at Engineering Plant

Use of Twilight (dawn/dusk) switches to avoid early switching on and delayed

switching off of lights resulted in energy savings are 6000 kWh/annum i.e. Rs. 16,000/-
per annum, against an investment of Rs.7,700/-.

Replacement of 12 nos. 125 Watt HPMV lamps by 70 Watt HPSV lamps for
streetlights resulted in a saving of 1,900 kWh/annum i.e Rs. 4,456 per annum, against
an investment of Rs. 11, 280/-.

Replacement of 2 nos. 1000 Watt halogen lamps by 250 Watt HPSV lamps resulted in
a saving of 4,348 kWh i.e. Rs.9,953/- per annum, against an investment of Rs.8,900/-.

22 nos. 250 Watt HPMV lamps (which had been purchased before the energy audit,
but yet not installed) were returned and replaced by 15 nos. 150 Watt HPSV lamps.
Thus the additional energy consumption of of 9,660 kWh/annum i.e. Rs.23,184/- per
annum was avoided, against an investment of Rs. 20,700/-.

6.7 Use of Electronic Ballasts at Electrical Switchgear Manufacturing Plant

24000 conventional electromagnetic ballasts, on 4 feet tube light fittings, have been
replaced by electronic ballasts. For 2400 hours/annum operation, the energy saving in tube
lights is about 8,83,200 kWh/annum. The additional savings due to reduced heat load on
the air-conditioning system is 1,39,090 kWh/annum. The total energy saving is about
19,05,490 kWh/annum i.e. Rs.62.9 lakhs/annum.

6.8 Use of T5 fluorescent lamps in Pharmaceutical industry

Prior to the installation of T5 lamps, the administration, Clean room and R&D areas of the
plant were using T8 (36W) lamps. There were about 1500 lamps altogether. The laps were
having electromagnetic ballasts which consume about 12 watts/lamp.

After consultations with the manufacturer of T5 tube lights, a deferred payment scheme
was evolved where in the cost of the lamp will be repaid in 12 months. Warranty was also
given for 12 months, during which if a lamp fails, free replacement is ensured. The price of
one T5 lamp was Rs 875/-.

Total power consumption of a 36 W lamp and choke was 48 watts. The new T5 lamp power
consumption was 29 Watts including the built in electronic ballast. The same mirror optic
fixtures were used.

Energy saving per lamp was found to be 19 watts. Lamps in administration and R&D area
used to ON for 10 hours/day. In clean room area, about 600 lamps are kept ON
continuously. Assuming 25 days/month, the annual energy saving was about 1.33 lakh
kWh/annum. I.e Rs 6.0 lakhs. Total Investment was Rs 13.1 lakhs and payback period of
2.1 years.

37
6.9 Street lighting modifications at Municipal Corporation
Conventionally, streetlight planning in Vadodara Municipal Corporation was not systematic
– it was normally quantity based and not lighting design based. Photometric & Installation
terms were totally ignored and the Selection criteria for Lamps & Luminaires ignored.

Conventional Installation Of Street Light

Pole height 8.5 to 10 Meters

Mounting height 7 to 8 meters
Span between Poles 30 Meters
Over hang 1.5 to 3 Meters
Angle of Tilt 15 Degrees
Wattage of Luminaries 250 W MV/SV
Illumination Very poor, Less than 10 lux

VMC realized the need for uniform & required level of illumination with increased energy
efficiency. As a part of this innovation, VMC decided to develop street lighting on new
roads in a scientific and systematic manner by implementing “Code of practice for lighting
of Public thoroughfares IS 1944 (Part I & II), 1970”.

Modifications

Mounting Height 10 Mtrs (7 to 8)

Span between Poles 42 to 44 Mtrs (30)
Over hang 0.9 to 1.25 Mtrs
Angle of Tilt 5 to 10 Degree (depending upon width of road)
Use of better luminaires to focus lighting down.

Comparison of old and new designs per km road length.

Old design New Design

Nos of Poles 33 22 (33% reduction)
Nos of Luminaries (250W HPSV) 66 44 (33% reduction)
Cost of Installations Rs 7,57,100 Rs 5,90,000 (22% saving)
Annual Electrical Consumption 74,500 Kwh 50,100 Kwh (32.75% saving)
Average Illumination Less than10 Lux 30 Lux with 40% Uniformity

0.8 W
spacing

Width

During different seasons street light ON / OFF timings are changed.

38

The ON time varies from 6:00 pm during winters to 7:45 pm during summers.

The OFF time varies from 7:15 am during winters to 5:30 am during summers.

It is necessary to fix ON / OFF timings for the entire year according to sunset and
sunrise timings.

For this purpose annual programmable time switches are preferable rather than
the conventional manual ones to switch ON & OFF exactly at the required timings
throughout the year.

Almost 5 to 10% savings are achieved by using annual programmable time
switch.

The entire capital cost of Rs. 24.1 Million spent to install street lighting on 21 major roads
is recoverable in terms of electrical saving within 54 months.

