TISSUES
VERTEBRATES: CONNECTIVE TYPES
Anatomy: structure of an organism
Physiology: functions an organism performs
Physical Laws and the Environment
Constrain Animal Size and Shape
 Body plan of an animal results from a pattern
of development programmed by the genome
Animal forms and functions are correlated at
all levels of organization
Tissues: groups of cells with a common structure
and function
 Held together by a sticky extracellular
matrix that coats the cells or weaves them
together in a fabric of fibers
1. EPITHELIAL
 Tightly packed cells: barrier
 Covers outside of body
 Lines organs and cavities inside body
 Free surface: exposed to air or fluid
 protection, absorption, secretion
 Glandular: secrete chemical solutions
o Mucous membrane: formed in the lining  Sparse population of cells; scattered through
of digestive and respiratory tracts
CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIA:
 Number of cell layers
 Simple : 1 layer
 Stratified: multiple layer
 Pseudostratified: feeling stratified
because cells vary in length only that
nucleus are polarized
 Shape of cells on exposed surface
 Cuboidal cubes
 Columnar columns
 Squamous flat
 Stratified Columnar Epith.
 Lines inner surface of urethra
 Simple Columnar Epith.
 Lines intestines
 Secretes digestive juices
 Absorbs nutrients
 Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epith.
 Mucus membrane : respiratory tract
 Cilia move a film of mucus along surface
 Trap dust and sweep back up to trachea
 Cuboidal Epith.
 Contain blood vessels and nerves
 Specialized for secretion
 Kidney tubules, salivary
 Thyroid glands
 hormone regulates body’s rate of fuel
consumption
 Simple Squamous Epith.
 Thin and leaky
 Exchange of material by diffusion
 Line blood vessels and air sacs, where
diffusion of nutrients and gases is critical
 Stratified Squamous Epith.
 Regenerate rapidly by cell division near
basal membrane
 Surfaces subject to abrasion
 Outer skin
 Lining of esophagus, anus, vagina
 Abrasion affects the oldest cells
 BASEMENT MEMBRANE: dense mat
of extracellular matrix where the cells at the
base of the epithelial layer are attached
 CT secreted by epithelial and CT cells
2. CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 Binds and supports
an extracellular matrix
 Matrix: web of fibers embedded in a uniform
foundation
 Secreted by cells of connective tissue
 Made of fibers
THREE KINDS:
 Collagenous
o Collagen: most abundant protein
o Nonelastic
o Doesn’t tear easily when pulled
lengthwise
 Elastic
o Long threads made of protein elastin
o Provide a rubbery quality that
complements the nonelastic strength
of collagenous fibers
o Restores skin’s original shape
 Reticular
o Very thin and branched
o Composed of collagen; continuous
with collagenous fibers
o Forma tightly woven fabric joining
connective to adjacent tissue
 Loose Connective LCT  Canaliculi: distributes nutrients
˴ Most widespread in body  Interconnects lacunae
˴ Binds epithelia to underlying tissues  Lacunae: Contains osteocytes
˴ Packaging material  Blood
˴ holds organs in place ˴ Plasma-liquid in matrix
˴ Includes Collagenous. Elastin, Reticulated  Water + salts + proteins
˴ Predominant: ˴ Suspended in PLASMA
 Fibroblast-secrete protein  Erythrocytes (RBC)-oxygen
ingredients of the extracellular fibers  Leukocytes (WBC)-defense
 Macrophage- amoeboid cells that  LYMPHOCYTES- antibodies
roam the maze of fibers, engulfing  B-cells-SECRETE ANTIBODIES
foreign particles and the debris of
 T-cells-DEVELOP IN THYMUS
dead cells by phagocytosis
 MONOCYTES
 Adipose
 Differentiate into macrophages
˴ Specialized form of LCT
 Arise from stem cells of bone marrow
˴ Stores fat
˴ Pads and insulates body  POLYMORPHONUCLEAR
OR GRANULOCYTES
˴ Stores fuel as fat molecule
˴ Swells: fat is stored  Highly variable shape of nucleus
 Fibrous Connective  Circulating phagocytes in blood
˴ Dense (large number of collagenous)  Neutrophil-most abundant
˴ Fibers: organized into parallel bundles  First line of defense in infection
 Maximizes nonelastic strength  Kill microbes through phagocytosis
˴ Found in tendons and ligaments  Eusinophil-secretes enzymes
 Cartilage and destroys allergens
˴ Abundance of collagenous fibers  Basophil-secretes histamine
embedded in chondroitin sulfate  Platelets (fragments)-blood clotting
˴ Chondrocytes: secrete chondroitin
sulfate and collagen 3. MUSCLE TISSUE
˴ Strong yet flexible support material  Don’t actively lengthen
 Originates from mesoderm
˴ Replaced by bone as embryo matures
 Composed of long cells called muscle
˴ Retained in some locations
˴ Absorbs physical impact without breaking fibers MF that are capable of contracting
˴ TYPES: when stimulated by nerve signals
 Most abundant in animals
 Hyaline: clear and glassy
Trachea, nose  Fascicule – more complex
