VERTEBRATES: CONNECTIVE TYPES Contain blood vessels and nerves
Specialized for secretion Loose Connective LCT Canaliculi: distributes nutrients Anatomy: structure of an organism Kidney tubules, salivary ˴ Most widespread in body Interconnects lacunae Physiology: functions an organism performs Thyroid glands ˴ Binds epithelia to underlying tissues Lacunae: Contains osteocytes hormone regulates body’s rate of fuel ˴ Packaging material Blood Physical Laws and the Environment consumption ˴ holds organs in place ˴ Plasma-liquid in matrix Constrain Animal Size and Shape Simple Squamous Epith. ˴ Includes Collagenous. Elastin, Reticulated Water + salts + proteins Body plan of an animal results from a pattern Thin and leaky ˴ Predominant: ˴ Suspended in PLASMA of development programmed by the genome Exchange of material by diffusion Fibroblast-secrete protein Erythrocytes (RBC)-oxygen Line blood vessels and air sacs, where ingredients of the extracellular fibers Leukocytes (WBC)-defense Animal forms and functions are correlated at diffusion of nutrients and gases is critical Macrophage- amoeboid cells that LYMPHOCYTES- antibodies all levels of organization Stratified Squamous Epith. roam the maze of fibers, engulfing B-cells-SECRETE ANTIBODIES foreign particles and the debris of Regenerate rapidly by cell division near T-cells-DEVELOP IN THYMUS Tissues: groups of cells with a common structure dead cells by phagocytosis basal membrane MONOCYTES and function Surfaces subject to abrasion Adipose Differentiate into macrophages Held together by a sticky extracellular Outer skin ˴ Specialized form of LCT Arise from stem cells of bone marrow matrix that coats the cells or weaves them Lining of esophagus, anus, vagina ˴ Stores fat ˴ Pads and insulates body POLYMORPHONUCLEAR together in a fabric of fibers Abrasion affects the oldest cells OR GRANULOCYTES ˴ Stores fuel as fat molecule ˴ Swells: fat is stored Highly variable shape of nucleus 1. EPITHELIAL BASEMENT MEMBRANE: dense mat Fibrous Connective Circulating phagocytes in blood Tightly packed cells: barrier of extracellular matrix where the cells at the ˴ Dense (large number of collagenous) Neutrophil-most abundant Covers outside of body base of the epithelial layer are attached ˴ Fibers: organized into parallel bundles First line of defense in infection Lines organs and cavities inside body CT secreted by epithelial and CT cells Free surface: exposed to air or fluid Maximizes nonelastic strength Kill microbes through phagocytosis protection, absorption, secretion ˴ Found in tendons and ligaments Eusinophil-secretes enzymes 2. CONNECTIVE TISSUE Glandular: secrete chemical solutions Cartilage and destroys allergens Binds and supports o Mucous membrane: formed in the lining Sparse population of cells; scattered through ˴ Abundance of collagenous fibers Basophil-secretes histamine of digestive and respiratory tracts embedded in chondroitin sulfate Platelets (fragments)-blood clotting an extracellular matrix Matrix: web of fibers embedded in a uniform ˴ Chondrocytes: secrete chondroitin CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIA: sulfate and collagen 3. MUSCLE TISSUE foundation Number of cell layers ˴ Strong yet flexible support material Don’t actively lengthen Secreted by cells of connective tissue Originates from mesoderm Simple : 1 layer ˴ Replaced by bone as embryo matures Made of fibers Composed of long cells called muscle Stratified: multiple layer ˴ Retained in some locations ˴ Absorbs physical impact without breaking fibers MF that are capable of contracting Pseudostratified: feeling stratified THREE KINDS: ˴ TYPES: when stimulated by nerve signals because cells vary in length only that Collagenous Most abundant in animals nucleus are polarized o Collagen: most abundant protein Hyaline: clear and glassy Trachea, nose Fascicule – more complex Shape of cells on exposed surface o Nonelastic Elastic Lobe of ear, epiglottis Sarcoplasmic reticulum – stores Ca2+ Cuboidal cubes o Doesn’t tear easily when pulled Hydro cartilage Knee joints Muscle contraction: accounts for much Columnar columns lengthwise of the E-consuming cellular work in an Elastic Bone Squamous flat active animal o Long threads made of protein elastin ˴ Make up skeleton ˴ Mineralized connective tissue Myofibrils – Contrasting units arranged o Provide a rubbery quality that Stratified Columnar Epith. ˴ Osteoblasts :bone-forming cells that in parallel within cytoplasm of muscle MF complements the nonelastic strength Lines inner surface of urethra of collagenous fibers deposit a matrix of collagen MYOFILAMENTS Simple Columnar Epith. o Restores skin’s original shape ˴ Osteoclasts: removes bone tissue by Actin – thin Lines intestines Reticular removing its mineralized matrix