6.10 LED Lamps for signage lighting

Advance Transformer Company, Rosemont, Illinois, manufactures lighting products and a

leader in LED drivers. When it came to renovate its corporate identity sign displayed on its
headquarters building, the company decided to take a new approach by using light emitting
diode (LED) technology.

Advance's 15+ year-old channel-letter sign originally employed neon as its light source, with
letter-shaped neon tubes illuminating a number of blue plastic "letter lenses" mounted on
the outside of the building.

But after renovating the sign with LumiLeds LEDs powered by its own Advance signPRO™
LED drivers, the resulting improvements in sign brightness and efficiency were literally
astounding to every one familiar with the pre-LED and post-LED signs. In the prototype
phase, by configuring the LED equivalent of the original neon system and found that it
burned 5-6 times brighter than the neon. They subsequently brought the LED wattage down
to an optimal lumen output level for the application, but have still been amazed at how
much brighter and more evenly lit the new sign is relative to its predecessor. Working with
local sign company Quantum Graphics of Alsip, Illinois, LEDs were mounted on the metal
inserts and the assemblies were installed with the blue plastic "letter lenses" on the outside
of the building, replacing the old neon tubes. The compact, lightweight Advance signPRO
LED drivers were mounted inside the building, about 6 to 8 feet remote from the sign itself,
in the junction boxes spaced along the length of the sign and formerly occupied by the
large, heavy and unwieldy neon power supplies. At a later stage of the project, new blue
plastic "letter lenses" were installed as well, replacing the older, faded lenses. Reflecting its
ownership by parent company Philips Electronics, the new "Philips-Advance" sign ultimately
required about 750 LEDs driven by roughly 25 40-watt and 25-watt Xitanium drivers.

A typically non-traditional application for LEDs based on the large (3 foot 6 inch) height of
the sign's letters, the benefits of the conversion have been substantial—e.g., greatly
improved energy-efficiency, reduced maintenance requirements, and tremendously
enhanced sign brightness and impact. The use of LEDs reduced the sign's input watts from
3,500 to 1,000. In other words, with LEDs, they are enjoying 3-4 times more lumen output
than the old neon sign offered at only 1/3 of the input power, which has translated to over
$1,500 a year in combined energy savings and reduced maintenance costs.

39
REFERENCES

1. Designing with Light- A lighting Handbook - Anil Walia-International Lighting Academy

2. Handbook of Functional requirements on Industrial Buildings-SP-32- Bureau of Indian
Standards
3. Efiicient Use of Electricity In Industries- Devki Energy Consultancies Pvt. Ltd.,
Vadodara
4. Energy Audit Reports
5. Websites/Product Information CDs of the following manufacturers:

1. Crompton Greaves Lighting Division

2. Bajaj Electricals
3. GE lighting, USA
4. Watt Stopper Inc, USA
5. Vergola India Ltd
6. Lighting research centre, USA
7. LBNL , USA

40
 CASE STUDY
PHILIPS ENERGY
ADVANTAGE 25 WATT T8
FLUORESCENT LAMPS
CASE STUDY AT TORREY PINES
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

8520 Tech Way, Suite 110

San Diego, CA 92123
Tel: 858-244-1177
Fax: 858-244-1178
Web: ww.sdenergy.org
PHILIPS ENERGY ADVANTAGE 25 WATT T8 FLUORESCENT LAMPS: CASE
STUDY AT TORREY PINES ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
In October 2004, SDREO compared the performance of the new 25W lamp from Phillips
(F32T8/ADV850/XEW/ALTO) with standard 32W T8 lamps (F32T8/TL735) and next generation 32W T8
lamps (F32T8/ADV850/ALTO). The performance test was conducted in portable classrooms B1 and B2
at Torrey Pines Elementary School. Each classroom is approximately 960 sq. ft. with three rows of five
“wrap” fixtures. Each wrap fixture contains two lamps and one ballast (ballast factor of 0.87).

Figure 1 - Portable classroom at Torrey Pines Elementary School.

Installing the 25W lamps will save energy, as much as 7W per bulb1, but there are some application
limitations that should be noted before implementation.
• Lumen levels may drop below acceptable requirements2.
• A warm up period of about 10 min was observed for the 25W lamps. Foot-candle readings were
taken in 5 minute intervals. The initial average readings were 33.1 fc (time equals zero), 36.5 fc
(time equals 5 minutes), and 38.3 fc (time equals 10 minutes).
• The lamps striate (flicker lengthwise) for about 5 min. No warm up time or striation was
observed for the standard and next generation F32T8s.
• The 25W lamps are not recommended with dimming ballasts. Based on a test at SDREO, the
lamps striate excessively when dimmed.
• The lamps are not recommended to be used with occupancy sensors.
• The 25W lamps have a higher per bulb cost ($3-$3.50) than 3100 lumen T8s ($2-$2.50).

Page 2 of 5
 • The 25W lamps are not recommended where the ambient temperature falls below 60°F.
Standard and next generation T8s operate at temperatures down to 0°F.
The table below contains performance characteristics for each bulb based on catalog ratings and data
collected at the test site.