 Elastic Lobe of ear, epiglottis  Sarcoplasmic reticulum – stores Ca2+
 Hydro cartilage Knee joints  Muscle contraction: accounts for much
of the E-consuming cellular work in an
 Bone
active animal
˴ Make up skeleton
˴ Mineralized connective tissue  Myofibrils – Contrasting units arranged
˴ Osteoblasts :bone-forming cells that in parallel within cytoplasm of muscle MF
deposit a matrix of collagen  MYOFILAMENTS
˴ Osteoclasts: removes bone tissue by  Actin – thin
removing its mineralized matrix  Actin molecule
˴ Ca + Mg + P = hydroxyapatite  Troponin: located at intervals
˴ Collagen + hard mineral = bone is harder along actin
than cartilage but it’s not brittle  Globular subunits attached
˴ Osteons/Haversian Canal Systems: to tropomyosin
have concentric layers of mineralized  Tropomyosin: lie near grooves
matrix between actin strands
  Myosin – thick
 2 polypeptide chains wound in
supercoil
 head
 A-BAND – broad region: length of
the thick filaments
 Neurons can be
 I-BAND – thin filaments
 Z-LINE- hold together the actin
filament
 Neuroglia: supporting cell: insulates neuron
 Borders of the sarcomere
 H-ZONE – center of the A-band
that contains only thick filament
 Disappears when sarcomere
contracts
 SARCOMERE – from 1 Z-line to
another
 Function unit of the microfibril
MUSCLE TISSUE TYPES
Muscle fibers – muscle cell
a. Skeletal muscle
Nerve fiber - neuron
˴ Attached to bone by tendon
Connective Tissue fiber – proteins
˴ Syncitium – multinucleated
˴ Voluntary movement
˴ Arrangement of sarcomere(contractile units)
gives cells a striated appearance
b. Cardiac muscle
˴ Single nucleus
˴ Striated but involuntary
˴ Muscle fibers branch and interconnect via
intercalated disks
 Rely signals from cell to cell
 Help synchronize heartbeat
c. Smooth muscle
˴ Lack striations
˴ Found in walls of visceral organs
 Blood vessel; walls of digestive tract
˴ Spindle shaped cells
˴ Contract more slowly than skeletal but can
contract longer
˴ Controlled by different kinds of nerves
˴ Involuntary
˴ Movement of substances in lumens of body
4. NERVOUS TISSUE
 Senses stimuli and transmits signals in the
form of nerve impulses
 Neurons – consists of a cell body and two or
more extensions or processes
 Dendrites: neuron tip (rest of neuron)
 Axons: toward another neuron or effector
 Cell body
 Nucleus
 Axon hillock
 Myelin sheath
 Synaptic terminal
SYMMETRY
 Terminal branches
 Multipolar: several dendrites
 Bipolar: 1 dendrite and 1 axon
membranes
 Help in the nourishment of neurons
 Microglia: can be mobile (protection
by phagocytosis)
 Astrocyte: lies between nerve cells
and capillary (nourishment of
neurons)
 Oligodentrocyte: secretes cells for
myelin sheath
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION IN
ORGANISMAL COMPLEXITY
1. Protoplasmic Organization in
Organismal Complexity
 Found in unicellular organisms
 Protoplasm: differentiated into
organelles
2. Cellular
 Aggregation of cells: functionally
differentiated
 Division of labor is evident
 Most cells for nourishment
 Some cells for reproduction
3. Cell-Tissue
 Aggregation of similar tissues into
definite patterns of layers thus
becoming a tissue (hydra)
4. Tissue-Organ
 Aggregation of tissues into organs
 Eyespots, reproduction organs
5. Organ System
 Organs work together to perform some
functions
 Systems are associated with basic body
functions (Nemerteam worm, ribbon
worm: excretory separate from
digestive)
 Carry out major body functions
 Coordination between system for
animal to survive
˴ Balanced proportion
˴ Correspondence in size and shape of parts
on opposite sides of the median plane
˴ Spherical: any plane passing through the
center divides a body into an equivalent,
mirrored halves
 Unicellular forms and rare in animals
 Best suited for rolling and floating
˴ Radial: forms that can be divided into
similar halves by more than two planes
passing through the longitudinal axis
 Tubular, vase or bowl shapes
 Biradial: only two planes passing
through longitudinal axis produce
mirrored halves (Comb jellies)
 Usually sessile, freely floating, or weakly
swimming
˴ Bilateral
 Strongly associated with cephalisation
(differentiation of the head)
 Directional (forward movement)
 Terminology
 Anterior: head
 Posterior: tail
 Dorsal: back
 Ventral: front
 Medial: midline
 Lateral: sides
 Distal: farther from middle
 Proximal: nearer from middle
 Frontal/Coronal plane: dorsal/ventral
 Sagittal plane: right/left
 Transverse/xs: anterior/posterior
˴ Segmentation: metamerism
 Metamere/somite – segment
 Serial repetition of similar body segments  Epicuticle outer
along longitudinal axis of body
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
FUNCTIONS
 Protection from mechanical and chemical
injury and invasion of microorganisms
 Regulation of body temperature
 Excretion of waste materials
 Conversion of sunlight to vitamin D
