Development External Fertilization group.

is a male organism's sperm fertilizing a Megasporangia

Animal Plants female organism's egg outside of the female's A plant structure in which megaspores are
most plants begin plants begin life body. formed, such as those of the female cones of
life after fertilization after germination as Example: Salmon, cod, trout, char, etc pines.
as embryo seeds are planted in
the organism soil Asexual Pollination
undergoes major right combination Pollination is the process by which pollen is
changes through of: Fragmentation transferred to the female reproductive organs
different stages -water availability or clonal fragmentation in multi cellular or of a plant, thereby enabling fertilization to
embryogenesis -temperature colonial organisms is a form of take place. Like all living organisms, seed
1. Cleavage (series -sunlight asexual reproduction or cloning in which an plants have a single major purpose: to pass
of rapid mitotic -soil organism is split into fragments. Each of their genetic information on to the next
divisions) occurs seed germination: these fragments develop into mature, fully generation. The reproductive unit is the seed,
after fertilization 1. Imbibition grown individuals that are clones of the and pollination is an essential step in the
2. Blastula –sphere (absorption of water); original organism. production of seeds in
composed of results to the rupture Example: annelid worms, acoel flatworms, all spermatophytes (seed plants).
blastomeres; of the seed coat, sea stars
numerous smaller enabling the radicle Self-Pollination
cells the zygote to come out Budding the pollination of a flower by pollen from the
cytoplasm is divided 2. Cotyledons unfold, a type of asexual reproduction in which a new same flower or from another flower on the
into the shoot emerges organism develops from an outgrowth or bud same plant.
3. Gastrulation – The shoot grows due to cell division at one particular site. The
series of extensive leaves to harvest new organism remains attached as it grows, Cross-Pollination
cell rearrangements; light separating from the parent organism only pollination of a flower or plant with pollen from
3 germ layers: 3. The shoot grows when it is mature, leaving behind scar tissue. another flower or plant.
Ectoderm, leaves to harvest Example: Jellyfish, Sea Anemones,
endoderm, light Flatworms Asexual
mesoderm 4.
4. Organogenesis – Photomorphogenesis Binary Fission Vegetative reproduction
cells interact to form –leaves continue to a kind of asexualreproduction. It is the most is any form of asexual reproduction occurring
tissues, organs etc. grow towards common form ofreproduction in prokaryotes in plants in which a new plant grows from a
sunlight such as bacteria. This process occurs in fragment of the parent plant or grows from a
some single-celled Eukaryotes specialized reproductive structure.
Example: Amoeba, Paramecium Example: Banana, Pineapple, Potatoes
Reproduction
Parthenogenesis Seed Production
Organisms have the ability to produce is a natural form of asexual reproduction in In some plants seeds can
another of their kind which growth and development be produced without fertilization and
of embryos occur without fertilization. the seeds contain only the genetic material of
In animals, parthenogenesis means the parent plant. Therefore, propagation
the action or process of making a copy of development of an embryo from an via asexual seeds or apomixis
something; the production of offspring by a unfertilized egg cell. is asexual reproduction but not vegetative
Example: Nematodes, some Scorpions, some propagation.
sexual or asexual process.
Bees, Parasitic Wasps
Spore Formation
Sexual Reproduction PLANTS A mode of reproduction resembling multiple
the production of new living organisms by fission, common among Protozoa, in which
combining genetic information from two Sexual the organism breaks up into a number of
individuals of different types (sexes). In most pieces, or spores, each of which eventually
higher organisms, one sex (male) produces a Gametophyte develops into an organism like the parent
small motile gamete that travels to fuse with a (in the life cycle of plants with alternating form. The formation of reproductive cells