Actin molecule Secretes digestive juices o Very thin and branched ˴ Ca + Mg + P = hydroxyapatite Troponin: located at intervals Absorbs nutrients o Composed of collagen; continuous ˴ Collagen + hard mineral = bone is harder along actin Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epith. with collagenous fibers than cartilage but it’s not brittle Globular subunits attached Mucus membrane : respiratory tract o Forma tightly woven fabric joining ˴ Osteons/Haversian Canal Systems: to tropomyosin Cilia move a film of mucus along surface connective to adjacent tissue have concentric layers of mineralized Tropomyosin: lie near grooves Trap dust and sweep back up to trachea matrix between actin strands Myosin – thick Nucleus Carry out major body functions Reception of environmental stimuli such as 2 polypeptide chains wound in Axon hillock Coordination between system for pain, temperature, pressure supercoil Myelin sheath animal to survive Locomotion head Synaptic terminal Movement of nutrients and gases A-BAND – broad region: length of SYMMETRY Terminal branches Behavioral interaction between individuals the thick filaments ˴ Balanced proportion Neurons can be ˴ Correspondence in size and shape of parts Colorful display: to attract mates I-BAND – thin filaments Multipolar: several dendrites on opposite sides of the median plane Z-LINE- hold together the actin Bipolar: 1 dendrite and 1 axon INVERTEBRATE INTEGUMENT filament ˴ Spherical: any plane passing through the Neuroglia: supporting cell: insulates neuron center divides a body into an equivalent, 1. Plasma membrane Borders of the sarcomere membranes ˴ Unicellular protozoa mirrored halves H-ZONE – center of the A-band ˴ Gas exchange and waste removal by Help in the nourishment of neurons Unicellular forms and rare in animals that contains only thick filament simple diffusion Microglia: can be mobile (protection Best suited for rolling and floating Disappears when sarcomere ˴ Uptake of dissolved nutrients by phagocytosis) ˴ Radial: forms that can be divided into contracts ˴ Pellicle Astrocyte: lies between nerve cells similar halves by more than two planes SARCOMERE – from 1 Z-line to i. Thick protein coat found in protozoa and capillary (nourishment of passing through the longitudinal axis another ii. Further environmental protection neurons) Tubular, vase or bowl shapes Function unit of the microfibril iii. Semi-rigid structure: transmits force of Oligodentrocyte: secretes cells for Biradial: only two planes passing cilia and flagella to entire body as the myelin sheath through longitudinal axis produce MUSCLE TISSUE TYPES animal moves Muscle fibers – muscle cell mirrored halves (Comb jellies) a. Skeletal muscle 2. Epidermis Nerve fiber - neuron Usually sessile, freely floating, or weakly ˴ Attached to bone by tendon ˴ Most multi-cellular invertebrates Connective Tissue fiber – proteins swimming ˴ Syncitium – multinucleated ˴ Single layer of columnar epithelial cells ˴ Bilateral ˴ Some invertebrates have cuticle over ˴ Voluntary movement Strongly associated with cephalisation ˴ Arrangement of sarcomere(contractile units) LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION IN their epidermis (differentiation of the head) ˴ Delicate and soft in mollusks and gives cells a striated appearance ORGANISMAL COMPLEXITY Directional (forward movement) b. Cardiac muscle contain mucous glands, some secrete Terminology calcium carbonate of the shell ˴ Single nucleus 1. Protoplasmic Organization in Anterior: head Mantle ˴ Striated but involuntary Organismal Complexity ˴ Muscle fibers branch and interconnect via Posterior: tail Pair of folds formed by the dorsal body wall Found in unicellular organisms Dorsal: back intercalated disks Outer surface secretes shell Protoplasm: differentiated into Ventral: front Rely signals from cell to cell Mollusks: more complex integument organelles Medial: midline Help synchronize heartbeat consisting of cuticle, simple epithelial, layer 2. Cellular Lateral: sides c. Smooth muscle of connective tissue, layer of reflecting cells Aggregation of cells: functionally Distal: farther from middle ˴ Lack striations (iridiocytes), and thicker layer of CT differentiated Proximal: nearer from middle ˴ Found in walls of visceral organs Arthropods have most complex of Division of labor is evident Frontal/Coronal plane: dorsal/ventral invertebrate integuments Blood vessel; walls of digestive tract Most cells for nourishment Sagittal plane: right/left ˴ Spindle shaped cells Some cells for reproduction Transverse/xs: anterior/posterior PROTECTION AND SKELETAL SUPPORT ˴ Contract more slowly than skeletal but can 3. Cell-Tissue ˴ Segmentation: metamerism Procuticle inner contract longer Aggregation of similar tissues into