 Reception of environmental stimuli such as
pain, temperature, pressure
 Locomotion
 Movement of nutrients and gases
 Behavioral interaction between individuals
 Colorful display: to attract mates
INVERTEBRATE INTEGUMENT
1. Plasma membrane
˴ Unicellular protozoa
˴ Gas exchange and waste removal by
simple diffusion
˴ Uptake of dissolved nutrients
˴ Pellicle
i. Thick protein coat found in protozoa
ii. Further environmental protection
iii. Semi-rigid structure: transmits force of
cilia and flagella to entire body as the
animal moves
2. Epidermis
˴ Most multi-cellular invertebrates
˴ Single layer of columnar epithelial cells
˴ Some invertebrates have cuticle over
their epidermis
˴ Delicate and soft in mollusks and
contain mucous glands, some secrete
calcium carbonate of the shell
Mantle
 Pair of folds formed by the dorsal body wall
 Outer surface secretes shell
 Mollusks: more complex integument
consisting of cuticle, simple epithelial, layer
of connective tissue, layer of reflecting cells
(iridiocytes), and thicker layer of CT
 Arthropods have most complex of
invertebrate integuments
PROTECTION AND SKELETAL SUPPORT
 Procuticle inner
 composed of protein and chitin
 nonchitinous complex of protein and lipids
 Seta
 Tegumental gland
 Tanning
Arthropod cuticle can be hardened by:
a. Calcification
˴ Deposition of calcium carbonate in the
outer layers of procuticle
˴ For crustaceans
b. Sclereotization
 ˴ Protein molecules bond together with ˴ With blood vessels, collagenous fibers, c. More viscous – fatty acids and proteins ii. Provides resistance of muscles to act
stabilizing cross-linkages within and nerves, pigment cells, fat cells, fibroblasts d. Restricted to axillae, breasts, prepuce, against
between adjacent lamellae of the procuticle ˴ Support, cushion and nourish epidermis scrotum, external auditory canals ˴ Source
˴ Form of highly resistant and insoluble ˴ Macrophages and lymphocytes provide the e. Odor occurs when broken down by i. Some organisms use their fluid-filled
protein, sclerotin first line of defense bacteria coelom
˴ For insects ˴ Dermal derivatives i. PROPIONIC ACID **Main type of skeleton in most cnidarians
Molting of Arthropods: o Scales of fish, antlers, horn, carapace, Ceruminous glands and flatworms
 Epidermal cells are divided by mitosis armadelum ˴ Modified sudoriferous glands
 Epidermis secretes enzyme to digest o Antlers of deer – shed velvet during the ˴ Secrete cerumen (earwax) Earthworms
procuticle breeding system Mammary glands ˴ Setae – needlelike chitinous structure
 Absorption of digested materials  Velvet – covering of highly vascular ˴ Secrete milk ˴ Septa – wall between coelomic cavities
 New Epicuticle and procuticle formed soft skin ˴ Longitudinal Muscle LM
beneath the old ANIMAL COLORATION ˴ Circular Muscle CM
 New cuticle is thicker and calcified on Similarity of STRUCTURE of ˴ Vivid and dramatic when serving as important ˴ Alternate contraction of the CM and LM
sclereotized INTEGUMENTARY DERIVATIVES recognition marks or warning coloration allow earthworm to move
˴ Claw, horn , beak ˴ Subdued or cryptic when used for camouflage ˴ Use muscles to change shape of fluid filed
VERTEBRATE INTEGUMENT ˴ All are built of similar combinations of ˴ Aposematic coloration compartment
epidermal (keratinized) and dermal o Poisonous
Skin and Derivatives components o Warning coloration to advertise Muscular Hydrostats
˴ Chromatophores: pigment cells noxious qualities ˴ Work because they are comprised of
˴ 2 layers: DERMIS and EPIDERMIS Hairs incompressible tissues that remain at
˴ Other Structures  Epidermal growth, protection 1. STRUCTURAL COLOR constant volume
o Arrector pili muscle: found at the end  Shaft, root, follicle a. Produced by the physical structure of the ˴ Muscles arranged in complex patterns
of the root hair (GOOSEBUMPS)  Sebaceous glands, Arrector pili muscle, and surface tissue. Tissue reflects certain light ˴ No body fluid, only muscles
o Hair hair root plexus (touch) wavelength and eliminates others ˴ Tentacles, elephant trunk
o Hair follicle b. Phase interference microscopic structure of
o Sebaceous gland Nails the feathers 2. Rigid skeletons
o Nerve endings  Plates of highly packed, keratinized cells c. Different response depending on the direction ˴ Consists of rigid elements
o Hypodermis: subcutaneous layer  Protection, scratching, and manipulation or directionally illuminating (butterflies and ˴ Usually jointed
o Sweat glands  Formed by cells in the nail bed called the some fishes) ˴ Two principal types: endo and exo
matrix (in area of lunula)
Epidermis o White because of concentration of cells 2. PIGMENT COLOR A. EXOSKELETON
˴ Stratified Squamous epithelium  1 mm/week a. Biochromes –(pigments)  Mollusks – Calcium carbonate
˴ No blood vessels  Eponychium – cuticle b. Reflect light rays  Arthropods – Chitin, a polysaccharide