larger stationary gamete produced by the generations) the gamete-producing and or spores, as in the growth of bacilli.
other (female). usually haploid phase, producing the zygote Example: Algae, Fungi, Protozoa
from which the sporophyte arises.
Asexual Reproduction
a type of reproduction by which offspring Sporophyte
arise from a single organism, and inherit the produces spores from which the gametophyte Development
genes of that parent only; it does not involve arises.
the fusion of gametes, and almost never Maturity of an offspring
changes the number of chromosomes. Stamen
Animal Plants
Stamen is a male reproductive organ of a
ANIMALS motile positionally fixed
flower. It produces the pollen.
body plan is body plan is highly
Anther
Sexual determined by its regulated by the
the part of a stamen that contains the pollen.
genes environment
Microsporangia
Internal Fertilization one continuous undergo
Microsporangia are sporangia that
is the union of an egg cell with a sperm during multicellular stage alternation of
produce microspores and give rise to
sexual reproduction inside the body of a gametes are generation
male gametes.
parent. For this to happen there needs to be a directly formed (meiosis)
method for the male to introduce the sperm Carpels distinct and produces spores
into the female's reproductive tract. the female reproductive organ of a flower, complete body then gametes
Example: Humans, dogs, cats, etc consisting of an ovary, a stigma, and usually shape longer periods of
a style. It may occur singly or as one of a increase the morphogenesis
number of their cells Increasing their
Embryogenesis cell size 3. It grows leaves to harvest energy from the Involves the use of oxygen and release of
(Blastulation, seed germination sun carbon dioxide
Gastrulation,
Organogenesis) 4. Photomorphogenesis takes the plant to full Animal Plants
maturity  oxygen and obtain gasses
carbon dioxide through their leaves
ANIMAL DEVELOPMENT - the process how leaves continue diffuse across moist require oxygen &
to grow towards the light source membranes carbon dioxide
Throughout the animal kingdom, a huge simple exchange gases diffuse
variety of embryonic types exist, but most occurs directly with through pores in the
patterns of embryogenesis are variations on the environment stomata
the ff. processes: Mammals:  mainly occurs in
exchange occurs the leaves (roots
between blood and &stems also
Embryogenesis- the process of how an Nutrition environment contribute);
embryo forms and develops Providing or obtaining food necessary for  allows organisms photosynthesis and
health, survival, and growth of an organism to survive; CO2 & O2; cellular respiration
1. Cleavage & Blastulation Diffusion; transport are involved
Nutrients: provide energy for metabolic oxygen to the
a. After fertilization, cleavage processes different parts of the
occurs body; CO2 is
Modes: released to the
- environment;
series of extremely rapid mitotic divisions,  Autotrophic: self-feeders;
zygote cytoplasm is divided into numerous manufacture their own nutrients by
smaller cells called blastomeres; it forms a synthesizing inorganic materials
sphere called blastula a.) photoautotrophic: use energy Animals- through diffusion across moist
from the sun membranes; directly with the environment
2. Blastomeres then undergo gastrulation b.) chemoautotrophic: use
chemicals (ex: bacteria & group of
-
Archae)
series of extensive cell rearrangements
 Heterotrophic: cannot make their Cell membrane: exchange of gas and other
own food thus obtain energy by small molecules (simple diffusion) high to low;
Resulting to three germ layers:
digesting organic matter bacteria
ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm
a.) saprotrophic: obtain nutrients
from dead organic materials; Body skin: cutaneous respiration;
3. Organogenesis then takes place
severe digestive juices (ex: fungi amphibians, breathing; flatworms and frogs
- the process of cells interacting and bacteria); saprophytes
Gills: lamellae (small filaments inside the gill
with one another, rearranging themselves to b.) parasitic: take food from
chamber; amphibian, fish
produce tissues and organs another organism; host & parasite;