Metamere/somite – segment composed of protein and chitin ˴ Controlled by different kinds of nerves definite patterns of layers thus Serial repetition of similar body segments Epicuticle outer ˴ Involuntary becoming a tissue (hydra) along longitudinal axis of body nonchitinous complex of protein and lipids ˴ Movement of substances in lumens of body 4. Tissue-Organ Aggregation of tissues into organs Seta 4. NERVOUS TISSUE Eyespots, reproduction organs INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM Tegumental gland Senses stimuli and transmits signals in the 5. Organ System Tanning form of nerve impulses Organs work together to perform some FUNCTIONS Arthropod cuticle can be hardened by: Neurons – consists of a cell body and two or functions Protection from mechanical and chemical a. Calcification more extensions or processes Systems are associated with basic body injury and invasion of microorganisms ˴ Deposition of calcium carbonate in the Dendrites: neuron tip (rest of neuron) functions (Nemerteam worm, ribbon Regulation of body temperature outer layers of procuticle Axons: toward another neuron or effector worm: excretory separate from Excretion of waste materials ˴ For crustaceans Cell body digestive) b. Sclereotization Conversion of sunlight to vitamin D ˴ Protein molecules bond together with ˴ With blood vessels, collagenous fibers, c. More viscous – fatty acids and proteins ii. Provides resistance of muscles to act stabilizing cross-linkages within and nerves, pigment cells, fat cells, fibroblasts d. Restricted to axillae, breasts, prepuce, against between adjacent lamellae of the procuticle ˴ Support, cushion and nourish epidermis scrotum, external auditory canals ˴ Source ˴ Form of highly resistant and insoluble ˴ Macrophages and lymphocytes provide the e. Odor occurs when broken down by i. Some organisms use their fluid-filled protein, sclerotin first line of defense bacteria coelom ˴ For insects ˴ Dermal derivatives i. PROPIONIC ACID **Main type of skeleton in most cnidarians Molting of Arthropods: o Scales of fish, antlers, horn, carapace, Ceruminous glands and flatworms Epidermal cells are divided by mitosis armadelum ˴ Modified sudoriferous glands Epidermis secretes enzyme to digest o Antlers of deer – shed velvet during the ˴ Secrete cerumen (earwax) Earthworms procuticle breeding system Mammary glands ˴ Setae – needlelike chitinous structure Absorption of digested materials Velvet – covering of highly vascular ˴ Secrete milk ˴ Septa – wall between coelomic cavities New Epicuticle and procuticle formed soft skin ˴ Longitudinal Muscle LM beneath the old ANIMAL COLORATION ˴ Circular Muscle CM New cuticle is thicker and calcified on Similarity of STRUCTURE of ˴ Vivid and dramatic when serving as important ˴ Alternate contraction of the CM and LM sclereotized INTEGUMENTARY DERIVATIVES recognition marks or warning coloration allow earthworm to move ˴ Claw, horn , beak ˴ Subdued or cryptic when used for camouflage ˴ Use muscles to change shape of fluid filed VERTEBRATE INTEGUMENT ˴ All are built of similar combinations of ˴ Aposematic coloration compartment epidermal (keratinized) and dermal o Poisonous Skin and Derivatives components o Warning coloration to advertise Muscular Hydrostats ˴ Chromatophores: pigment cells noxious qualities ˴ Work because they are comprised of ˴ 2 layers: DERMIS and EPIDERMIS Hairs incompressible tissues that remain at ˴ Other Structures Epidermal growth, protection 1. STRUCTURAL COLOR constant volume o Arrector pili muscle: found at the end Shaft, root, follicle a. Produced by the physical structure of the ˴ Muscles arranged in complex patterns of the root hair (GOOSEBUMPS) Sebaceous glands, Arrector pili muscle, and surface tissue. Tissue reflects certain light ˴ No body fluid, only muscles o Hair hair root plexus (touch) wavelength and eliminates others ˴ Tentacles, elephant trunk o Hair follicle b. Phase interference microscopic structure of o Sebaceous gland Nails the feathers 2. Rigid skeletons o Nerve endings Plates of highly packed, keratinized cells c. Different response depending on the direction ˴ Consists of rigid elements o Hypodermis: subcutaneous layer Protection, scratching, and manipulation or directionally illuminating (butterflies and ˴ Usually jointed o Sweat glands Formed by cells in the nail bed called the some fishes) ˴ Two principal types: endo and exo matrix (in area of lunula) Epidermis o White because of concentration of cells 2. PIGMENT COLOR A. EXOSKELETON ˴ Stratified Squamous epithelium 1 mm/week a. Biochromes –(pigments) Mollusks – Calcium carbonate ˴ No blood vessels Eponychium – cuticle b. Reflect light rays Arthropods – Chitin, a polysaccharide ˴ Cells of basal part undergo frog mitosis as c. Chromatophores/pigment