˴ Cells of basal part undergo frog mitosis as c. Chromatophores/pigment cells similar to cellulose
outer layer of cells are displaced upward by Skin Glands i. Melanophores/melanocytes  Protection and Locomotion
new generation of cells beneath, ˴ Sebaceous (oil) glands ˴ Melanin: black
KERATINIZATION takes place ˴ Usually connected to hair follicles ii. Xantophores B. ENDOSKELETON
˴ Cornified cells: highly resistant to ˴ Fats, cholesterol, proteins, salts, and coil ˴ Carotenoid: red/yellow
 Echinoderm and vertebrates
abrasions, water diffusion debris iii. Iridiophores
˴ Crystals of purine: silvery/metallic  Mineralized bone and cartilage
˴ Comprise outermost stratum corneum ˴ Moistens hair and skin
˴ Result of keratinisation (calluses)  Support, protection and reservoir of calcium
˴ Waterproofs skin
˴ Derivatives: and phosphorous
˴ Blackheads are oxidized sebum SKELETAL SYSTEM
o Feathers  Grows as animal grows
o Nails Sweat (sudoriferous glands) i. Does not limit space for internal organs
FUNCTIONS ii. Supports greater weight
o Hair (pelage) 1. Eccrine sweat glands ˴ Provide rigidity
o Scales of snake a. Water, salt, wastes ˴ Surfaces for muscle attachment Notochord
o Hoof b. Hairless regions scattered over body ˴ Protection for vulnerable body organs  Semi-rigid supportive axial rod of
o Plumage c. Function: To cool body
protochordates and all vertebrate larvae and
1. Hydrostatic skeleton embryo
Dermis 2. Apocrine sweat glands ˴ Functions  Composed of large vacuolated cells
˴ Dense connective tissue layer a. Larger i. Supports body form surrounded by elastic and fibrous sheaths
b. Associated with hair follicles
  Stiffening device; preserves body shape during ˴ Work with osteoblasts to heal broken bones
locomotion
 Except in jawless vertebrates, surrounded or Hormones involved:
replaced by the backbone during embryo
development
Cartilage
 Major skeletal element of some vertebrates
 Soft pliable tissue that resists compression
 Jawless vertebrates and elasmobranchs have
purely cartilaginous skeletons
 No blood vessels
Bone
 Living tissue having a significant amount of
calcium deposits in the extracellular matrix
 Highly vascular
 According to ORIGIN:
o Endochondrial or replacement bone
 Originally found in cartilage
 Endochondrial Ossification
 Replacement of cartilage bone
 Embryonic cartilage eroded →
osteoblasts invade honeycombed
areas → deposit of Ca salts around
strandlike remnants of the cartilage
o Intramembranous bone
 Develop directly from sheets of
embryonic cells
 Dermal bone is a type of
intramembranous bone
 Cranial, facial, clavicle
 According to DENSITY:
o Cancellous or spongy bone
 Have irregular spaces
 Can still provide strength
o Compact bone – dense
 Medullary Activity – filled with YELLOW
bone marrow (fat storage)
 Spongy – filled with RED bone marrow
BONE GROWTH AND RENEWAL
˴ Cartilage structure in early development act as Rib Cage
models for future bones
˴ Calcium salts deposited in the extracellular
matrix by cartilage cells and later osteoblasts  Support by thoracic pending
o Endochondrial Ossification
Osteoclasts
˴ Break down bone
˴ Remove worn cells
˴ Deposit Ca in the blood
 5 pairs o Hyaline cap appears
 Part of the ectoplasm
APPENDICULAR SKELETON  Transparent and hardened
˴ Parathyroid – stimulate bone resorption ˴ Consists of o Endoplasm flows toward hyaline cap
o Osteoclasts o Bones within pectoral and pelvic girdle o Actin subunits attached to regulatory ABPs
o From parathyroid gland o Attach limbs  ABPs – prevent actin from polymerizing
˴ Calcitonin – inhibits bone resorption ˴ Pectoral Girdle – bones of shoulder into actin microfilaments
o Osteoblasts o Anterior: Supports arms and hands  Regulatory protein – attached to the
o From thyroid gland ˴ Pelvic Girdle – bones of pelvis actin
˴ 1.25 dihydroxyvitamin D3 – maintain Calcium o Posterior: Supports leg and feet o Endoplasm fountains out to periphery
level in the blood o Actin subunits released and polymerized
o Vitamin D3 CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS  Due to interaction with phospholipids
1. Fibrous Joints o Microfilaments cross linked
Plan of the vertebrate skeleton ˴ Immovable o Ca2+activate actin secreting protein
˴ Axial skeleton ˴ Between cranial bones o Myosin associated with and pull on
o Skull, vertebrate, septum, bridge 2. Cartilaginous Joints microfilaments
˴ Appendicular skeleton ˴ Slightly movable  Forces endoplasm to flow towards
o Limbs, fins, wings, pelvic & pectoral girdle ˴ Between vertebrae hyaline cap
3. Synovial Joints
Human skeletal system ˴ Freely movable Ciliary Movement
˴ Supports and protects body ˴ Bones separated by a cavity Cilia
˴ Permits movement 4. Ligaments bind bones together at a joint ˴ Minute, hairlike, motile processes