Measured Rated
Rated Catalog Color Mercury
Lamp Type Wattage Life (3hr CRI Efficacy
Wattage Lumens Temp. Content
(0.87 BF) starts)
Philips Watts Watts Lumens Hours Kelvin CRI mg per lamp lm/watt
F32T8/ADV850/XEW/ALTO 25 24.1 2,400 20,000 5000 85 3.2 86.6

F32T8/ADV850/ALTO 32 29.2 3,100 24,000 5000 86 3.2 92.4

F32T8/TL735 32 29.03 2,800 20,000 3500 78 3.2 83.9

The 25W lamps resulted in 5.1W savings.

Photopic vs Scoptopic Light Levels

Light levels are traditionally measured photopically, or the ability of your eye’s cones to see in daylight, in
lumens. A second way to measure light, scotopically, or the ability of your eye’s rods to see in dim light, is
an effective way to account for the light quality of the lamp. The resulting scotopic/photopic (S/P) ratio
gives the most accurate value of the lamp’s brightness and quality. This ratio is not currently used in
IESNA (Illuminating Engineering Society of North America) standards; however, studies over the last
fifteen years have concluded that lighting with a high S/P ratio results in better visual acuity3. Figure 2
demonstrates the noticeable difference in the quality of light between the 5000 Kelvin lamps and the
3500 Kelvin lamps.

Figure 2 Bob Martin replaces the 25W 850s with 32W 735s. Notice the “orange”
lamps in the window reflection.

Page 3 of 5
A comparison between the standard 3500 K F32T8 lamps and the 5000 K F25T8 lamps was made.
Readings were taken at four student desks labeled below.

Readings taken at 4 student desks labeled below.

Rated Room
Lamp Type Esmeralda Richard Edgar Kendra
Wattage Average
Philips Watts Photopic ft Scotopic fc Photopic ft Scotopic fc Photopic ft Scotopic fc Photopic ft Scotopic fc Photopic ft Scotopic fc

F32T8/ADV850/XEW/ALTO 25 37.40 68.30 50.40 91.50 35.00 60.80 30.50 54.00 42.30 75.20

F32T8/TL735 32 38.10 53.10 51.30 71.10 33.80 44.70 32.30 43.70 47.90 64.30

Multiplying the catalog (photopic) lumens by the S/P ratio gives the effective lumen output of the lamps.
The chart below outlines the measured S/P ratios and effective lumens.

Rated Catalog Effective

Lamp Type Wattage Average Average Lumens Lumens
Philips Watts Photopic fc Scotopic fc S/P Ratio P P*S/P

F32T8/ADV850/XEW/ALTO 25 42.3 75.2 1.79 2400 4296

F32T8/ADV850/ALTO 32 54 95.8 1.83 2800 5673

F32T8/TL735 32 47.9 64.3 1.36 3100 3808

Energy Savings
The energy savings for one classroom were calculated based on replacing standard 32W T8s with the
25W T8s. The cost for electricity in this case is $0.17/kWh.

Energy Savings Summary: Replace F32T8/TL735 with F32T8/ADV850/XEW

No of No of Hours of Current Current Proposed Proposed Demand Energy Total Energy
Lamps Lamps Operation Demand Energy Demand Energy Savings Savings Cost Savings
Usage Usage
Current Suggested hrs/yr kW kWh/yr kW kWh/yr kW kWh/yr $/yr
30 30 1,880 0.87 1,637 0.72 1,359 0.15 278 $47

District wide (San Diego Unified School District), replacing 350,000 lamps would result in a total energy
cost savings of $595,950 per year. The implementation cost would amount to $2,065,000 (assuming
$3.50 per lamp and a $4 labor charge per fixture). This equates to a 3.5 year simple payback.

Conclusion
Based on the test results, the 25W lamps are the right choice for many applications:
• In areas where de-lamping is not an option
• When no funding is available to change the ballast
• In areas that are over-lit

Page 4 of 5
 • Where standard 3500 K and 4100 K (735 and 741) lamps are used and replaced with 5000 K
25W lamps
For more information about these lamps please contact Virginia Wilken of Philips Lighting Company at
760-634-5380 and virginia.wilken@philips.com. Also, contact Bob Martin of the San Diego Unified School
District at 858-627-7228 and bmartin1@mail.sandi.net.
Contacts at SDREO:
Ben Erpelding, P.E., C.E.M.
Senior Energy Engineer
(858) 244-1189
ben.erpelding@sdenergy.org

Annika Moman
Energy Engineer
(858) 244-1182
annika.moman@sdenergy.org

1
Savings depend on ballast type and ballast factor. 7W savings is observed with a 1.0 BF; 5.1W savings is observed
with a 0.87 BF.
2
Different lumen levels were observed in two similar applications with different fixtures. At the Energy Resource
Center at SDREO, lumen levels increased with the 25W lamps. At Torrey Pines Elementary, lumen levels
decreased. The fixtures at SDREO are basket type while the fixtures at Torrey Pines are wrap style.
3
Stan Walerczyk, “Hibays: It’s All About The Details”, www.rebuild.org

Page 5 of 5