cells similar to cellulose outer layer of cells are displaced upward by Skin Glands i. Melanophores/melanocytes Protection and Locomotion new generation of cells beneath, ˴ Sebaceous (oil) glands ˴ Melanin: black KERATINIZATION takes place ˴ Usually connected to hair follicles ii. Xantophores B. ENDOSKELETON ˴ Cornified cells: highly resistant to ˴ Fats, cholesterol, proteins, salts, and coil ˴ Carotenoid: red/yellow Echinoderm and vertebrates abrasions, water diffusion debris iii. Iridiophores ˴ Crystals of purine: silvery/metallic Mineralized bone and cartilage ˴ Comprise outermost stratum corneum ˴ Moistens hair and skin ˴ Result of keratinisation (calluses) Support, protection and reservoir of calcium ˴ Waterproofs skin ˴ Derivatives: and phosphorous ˴ Blackheads are oxidized sebum SKELETAL SYSTEM o Feathers Grows as animal grows o Nails Sweat (sudoriferous glands) i. Does not limit space for internal organs FUNCTIONS ii. Supports greater weight o Hair (pelage) 1. Eccrine sweat glands ˴ Provide rigidity o Scales of snake a. Water, salt, wastes ˴ Surfaces for muscle attachment Notochord o Hoof b. Hairless regions scattered over body ˴ Protection for vulnerable body organs Semi-rigid supportive axial rod of o Plumage c. Function: To cool body protochordates and all vertebrate larvae and 1. Hydrostatic skeleton embryo Dermis 2. Apocrine sweat glands ˴ Functions Composed of large vacuolated cells ˴ Dense connective tissue layer a. Larger i. Supports body form surrounded by elastic and fibrous sheaths b. Associated with hair follicles Stiffening device; preserves body shape during ˴ Work with osteoblasts to heal broken bones 5 pairs o Hyaline cap appears locomotion Part of the ectoplasm Except in jawless vertebrates, surrounded or Hormones involved: APPENDICULAR SKELETON Transparent and hardened replaced by the backbone during embryo ˴ Parathyroid – stimulate bone resorption ˴ Consists of o Endoplasm flows toward hyaline cap development o Osteoclasts o Bones within pectoral and pelvic girdle o Actin subunits attached to regulatory ABPs o From parathyroid gland o Attach limbs ABPs – prevent actin from polymerizing Cartilage ˴ Calcitonin – inhibits bone resorption ˴ Pectoral Girdle – bones of shoulder into actin microfilaments Major skeletal element of some vertebrates o Osteoblasts o Anterior: Supports arms and hands Regulatory protein – attached to the Soft pliable tissue that resists compression o From thyroid gland ˴ Pelvic Girdle – bones of pelvis actin Jawless vertebrates and elasmobranchs have ˴ 1.25 dihydroxyvitamin D3 – maintain Calcium o Posterior: Supports leg and feet o Endoplasm fountains out to periphery purely cartilaginous skeletons level in the blood o Actin subunits released and polymerized No blood vessels o Vitamin D3 CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS Due to interaction with phospholipids 1. Fibrous Joints o Microfilaments cross linked Bone Plan of the vertebrate skeleton ˴ Immovable o Ca2+activate actin secreting protein Living tissue having a significant amount of ˴ Axial skeleton ˴ Between cranial bones o Myosin associated with and pull on calcium deposits in the extracellular matrix o Skull, vertebrate, septum, bridge 2. Cartilaginous Joints microfilaments Highly vascular ˴ Appendicular skeleton ˴ Slightly movable Forces endoplasm to flow towards According to ORIGIN: o Limbs, fins, wings, pelvic & pectoral girdle ˴ Between vertebrae hyaline cap o Endochondrial or replacement bone 3. Synovial Joints Originally found in cartilage Human skeletal system ˴ Freely movable Ciliary Movement Endochondrial Ossification ˴ Supports and protects body ˴ Bones separated by a cavity Cilia ˴ Permits movement 4. Ligaments bind bones together at a joint ˴ Minute, hairlike, motile processes Replacement of cartilage bone ˴ Provides resistive foundation for muscles to act ˴ Occur in large numbers Embryonic cartilage eroded → against osteoblasts invade honeycombed MOVEMENT ˴ Ciliate protistans ˴ Bone stores Ca and P ions ˴ Found in all major groups of animals areas → deposit of Ca salts around ˴ Certain bones produce RBC (sternum) strandlike remnants of the cartilage ˴ Move organism through aquatic movement Contractile proteins change their form to relax or o Intramembranous bone ˴ Propel fluid and materials across surface AXIAL SKELETON contract: Actomyosin system ˴ NASA WINDPIPES NATIN Develop directly from sheets of embryonic cells Vertebral Column Primary Steps Flagella Dermal bone is a type of Supports the head and trunk Amoeboid, Ciliary and flagellar, Muscular ˴ Whiplike – longer intramembranous bone Protects spinal cord & roots of spinal nerves Amoeboid movement ˴ Present singly or in small numbers Cranial, facial, clavicle ˴ Occur in unicellular