˴ Provides resistive foundation for muscles to act ˴ Occur in large numbers
against
MOVEMENT ˴ Ciliate protistans
˴ Bone stores Ca and P ions ˴ Found in all major groups of animals
˴ Certain bones produce RBC (sternum)
˴ Move organism through aquatic movement
Contractile proteins change their form to relax or
˴ Propel fluid and materials across surface
AXIAL SKELETON contract: Actomyosin system
˴ NASA WINDPIPES NATIN
Vertebral Column Primary Steps
Flagella
 Supports the head and trunk Amoeboid, Ciliary and flagellar, Muscular
˴ Whiplike – longer
 Protects spinal cord & roots of spinal nerves Amoeboid movement
˴ Present singly or in small numbers
˴ Occur in unicellular eukaryotes
˴ Amoeba and other unicellular forms
Segments (superior to interior) ˴ Animal spermatozoa
˴ WBC
 Cervical - neck ˴ Sponges
˴ Embryonic mesenchyma cells
 Thoracic – chest o Choanocytes – with flagella to
˴ Other mobile cells
 Lumbar – small of back PRODUCE WATER CURRENTS
˴ Amoeba
 Sacral – sacrum/ pelvic ˴ Both cilia and flagella have the same
o Movement depends on actin and other
 Coccyx – tailbone ultrastructure
regulatory proteins
 Invertebral disks of fibrocartilage act as o Core of microtubules sheathed by the
o Ectoplasm – located in the periphery
padding plasma membrane
 More rigid; gel like
o “9+2” pattern as in 9 doublets
o Endoplasm – found in central areas of
o Flexible “wheels” of proteins connect outer
cytoplasm
doublets to each other and to the core
 Protects the heart and lungs and assist in  Contains nucleus
breathing o Outer doublets connected by motor
 More fluid proteins
o Pseudopod – false foot
 12 pairs of ribs o Anchored in the cell by a basal body/
o Hyaline cap kinetosome
 TRUE RIBS o Endoplasmic stream
 Connect directly to sternum o Axoneme – “9+2”tube of microtubules in
˴ Consensus model to explain extension and a flagellum/cilium
 7 pairs withdrawal of pseudopodia and amoeboid o Dynein Arm – connect doublets
 FALSE RIBS crawling:
 Operate to produce a sliding force
 Do not connect to sternum o Ectoplasm and endoplasm
between microtubules
 o Radial spoke – made of proteins
 Connect outer doublets
˴ The bending of cilia and flagella is driven by
the arms of a motor protein, dynein
o Addition to dynein of a phosphate group
from ATP and its removal causes
conformation changes in the protein
o Dynein arms alternately grab, move and
release outer microtubules
o Protein cross linked limit is sliding
o Force is expressed as bending
Mechanism of Ciliary movement
1. Dynein arms link to adjacent microtubules
2. Swivel and release in repeated cycles
3. MT on concave side to slide outward past MT
on the convex side
4. Curvature of cilium increases
5. Recovery stroke: MT on opposite slide
downward
Difference between Cilia and Flagella –
beating patterns
˴ Flagella has undulatory movement
o Force is generated PARALLEL to the
flagellum’s axis
˴ Cilia move more like oars with alternating
power and recovery strokes
o Force is generated PERPENDICULAR
to cilia’s axis
INVERTEBRATE MUSCLE
Bivalve molluscan muscles
1. Fast Muscle fibers
˴ Striated, can contract rapidly
˴ Enables bivalves to snap shut its valves when
disturbed (scallops)
2. Smooth Muscle
˴ Capable of slow, long-lasting contractions
i. Adductor muscle – yung naiiwan sa shell
ii. Kaya ayaw mag-open
Insect flight muscles
˴ Wings of small flies operate at 1000 beats/sec
˴ Limited extensibility, shorten only slightly
˴ Direct muscles – connected to wings
o Not present in flies and midgets but
present in locusts and dragonflies
o Contraction of this is causes the
downstroke movement
˴ Indirect muscles – connected thorax
o Cause wing movement by altering the
shape of the thorax
˴ Prothorax
˴ Mesothorax
Sliding Filament Model
˴ Actin filament at both sides of ear
o One end of each filament is attached to a
Zplate and the other to the other end of
sarcomere
o Other suspended in sarcoplasm
˴ Myosin filaments in between Zplates
o Myosin filament contain cross-bridges that
pull the actin filament inward
o Causes the Zplate to move toward each one
o Shortens sarcomere
o Sarcomeres stacked together in series cause
myofibers to shorten
˴ Working muscle require ATP
o Myosin breaks down ATP
o Sustained excercise
 Requires Respiration
 Regenerates ATP
Muscle Innervations
˴ Neuromuscular junction
o Synaptic contact between a nerve fiber
and a muscle fiber
o Nerve impulses bring about the
release of a neurotransmitter that
crosses the synaptic left
o Signals the fiber to contract
Axon
˴ Axon terminal
˴ Axon branch
˴ Synaptic vessels – stores acetylcholine
˴ Synaptic cleft – thinly separates a nerve fiber
and muscle fiber
˴ Acetylcholine – released when a nerve impulse
or an action potential reaches a synapse
o Diffuses across the synaptic cleft and acts
on the sarcolemma to generate an
electrical depolarization
˴ Synapse – special chemical bridge that couples
