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Minor losses: The changes in velocity either in direction or in magnitude result in friction in
addition to the skin friction generated in straight pipes. This friction can include form
friction because of wakes and vertices arising out of disturbances in stream line flow and
also because of boundary layer separation.
b)
2
LV
hm = f e , Le is the equivalent length of straight pipe
D 2
1. Inlets and exits:
Inlet losses:
As noted from the above table, head loss due to entrance or inlet can be significantly
reduced by rounding the corners at the inlet. Head loss is calculated using loss coefficient
equation.
Exit losses: This scenario would be very similar to that of sudden expansion if the fluid is
entering from pipe/duct into large reservoir.
1. Sudden expansions and contractions: In either case area ratio is the critical
parameter
When there is sudden increase in cross section area of the pipe through which fluid
flows, fluid stream separation from the wall occurs. Initially the fluid stream issues as a
jet of almost the same cross sectional area as the initial pipe and then expands and
fills the entire enlarged area of cross section as shown in the figure. The space within
the expanding jet and the conduit experiences a phenomenon involving boundary
layer separation, vortex formation generating significant amounts of friction.
2
V
hme = K e 1 ; Ke= expansion-loss coefficient
2
A1
AR =
A2
2
⎛ A ⎞
Ke = ⎜ 1 − 1 ⎟
⎝ A2 ⎠
(For details on how to arrive at the above expression, Refer to Example 2.8-4, page No.
80 of Transport Processes and separation process principles, 4th edition, by Christie
John Geankoplis).
K e = ( 1 − AR )
2
Sudden Contraction:
Sudden decrease in area of cross section in the fluid path, may involve sharp corners and
fluid stream loses contact with the walls. A jet is formed which contracts down the stream
first, and then expands to fill the conduit. The minimal cross section at which the jet changes
from contraction to expansion is known as vena contracta. Vortices appear as shown in the
above figure during the contraction and until the flow fully expands to fill the gap.
Incase of sudden contraction, the velocity V2 ( down stream) is higher than V1 (up stream),
thus
2
V
hmc = K c 2 ; Kc= Contraction loss co-efficient
2
A2
AR =
A1
Kc for laminar flow is in general < 0.1 and the contraction loss hmc is negligible.
For turbulent flow it is given by
K c = 0.4 ( 1 − AR )
K c = 0.55 ( 1 − AR )
Valve: This basically stops or controls flow. This is done by placing an obstruction in the
path of the fluid. The various types of valves, fittings and pumps will be discussed in detail
in the last unit under transportation and metering of fluids.
Examples: Gate valve, globe valve, pneumatic valve, straight fitting, elbow, T-junction
Since the valves are used for both compressible and incompressible fluids, it makes more
sense to study them at the end.
Valves and fittings disturb the normal flow lines and cause friction. In a short pipe with
several fittings, frictional loss from these fittings could be greater than in straight pipe.
Friction loss because of valves and fittings is given by
2
V
hf = K f 1 ;
2
Kf is the loss co-efficient and V1 is the average velocity leading to the fitting or valve.
Table 17.1. Friction lass co-efficient for flow through fittings and valves
Fitting Kf
Elbow, standard,
450 0.35
900 0.75
Tee
Straight through 0.4
Used as elbow 1.0
Return bend, 1800 1.5
Gate valve, Half Open 4.5
Gate valve, wide open 0.17
Angle valve, wide open 2.0
Globe valve, wide open 6.0
Globe valve, half open 9.5
Check valve, Ball 70.0
Check valve, Swing 2.0
Water meter, disk 7.0
Coupling 0.04
Union 0.04
∆Ppump
∆hpump =
ρ
Pump efficiency is given by
W pump
η=
W in
W pump is the power reaching the fluid and W in is the electrical power input.
Non-circular Ducts & Hydraulic Diameter:
If the height to width ratio of rectangular or square cross section is less than about 3 or 4,
the correlations for the turbulent flow can be used for such ducts by hydraulic diameter
4A
Dh ≅
P
Where A is the cross sectional area
P is the wetted perimeter, length of the wall that is in contact the fluid flow.
For a circular cross section
4(π D 2 / 4)
Dh ≅ =1
πD
For rectangular cross section:
4bh
Dh ≅
2(b + h)
For square cross-section:
4l 2
Dh ≅ = l ; l is the length of the side of the square
2( l + l )
Hydraulic Diameter or equivalent diameter is 4 times the hydraulic radius rH.
(Source: Example 2.10-6. page: 100-103, Transport Processes and separation process
principles, 4th edition, by Christie John Geankoplis)