eukaryotes According to DENSITY: ˴ Amoeba and other unicellular forms Segments (superior to interior) ˴ Animal spermatozoa o Cancellous or spongy bone ˴ WBC Cervical - neck ˴ Sponges Have irregular spaces ˴ Embryonic mesenchyma cells Thoracic – chest o Choanocytes – with flagella to Can still provide strength ˴ Other mobile cells Lumbar – small of back PRODUCE WATER CURRENTS o Compact bone – dense ˴ Amoeba Sacral – sacrum/ pelvic ˴ Both cilia and flagella have the same Medullary Activity – filled with YELLOW o Movement depends on actin and other Coccyx – tailbone ultrastructure bone marrow (fat storage) regulatory proteins Invertebral disks of fibrocartilage act as o Core of microtubules sheathed by the Spongy – filled with RED bone marrow o Ectoplasm – located in the periphery padding plasma membrane More rigid; gel like o “9+2” pattern as in 9 doublets BONE GROWTH AND RENEWAL o Endoplasm – found in central areas of o Flexible “wheels” of proteins connect outer ˴ Cartilage structure in early development act as Rib Cage cytoplasm doublets to each other and to the core models for future bones Protects the heart and lungs and assist in Contains nucleus breathing o Outer doublets connected by motor ˴ Calcium salts deposited in the extracellular More fluid proteins matrix by cartilage cells and later osteoblasts Support by thoracic pending o Pseudopod – false foot 12 pairs of ribs o Anchored in the cell by a basal body/ o Endochondrial Ossification o Hyaline cap kinetosome TRUE RIBS o Endoplasmic stream Connect directly to sternum o Axoneme – “9+2”tube of microtubules in Osteoclasts ˴ Consensus model to explain extension and a flagellum/cilium ˴ Break down bone 7 pairs withdrawal of pseudopodia and amoeboid o Dynein Arm – connect doublets ˴ Remove worn cells FALSE RIBS crawling: Operate to produce a sliding force ˴ Deposit Ca in the blood Do not connect to sternum o Ectoplasm and endoplasm between microtubules o Radial spoke – made of proteins o Cause wing movement by altering the from the active site → Myosin x-bridges bind ˴ Muscles have creatine phosphates, an energy Connect outer doublets shape of the thorax to exposed active sites reserve ˴ The bending of cilia and flagella is driven by ˴ Prothorax 3. Myosin head swings toward the center of the ˴ Slow and fast oxidative fibers rely heavily on the arms of a motor protein, dynein ˴ Mesothorax sarcomere(ATP) → ADP and phosphate group glucose and oxygen o Addition to dynein of a phosphate group are released ˴ Fast glycolytic fibers rely on anaerobic from ATP and its removal causes Sliding Filament Model 4. Myosin heads bind to another ATP molecule glycolysis conformation changes in the protein ˴ Actin filament at both sides of ear → Myosin head is freed from the active site ˴ Muscles incur oxygen debt during anaerobic o Dynein arms alternately grab, move and o One end of each filament is attached to a 5. Myosin head splits ATP → energy released is glycolysis release outer microtubules Zplate and the other to the other end of retained CREATINE P + ADP → ATP + CREATINE o Protein cross linked limit is sliding sarcomere Importance of tendons in Energy storage o Force is expressed as bending o Other suspended in sarcoplasm Human muscular system ˴ Kinetic energy is stored form step to step as ˴ Myosin filaments in between Zplates ˴ Skeletal muscles extra elastin strain energy in tendons Mechanism of Ciliary movement o Myosin filament contain cross-bridges that o Attached to skeleton by cable like fibrous ˴ Bounces along its tendons 1. Dynein arms link to adjacent microtubules pull the actin filament inward CT called TENDONS ˴ Uses far less energy than would be required if 2. Swivel and release in repeated cycles o Causes the Zplate to move toward each one o Arranged in Antagonistic pairs every step relied on alternate muscle 3. MT on concave side to slide outward past MT o Shortens sarcomere Can only contract; cannot push contraction and relaxation on the convex side o Sarcomeres stacked together in series cause When 1 muscle contracts; it stretches its 4. Curvature of cilium increases myofibers to shorten antagonistic partner DIGESTION 5. Recovery stroke: MT on opposite slide ˴ Working muscle require ATP ˴ Muscle at REST exhibits TONE (minimal downward o Myosin breaks down ATP contraction) o Sustained excercise ˴ Muscle in TETANY is a maximum Dietary Categories: Difference between Cilia and Flagella – Requires Respiration sustained contraction 1. Herbivores beating patterns Regenerates ATP 2. Carnivores ˴ Flagella has undulatory movement Muscle performance 3. Omnivores o Force is generated PARALLEL to the Muscle Innervations ˴ Slow oxidative fibers (red muscles) 4. Saprophagous – decaying organic flagellum’s axis ˴ Neuromuscular junction o