ectoparasitism (outside);
Tracheal systems: no lungs; oxygen enters in
endoparasitism (inside)
the spiracles; grasshoppers, cockroach
c.) holozoic: ingest solid and liquid
PLANT DEVELOPMENT food; herbivores, carnivores, Lungs: Alveoli (tip of the bronchioles)-O2;
omnivores capillaries (attach to the alveoli)-CO2;
After the seed has made it to a new location,
suitable for development, germination occurs exchange through simple diffusion; humans
Animal Plants
Heterotrophic Autotrophic Plants
nutrition nutrition
Nutrients from Sunlight (source
occurs in the leaves: stomata (surrounded by
- process of seeds developing into food of energy;
Ingedtion, photosynthesis the guard cells)
new plants
digestion, glucose + oxygen
absorption, Guard cells: regulate the opening and closing
Note: It requires the right combination of:
assimilation, of the stomata
water availability, temperature, and sunlight
egestion
Amino acids, Photosynthesis: Product (glucose& oxygen);
1. Imbibition
simple sugars, fatty takes place in chloroplast
acid, and glycerol
- absorption of water
Cellular Respiration: takes place in
Results in the swelling of the seed, causing mitochondrion
the seed coat to rupture, enabling the radical Gas Exchange Suberin: gas exchange of plants; waxy
(root) to come out An important biological process that allows substance that doesn’t allow water or other
organisms to survive by means of gases are molecules to pass through during gas
2. The shoot begin to emerge
transferred in opposite directions across a exchange
respiratory surface
- growth above the ground
Lenticels: helper; gas exchange in plants’
 Transport/Circulation a. Marine Invertebrates - OC leaves) that serves as conduits of
The movement of blood through the vessels sugar transport
of the body induced by the pumping action of b. Marine Vertebrates- OR; hypoosmotic
the heart
- loses water through osmosis
Movement of important particles or molecules Nutrient Transport
into their system - gains ions through diffusion
 Functions of Phloem
Circulatory systems allow organisms to c. Freshwater Vertebrates- OR; hyperosmotic  Movement from source to sink
breathe, gain nutrition and maintain its (part that requires the nutrients)
- gains water through osmosis
internal environment for survival  Transport Mechanism: Active &
Passive
- loses ions through diffusion
 Translocation: glucose, sucrose &
- excretes highly diluted urine minerals are transported to where
TRANSPORT SYSTEM: - water & nutrients they are needed; nutrients; back
d. Terrestrial Animals - OR and forth
Animals
Extracellular compartments- blood plasma Circulation
a. Closed:
Intracellular compartments- interstitial fluid Animals
Heart > (pump the) Hemolymphs > Vessels >
2 kinds:
Organs > Heart Note: Kidneys avoid cell shrinkage and
swelling  Closed Circulation: fishes, birds,
b. Open
mammals; hearthemolymphs
hypoosmotic urine- high fluid blood vessels organsheart
Heart > Vessels > Sinuses > Organs > Heart
 Open Circulation: Hemolymphs
hyperosmotic urine- low fluid
Plants (mixture of blood & fluid); heart
Blood vessels
Plants
a. Water Transport sinuses(pathway) organs
Photolysis- splits water into hydrogen and heart
- capillary action-rising of water from roots to
oxygen
the stem Animals Plants
Capillary Action: open circulation transpiration
- transpiration-evaporation closed circulation translocation
(circulation (circulation
cohesion- water + water
- through the xylem in a one way movement process) Blood is process) Fluids
forcefully pumped circulate through
adhesion- water + other substance throughout the body transpiration pull or
b. Nutrient Transport
by the heart the evaporation of
a. Xerophytes- can survive dry habitats (water transport) water from the
- through the phloem back and forth
90% transported plant’s leaves
b. Hydrophytes- in water habitats through the blood (water transport)
- movement from the source to the sink
plasma Through the xylem
c. Halophytes- closer to the sea (food transport) (food transport)
- transport mechanisms: active and passive
food in the form of Through the phloem
d. Mesophytes- in temperate zones glucose is present in
- translocation-nutrients are transported to blood plasma
where they are needed Plants
-water, sugar, mineral