together the electrical activity of nerve and
muscle fiber
HOW DOES A MUSCLE CONTRACT
1. Action potential → sarcolemma →
sarcoplasmic reticulum(thru T-Tubules)
2. Ca ions released → bind to Troponin
→Troponin and Tropomyosin move away
from the active site → Myosin x-bridges bind
to exposed active sites
3. Myosin head swings toward the center of the
sarcomere(ATP) → ADP and phosphate group
are released
4. Myosin heads bind to another ATP molecule
→ Myosin head is freed from the active site
5. Myosin head splits ATP → energy released is
retained
Human muscular system
˴ Skeletal muscles
o Attached to skeleton by cable like fibrous
CT called TENDONS
o Arranged in Antagonistic pairs
 Can only contract; cannot push
 When 1 muscle contracts; it stretches its
antagonistic partner
˴ Muscle at REST exhibits TONE (minimal
contraction)
˴ Muscle in TETANY is a maximum
sustained contraction
Muscle performance
˴ Slow oxidative fibers (red muscles)
o For slow, sustained contractions without
fatigue
o Contain extensive blood supply
o High density of mitochondria
o Abundant stored Myoglobin
o Important in maintaining posture in
terrestrial vertebra
˴ Fast fibers
o Fast GLYCOLITIC fiber
 Lacks efficient blood supply
 Pale in color
 Function anaerobically
 Fatigue rapidly
 Weightlifters, white meat
o Fast OXIDATIVE fiber
 Extensive blood supply
 High density of mitochondria and
Myoglobin
 Function aerobically
 Rapid, sustained activities
 Runners, athletes
Energy for contraction
˴ ATP, main source of Energy
˴ Glucose broken down during aerobic
metabolism
˴ Glycogen stores can supply glucose
˴ Muscles have creatine phosphates, an energy
reserve
˴ Slow and fast oxidative fibers rely heavily on
glucose and oxygen
˴ Fast glycolytic fibers rely on anaerobic
glycolysis
˴ Muscles incur oxygen debt during anaerobic
glycolysis
CREATINE P + ADP → ATP + CREATINE
Importance of tendons in Energy storage
˴ Kinetic energy is stored form step to step as
extra elastin strain energy in tendons
˴ Bounces along its tendons
˴ Uses far less energy than would be required if
every step relied on alternate muscle
contraction and relaxation
DIGESTION
Dietary Categories:
1. Herbivores
2. Carnivores
3. Omnivores
4. Saprophagous – decaying organic
matter (woodlice, deerfly, hermit)
Feeding Adaptations
˴ Suspension feeder – sits through food
particles in the water
o Coprophagy – consume food pellets (rabbits)
o Bivalve mollusks use gills as feeding devices
and for respiration.
o Herring use gill rakers that project from the
gill arches into the pharyngeal cavity to strain
plankton
˴ Deposit feeder – eats its way through dirt or
sediments and extract partially decayed organic
material consumed along with the soil and
sediments (earthworm)
˴ Substrate feeder – lives in or on its food
source, eating its way through the food (Leaf
miners)
˴ Fluid feeder – sucks nutrient rich fluids from a
living host and is considered a parasite
(mosquito)
˴ Bulk feeder – eats relatively large pieces of
food (python)
˴ Cephalopod mollusks have beak-like jaws
that serve as tearing devices
˴ Chewing mouthparts adapted for seizing and
crushing food
˴ Mandible are strong , toothed plates whose
edges can bite or tear
˴ Maxillae hold food and pass it toward the pharynx, epiglottis tips down over the  Pyloric Sphincter – regulates flow of food  Trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase:
mouth trachea, nearly closing it → esophagus: into the intestine (duodenum) and prevents secreted in inactive form by the pancreas
˴ Birds lack teeth but are provided with serrated peristaltic contraction of esophageal muscles regurgitation into the stomach o Enteropeptidase converts inactive
edges → stomach  Relaxes at intervals to allow entry of acidic trypsinogen into active trypsin
˴ 4 types of teeth stomach contents o Active trypsin then activates the other
o Incisors – biting cutting stripping 2. CONDUCTION: Esophagus  Pancreatic juice two
o Canines – seizing piercing tearing  Bile  Disaccharides – split 12-carbon sugar
o Premolars – grinding crushing 3. STORAGE & EARLY DIGESTION  Collects in the gallbladder molecules into 6-carbon units
o Molars – grinding crushing Stomach: vertebrates; crop: insects, birds o Releases bile when stimulated by the o Maltase, Lactase, Sucrose
˴ Elephant’s tusk is modified upper incisor  Stomach – provides initial digestion as well presence of fatty food in the  Chlomicrons – fatty acids + protein
˴ Used for defense, attack, and rooting as storage and mixing of food with digestive duodenum +cholesterol
juices  Water, bile, salts, no pigments, enzymes  Lacteal
Types of Digestive System  Cardiac sphincter – opens reflexively when  Bile salts- essential for digestion of fats
food arrives at the stomach to allow food to o Reduce surface tension of fat  Colon recovers water in alimentary canal