For slow, sustained contractions without matter (woodlice, deerfly, hermit) ˴ Cilia move more like oars with alternating o Synaptic contact between a nerve fiber fatigue Feeding Adaptations power and recovery strokes and a muscle fiber o Contain extensive blood supply ˴ Suspension feeder – sits through food o Force is generated PERPENDICULAR o Nerve impulses bring about the o High density of mitochondria particles in the water to cilia’s axis release of a neurotransmitter that o Abundant stored Myoglobin o Coprophagy – consume food pellets (rabbits) crosses the synaptic left o Important in maintaining posture in o Bivalve mollusks use gills as feeding devices INVERTEBRATE MUSCLE o Signals the fiber to contract terrestrial vertebra and for respiration. ˴ Fast fibers o Herring use gill rakers that project from the Bivalve molluscan muscles Axon o Fast GLYCOLITIC fiber gill arches into the pharyngeal cavity to strain 1. Fast Muscle fibers ˴ Axon terminal plankton Lacks efficient blood supply ˴ Striated, can contract rapidly ˴ Axon branch ˴ Deposit feeder – eats its way through dirt or Pale in color ˴ Enables bivalves to snap shut its valves when ˴ Synaptic vessels – stores acetylcholine sediments and extract partially decayed organic Function anaerobically disturbed (scallops) ˴ Synaptic cleft – thinly separates a nerve fiber material consumed along with the soil and Fatigue rapidly 2. Smooth Muscle and muscle fiber sediments (earthworm) Weightlifters, white meat ˴ Substrate feeder – lives in or on its food ˴ Capable of slow, long-lasting contractions ˴ Acetylcholine – released when a nerve impulse o Fast OXIDATIVE fiber i. Adductor muscle – yung naiiwan sa shell or an action potential reaches a synapse source, eating its way through the food (Leaf Extensive blood supply miners) ii. Kaya ayaw mag-open o Diffuses across the synaptic cleft and acts High density of mitochondria and on the sarcolemma to generate an ˴ Fluid feeder – sucks nutrient rich fluids from a Myoglobin living host and is considered a parasite Insect flight muscles electrical depolarization Function aerobically ˴ Wings of small flies operate at 1000 beats/sec ˴ Synapse – special chemical bridge that couples (mosquito) Rapid, sustained activities ˴ Bulk feeder – eats relatively large pieces of ˴ Limited extensibility, shorten only slightly together the electrical activity of nerve and Runners, athletes ˴ Direct muscles – connected to wings muscle fiber food (python) o Not present in flies and midgets but ˴ Cephalopod mollusks have beak-like jaws Energy for contraction that serve as tearing devices present in locusts and dragonflies HOW DOES A MUSCLE CONTRACT ˴ ATP, main source of Energy o Contraction of this is causes the 1. Action potential → sarcolemma → ˴ Chewing mouthparts adapted for seizing and ˴ Glucose broken down during aerobic crushing food downstroke movement sarcoplasmic reticulum(thru T-Tubules) metabolism ˴ Indirect muscles – connected thorax 2. Ca ions released → bind to Troponin ˴ Mandible are strong , toothed plates whose ˴ Glycogen stores can supply glucose edges can bite or tear →Troponin and Tropomyosin move away ˴ Maxillae hold food and pass it toward the pharynx, epiglottis tips down over the Pyloric Sphincter – regulates flow of food Trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase: mouth trachea, nearly closing it → esophagus: into the intestine (duodenum) and prevents secreted in inactive form by the pancreas ˴ Birds lack teeth but are provided with serrated peristaltic contraction of esophageal muscles regurgitation into the stomach o Enteropeptidase converts inactive edges → stomach Relaxes at intervals to allow entry of acidic trypsinogen into active trypsin ˴ 4 types of teeth stomach contents o Active trypsin then activates the other o Incisors – biting cutting stripping 2. CONDUCTION: Esophagus Pancreatic juice two o Canines – seizing piercing tearing Bile Disaccharides – split 12-carbon sugar o Premolars – grinding crushing 3. STORAGE & EARLY DIGESTION Collects in the gallbladder molecules into 6-carbon units o Molars – grinding crushing Stomach: vertebrates; crop: insects, birds o Releases bile when stimulated by the o Maltase, Lactase, Sucrose ˴ Elephant’s tusk is modified upper incisor Stomach – provides initial digestion as well presence of fatty food in the Chlomicrons – fatty acids + protein ˴ Used for defense, attack, and rooting as storage and mixing of food with digestive duodenum +cholesterol juices Water, bile, salts, no pigments, enzymes Lacteal Types of Digestive System Cardiac sphincter – opens reflexively when Bile salts- essential for digestion of fats food arrives at the stomach to allow food to o Reduce surface tension of fat Colon recovers water in alimentary canal INCOMPLETE: one opening, no anus enter globules → intestine breaks fat into 90% water is reabsorbed mostly in the small COMPLETE: mouth and anus opening is o Closes to prevent regurgitation back tiny droplets intestine, the rest in the colon into the esophagus Bile pigments – produce yellow green Feces become more solid as they are moved Four main stages of food processing Churning – most vigorous at the intestinal 1. Ingestion – act of eating color along the colon by peristalsis end where food is steadily released into the o Gives feces its characteristic color 12 to 24 hours for material to travel the 2. Digestion – breaking down food into duodenum (1st region of small intestine) molecules small enough for the body to absorb Liver – produces bile length of the colon Gastric juice – secreted by deep tubular Both have high bicarbonate content, Diarrhea results if insufficient water is 3. Absorption: small molecules are taken in by glands in the stomach wall which effectively neutralizes gastric acid absorbed cells o Goblet cells – secrete mucus Raises pH of liquefied food mass Constipation if too much water is absorbed 4. Elimination: undigested material passes out of o Chief cells – secrete pepsinogen (CHYME) the digestive compartment PEPSINOGEN – precursor of pepsin, a Large intestine: mostly harmless bacteria protease (protein splitting enzyme) that is 6. WATER ABSORPTION AND Escherichia coli – most common ˴ Digestion is entirely intracellular in protozoa produced from pepsinogen only in an CONCETRATION OF SOLIDS inhabitants of human colon and sponges acidic medium Large intestine (vertebrates); hindgut (insects) Colon bacteria generate gases, including ˴ Radiates, tubellarian, flatworms, and ribbon o Parietal/Oxyntic cells – secrete HCl ** MALPHIGIAN TUBULES: excretory organs methane and hydrogen sulfide worm practice both intra- and extracellular digestion Rennin – milk-curdling enzyme found in **CECUM Produce vitamins including biotin, vitamin ˴ Extracellular: cells in lining of alimentary the stomachs of ruminant animals Region Secretion pH Composition K, and B vitamins canals form digestive secretions and other o Slows movement of milk through stomach Salivary Amylase by clotting and precipitating milk proteins Saliva 6.5 cells function for absorption glands Bicarbonate *** Helicobacter pylori – secretes toxins ˴ Arthropods and vertebrates: extracellular Pepsinogen causing inflammation in stomach’s lining 4. GRINDING – gizzard (birds), proventiculus Stomach Gastric Juice 1.5 HCl (insects) Rennin The terminal portion of the colon is called Gut movement Gizzard: assisted by stones and grit swallowed Bile salts the rectum, where feces is stored until ˴ Alternate constriction of rings of smooth Liver along with food Bile 7,8 Pigments muscle of the intestine Gallbladder eliminated Cholesterol ˴ Constantly divide and squeeze contents back Trypsin Between the rectum and the anus are 2 and forth 5. TERMINAL DIGESTION & sphincters: one voluntary, one involuntary Chymotrypsin ˴ For mixing of food ABSORPTION – small intestine (vertebrates); Pancreatic Carboxypeptidase Once or more each day, strong contractions midgut (insects) Pancreas 7,8 ˴ Waves of contraction of circular muscle behind Juice Lipase, Amylase, of the colon create an urge to defecate the gut and relaxation in front of bolus Increase absorptive surface of gut → increase Nucleases, ˴ Sweeps food down the gut length Bicarbonate Regulation of digestion Villi – minute finger like projections Aminopeptidase ˴ Length of digestive system is correlated with 1. RECEPTION: mouth parts, salivary glands Give the inner surface of fresh intestinal Maltase diet tissue the appearance of velvet Small Membrane Lactase ˴ Most elaborate adaptation for a herbivorous Amylase – hydrolysis of plant and animal Intestine Enzymes 7,8 Sucrose starches Birds and mammals diet have evolved in ruminants (deer, cattle) Alkaline Break into two-glucose fragments (maltose) Microvilli – lines each cell in the intestinal Phosphatase ˴ Human body regulates use of storage glucose (a cavity major cellular fuel) Tongue pushes moistened food toward pharynx →nasal cavity closes reflexively by raisin the soft alate → as food slides into the Nutritional Requirements Suppresses appetite by acting on the ˴ Effectiveness of diffusion is enhanced by Respiratory Organs ˴ Nutritionally adequate diets satisfies: brain vascularisation LUNGS invaginations ˴ Undernourishment occurs if diet is Positive pressure breathing FROG chronically deficient in calories Animals need 20 amino acids to make RESPIRATORY ORGANS Negative pressure breathing MAMMAL ˴ Malnourished if missing one or more proteins ˴ Cutaneous respiration direct diffusion TIDAL VOLUME – volume of air an animal