INCOMPLETE: one opening, no anus enter globules → intestine breaks fat into  90% water is reabsorbed mostly in the small
COMPLETE: mouth and anus opening is o Closes to prevent regurgitation back tiny droplets intestine, the rest in the colon
into the esophagus  Bile pigments – produce yellow green  Feces become more solid as they are moved
Four main stages of food processing  Churning – most vigorous at the intestinal
1. Ingestion – act of eating color along the colon by peristalsis
end where food is steadily released into the o Gives feces its characteristic color  12 to 24 hours for material to travel the
2. Digestion – breaking down food into duodenum (1st region of small intestine)
molecules small enough for the body to absorb  Liver – produces bile length of the colon
 Gastric juice – secreted by deep tubular  Both have high bicarbonate content,  Diarrhea results if insufficient water is
3. Absorption: small molecules are taken in by
glands in the stomach wall which effectively neutralizes gastric acid absorbed
cells
o Goblet cells – secrete mucus  Raises pH of liquefied food mass  Constipation if too much water is absorbed
4. Elimination: undigested material passes out of
o Chief cells – secrete pepsinogen (CHYME)
the digestive compartment
 PEPSINOGEN – precursor of pepsin, a  Large intestine: mostly harmless bacteria
protease (protein splitting enzyme) that is 6. WATER ABSORPTION AND  Escherichia coli – most common
˴ Digestion is entirely intracellular in protozoa
produced from pepsinogen only in an CONCETRATION OF SOLIDS inhabitants of human colon
and sponges
acidic medium Large intestine (vertebrates); hindgut (insects)  Colon bacteria generate gases, including
˴ Radiates, tubellarian, flatworms, and ribbon
o Parietal/Oxyntic cells – secrete HCl ** MALPHIGIAN TUBULES: excretory organs methane and hydrogen sulfide
worm practice both intra- and extracellular
digestion  Rennin – milk-curdling enzyme found in **CECUM  Produce vitamins including biotin, vitamin
˴ Extracellular: cells in lining of alimentary the stomachs of ruminant animals Region Secretion pH Composition K, and B vitamins
canals form digestive secretions and other o Slows movement of milk through stomach Salivary Amylase
by clotting and precipitating milk proteins Saliva 6.5
cells function for absorption glands Bicarbonate *** Helicobacter pylori – secretes toxins
˴ Arthropods and vertebrates: extracellular Pepsinogen causing inflammation in stomach’s lining
4. GRINDING – gizzard (birds), proventiculus Stomach Gastric Juice 1.5 HCl
(insects) Rennin  The terminal portion of the colon is called
Gut movement
Gizzard: assisted by stones and grit swallowed Bile salts the rectum, where feces is stored until
˴ Alternate constriction of rings of smooth Liver
along with food Bile 7,8 Pigments
muscle of the intestine Gallbladder eliminated
Cholesterol
˴ Constantly divide and squeeze contents back Trypsin  Between the rectum and the anus are 2
and forth 5. TERMINAL DIGESTION & sphincters: one voluntary, one involuntary
Chymotrypsin
˴ For mixing of food ABSORPTION – small intestine (vertebrates); Pancreatic Carboxypeptidase  Once or more each day, strong contractions
midgut (insects) Pancreas 7,8
˴ Waves of contraction of circular muscle behind Juice Lipase, Amylase, of the colon create an urge to defecate
the gut and relaxation in front of bolus  Increase absorptive surface of gut → increase Nucleases,
˴ Sweeps food down the gut length Bicarbonate Regulation of digestion
 Villi – minute finger like projections Aminopeptidase ˴ Length of digestive system is correlated with
1. RECEPTION: mouth parts, salivary glands  Give the inner surface of fresh intestinal Maltase diet
tissue the appearance of velvet Small Membrane Lactase ˴ Most elaborate adaptation for a herbivorous
 Amylase – hydrolysis of plant and animal Intestine Enzymes
7,8
Sucrose
starches  Birds and mammals diet have evolved in ruminants (deer, cattle)
Alkaline
 Break into two-glucose fragments (maltose)  Microvilli – lines each cell in the intestinal Phosphatase ˴ Human body regulates use of storage glucose (a
cavity major cellular fuel)
 Tongue pushes moistened food toward
pharynx →nasal cavity closes reflexively by
raisin the soft alate → as food slides into the
Nutritional Requirements  Suppresses appetite by acting on the ˴ Effectiveness of diffusion is enhanced by Respiratory Organs
˴ Nutritionally adequate diets satisfies: brain vascularisation LUNGS invaginations
˴ Undernourishment occurs if diet is  Positive pressure breathing FROG
chronically deficient in calories Animals need 20 amino acids to make RESPIRATORY ORGANS  Negative pressure breathing MAMMAL
˴ Malnourished if missing one or more proteins ˴ Cutaneous respiration direct diffusion TIDAL VOLUME – volume of air an animal