nutrients ˴ ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS must be in Protozoa, sponges, worms inhales and exhales with each breath 500mL if ˴ Marasmus general undernourishment low in prefabricated form Supplements gill or lung breathing in large resting calories and proteins Adult humans animals VITAL CAPACITY – Max tidal volume during ˴ Kwashiorkor a protein malnourishment, PHENYLALANINE ˴ Tracheal systems branching system of tubes forced breathing 3.4L female 4.8L male adequate in calories but deficient in protein LYSINE Insects and other arthropods RESPIRATORY PIGMENTS hemocyanin and ˴ Overnourishment obesity results from ISOLEUCINE Simplest, most direct, most efficient haemoglobin excessive food intake LEUCINE Tracheae system of tubules ˴ Leptin, produced by adipose cell, key player in VALINE Tracheoles fluid filled smallest end When the control center registers a slight drop a complex feedback mechanism: reduces METHIONINE ˴ Gills or bronchia external internal in pH it increases the depth and rate of appetite as fat storage increases TRYPTOPHAN breathing and excess CO2 is eliminated in o High Leptin: depress appetite → increase THREONINE GILL VENTILATION exhaled air energy consuming muscular activity and Normal growth of children Movement of the respiratory medium over the oxygen diffuses INTO pulmonary capillaries body-heat production HISTIDINE respiratory surface Most oxygen combines with haemoglobin in o Fat loss: leptin decrease → increase ARGININE Maintains the partial pressure gradients of O2 RBC to form OXYHEMOGLOBIN appetite → weight gain ˴ Protein deficiency form vegan diet can be and CO2 across the gill that is necessary for gas carbon dioxide diffuses OUT of pulmonary avoided by eating a combination of plant exchange. capillaries Principal GI Hormones foods that complement each other to supply all Move their gills through the water or move Some carbon dioxide combines with ˴ GASTRIN – pyloric portion of stomach essential amino acids water over their gills. haemoglobin to form Stimulated by: food in lower stomach ˴ VITAMINS organic molecules required in a Fishes use the motion of swimming or CARBAMINOHEMOGLOBIN Increases stomach motility and acid diet in small quantities coordinated movements of the mouth and gill Cooperative oxygen binding and release is production ˴ 13 vitamins essential to man identified covers to ventilate their gills. evident in the dissociation curve for ˴ CHOLESYSTOKININ (CKK) – upper small ˴ Water-soluble vitamins function as A current of water enters the mouth, passes haemoglobin intestine coenzymes through slits in the pharynx, flows over the BOHR SHIFT: A drop in pH lowers affinity Stimulated by: fatty acids in ˴ MINERALS simple inorganic nutrients in gills, and then exits the body of haemoglobin for oxygen duodenum small amounts A fish continuously pumps water through its Increase enzyme flow Humans and vertebrates require large mouth and over gill arches, using coordinated Notes of Danni Gascon 2009-37383 Increase bile secretion amounts of Ca and P for bone construction movements of the jaws and operculum (gill Third Long Lecture Exam Feeling of satiety and maintenance cover) for this ventilation. (swimming fish can ˴ SECRETIN: duodenal wall Iron component of the cytochromes and simply open its mouth and let water flow past Stimulated by: acid food in duodenum haemoglobin its gills,) Each gill arch has two rows of gill Inhibits stomach motility Na, K, Cl major influence in osmotic filaments, composed of flattened plates called Decrease bile secretion balance between cells and interstitial fluid lamellae. Blood flowing through capillaries Increase bicarbonate secretion Excess consumption of NaCl is BAD. within the lamellae picks up O2 from the water. Notice that the countercurrent flow of water Appetite-regulating hormones and blood maintains a partial pressure gradient ˴ GHRELIN stomach wall GAS EXCHANGE down which O2 diffuses from the water into Triggers feeling of hunger a mealtimes the blood over the entire length of a capillary. approach CELLULAR RESPIRATION oxidative ˴ LEPTIN adipose tissue processes within cells COUNTERCURRENT FLOW Suppresses appetite EXTERNAL RESPIRATION exchange of Exchange of a substance or heat between two ˴ PYY small intestine CO2 between organism and environment fluids flowing in opposite directions. After meals Process maximizes gas exchange efficiency Appetite suppressant GAS EXCHANGE SURFACES Blood flows in the direction opposite to that of Counters ghrelin ˴ Effective diffusion: gas exchange must be water passing over the gills, at each point in its ˴ INSULIN pancreas o Moist travel blood is less saturated with O2 than the Rise in blood sugar level after a meal o Thin water it meets o Relatively LARGE