nutrients ˴ ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS must be in  Protozoa, sponges, worms inhales and exhales with each breath 500mL if
˴ Marasmus general undernourishment low in prefabricated form  Supplements gill or lung breathing in large resting
calories and proteins  Adult humans animals VITAL CAPACITY – Max tidal volume during
˴ Kwashiorkor a protein malnourishment,  PHENYLALANINE ˴ Tracheal systems branching system of tubes forced breathing 3.4L female 4.8L male
adequate in calories but deficient in protein  LYSINE  Insects and other arthropods RESPIRATORY PIGMENTS hemocyanin and
˴ Overnourishment obesity results from  ISOLEUCINE  Simplest, most direct, most efficient haemoglobin
excessive food intake  LEUCINE  Tracheae system of tubules
˴ Leptin, produced by adipose cell, key player in VALINE  Tracheoles fluid filled smallest end  When the control center registers a slight drop
a complex feedback mechanism: reduces  METHIONINE ˴ Gills or bronchia external internal in pH it increases the depth and rate of
appetite as fat storage increases  TRYPTOPHAN breathing and excess CO2 is eliminated in
o High Leptin: depress appetite → increase  THREONINE GILL VENTILATION exhaled air
energy consuming muscular activity and  Normal growth of children Movement of the respiratory medium over the  oxygen diffuses INTO pulmonary capillaries
body-heat production  HISTIDINE respiratory surface  Most oxygen combines with haemoglobin in
o Fat loss: leptin decrease → increase  ARGININE  Maintains the partial pressure gradients of O2 RBC to form OXYHEMOGLOBIN
appetite → weight gain ˴ Protein deficiency form vegan diet can be and CO2 across the gill that is necessary for gas  carbon dioxide diffuses OUT of pulmonary
avoided by eating a combination of plant exchange. capillaries
Principal GI Hormones foods that complement each other to supply all  Move their gills through the water or move  Some carbon dioxide combines with
˴ GASTRIN – pyloric portion of stomach essential amino acids water over their gills. haemoglobin to form
 Stimulated by: food in lower stomach ˴ VITAMINS organic molecules required in a  Fishes use the motion of swimming or CARBAMINOHEMOGLOBIN
 Increases stomach motility and acid diet in small quantities coordinated movements of the mouth and gill  Cooperative oxygen binding and release is
production ˴ 13 vitamins essential to man identified covers to ventilate their gills. evident in the dissociation curve for
˴ CHOLESYSTOKININ (CKK) – upper small ˴ Water-soluble vitamins function as  A current of water enters the mouth, passes haemoglobin
intestine coenzymes through slits in the pharynx, flows over the  BOHR SHIFT: A drop in pH lowers affinity
 Stimulated by: fatty acids in ˴ MINERALS simple inorganic nutrients in gills, and then exits the body of haemoglobin for oxygen
duodenum small amounts  A fish continuously pumps water through its
 Increase enzyme flow  Humans and vertebrates require large mouth and over gill arches, using coordinated Notes of Danni Gascon 2009-37383
 Increase bile secretion amounts of Ca and P for bone construction movements of the jaws and operculum (gill Third Long Lecture Exam
 Feeling of satiety and maintenance cover) for this ventilation. (swimming fish can
˴ SECRETIN: duodenal wall  Iron component of the cytochromes and simply open its mouth and let water flow past
 Stimulated by: acid food in duodenum haemoglobin its gills,) Each gill arch has two rows of gill
 Inhibits stomach motility  Na, K, Cl major influence in osmotic filaments, composed of flattened plates called
 Decrease bile secretion balance between cells and interstitial fluid lamellae. Blood flowing through capillaries
 Increase bicarbonate secretion  Excess consumption of NaCl is BAD. within the lamellae picks up O2 from the water.
Notice that the countercurrent flow of water
Appetite-regulating hormones and blood maintains a partial pressure gradient
˴ GHRELIN stomach wall
GAS EXCHANGE
down which O2 diffuses from the water into
 Triggers feeling of hunger a mealtimes the blood over the entire length of a capillary.
approach CELLULAR RESPIRATION oxidative
˴ LEPTIN adipose tissue processes within cells COUNTERCURRENT FLOW
 Suppresses appetite EXTERNAL RESPIRATION exchange of Exchange of a substance or heat between two
˴ PYY small intestine CO2 between organism and environment fluids flowing in opposite directions.
 After meals  Process maximizes gas exchange efficiency
 Appetite suppressant GAS EXCHANGE SURFACES  Blood flows in the direction opposite to that of
 Counters ghrelin ˴ Effective diffusion: gas exchange must be water passing over the gills, at each point in its
˴ INSULIN pancreas o Moist travel blood is less saturated with O2 than the
 Rise in blood sugar level after a meal o Thin water it meets
o Relatively LARGE