Water Transport Regulation of Fluids

BODY FLUID REGULATION Are essential for carrying out the different
 Capillary action: rising of water bodily functions in organisms
Osmoregulation - active regulation of the
(from roots to stem)
osmotic pressure to achieve homeostasis Animals Plants
 Transpiration: evaporation; water
Different Osmosis
Isoosmotic: A = E only; one direction
Mechanisms in Transpiration
 Controling transpiration Aquatic and Adhesion-
Hypoosmotic: AE  Transpiration and wilting Terrestrial Animals Cohesion property of
 Tracheidselongated cells in the Depends on water
Hyperosmotic: AE xylem (one way movement; excretory system Capillary Action
responsible for water transport
Animals
from the roots) that help in the
transport of water and nutrients
Osmoconformers- body osmolarity is being
matched with the environment  Sieve tubes elongated cells in
the phloem (responsible for the
Osmoregulators- maintain their internal transport of minerals from the
osmolarity
Plants  Receptors: receive Phytohormones: used to coordinate to the
 Conductors: transmit change in environment
• Osmosis – tendency of water to  Effectors: receive-carry
pass through the semipermeable Immune System
membrane of plant cells (low to Brain To protect from diseases or other
high – from the soil to plant cells) potentially damaging foreign bodies
Chemical synapse: are specialized
• Transpiration – process wherein junctions through which cells of the nervous It identifies threats and find ways to fight
water exits the plant through the system signal to one another and to non- them
stomata of the leaves because of neuronal cells such as muscles or glands;
evaporation; it causes the water to chemical synapse between a motor neuron Animals Plants
be transported throughout the and a muscle cell is called a neuromuscular ability to become don’t have the
plant immune ability to be immune
junction. multifaceted and do not have
complex immune structural immune
• Adhesion-Cohesion property of Hypothalamus: portion of the brain that system system
water – allows the water to move contains a number of small nuclei with a defense response cannot defend
up through a plant; variety of functions such as linking the through lymphocytes themselves so plant
nervous system to the endocrine system via ANTIGEN -is a cells contain
-adhesion occurs because the pituitary gland molecule capable of receptors that
water molecules cling to the xylem inducing an immune recognize pathogen
tissue; (force) attraction between unlike midbrain: small central part of the response (to produce molecules
molecules an antibody) in the defense
brainstem, developing from the middle of the
host organism; responses through
primitive or embryonic brain; consists of targeted by cell wall production
-cohesion occurs because the tectum and tegmentum antibodies and thickening
water molecules stick to one another ANTIBODIES - defense
Cerebellum: receives information from the also known as an responses:
sensory systems, the spinal cord, and other immunoglobulin (Ig), production of
parts of the brain and then regulates motor is a large, Y-shaped antimicrobial
movements; coordinates voluntary protein produced compounds
mainly by plasma (phytoalexins
movements such as posture, balance,
Plants: cells that is used by (toxins), enzymes
coordination, and speech, resulting in smooth the immune system and cell death -
 Xerophytes: can survive dry and balanced muscular activity to neutralize apoptosis)
habitats pathogens such as
Cerebrum: left & right hemisphere (linked pathogenic bacteria
 Hydrophytes: water habitats
by corpus callosum); frontal, parietal, and viruses. The
 Halophytes: plants living close to antibody recognizes
temporal, and occipital lobe
the sea a unique molecule of
 Mesophytes: lands of temperate Cortex: gray matter; most external layer the pathogen, called
zone an antigen.
 Photolysis: converts light to Meninges: 3 layers; protective layer
PLANTS
chemical energy
 Capillary action: tendency of water Cerebro spinal fluid (CSF): shock absorber
Mechanical Defenses
to rise
 Transpiration: water movement T cell: aka T lymphocyte, is a type of
o composed of bark and waxy
through a plant and its evaporation lymphocyte (a subtype of white blood cell)
cuticle
from aerial parts (leaves, stems, & that plays a central role in cell-mediated
flowers) immunity. o spikes – cactus

B cell: aka B lymphocyte, is a type of o head shells – coconut

Chemical and Nervous Control
lymphocyte (a subtype of white blood cell)
Nervous System (animals) botch chemical & that function in the humoral immunity o thorns – roses
nervous component of the adaptive immune system
by secreting antibodies. Chemical Defenses
Central Nervous Peripheral Nervous
System System Plants o exterior protection
Brain: main organ; Somatic: cranial &
nerve nets: for spinal serial NS from the interconnections of plant o toxins & enzymes (defense mech.)
invertebrates Autonomic: nerves
Spinal cord sympathetic & o secondary metabolites: alkaloids
parasympathetic root tip or apex serves as a unit and repellent tastes

CNS: controls thought processes, guides Plant nerves: main organ; found in the root Defense Responses
movement, and registers sensation apex; vascular strands (serve as the nerves)
o Pathogens – agents of disease;
Categories of Nerve Cells: Don’t have nervous system damages plant tissues; infections

 Neurons: channel/medium Use their chemical system o Indictable defenses

 o Plants produce antimicrobial  IgG – fetus in the womb Growth movement (in response to external
chemicals, proteins, and enzymes stimuli)
 IgE – parasites / allergens; release
APOPTOSIS – the death of cells that occurs of histamine  Tropism: movement in the
as a normal and controlled part of an direction of the stimulus; roots:
organism’s growth and development  IgA – mucus membrane postitive (upward) & negative
(downward)
 IgM – eliminates pathogens in Types:
initial stage of cell-mediated a. Phototropism: reaction to
immunity sunlight
b. Hydrotropism: in response to
ANIMALS  IgD – antigen receptor on B cell,
water
activates other WBC
Innate Immunity – a nonspecific response to c. Thigmotropism: touch or contact
a broad range of microbes formed by the skin A B AB O d. Aerotropism: air
and mucus membranes together with A / / e. Chemotropism: chemicals
macrophages B / /  Nastic: when a stimulus is present
AB / / / / but do not involve movement;
First line of defense: skin and mucous that O / does not depend on the direction
lines the digestive, respiratory, and of the stimulus
genitourinary tract which acts as a barrier on
Plant Hormones:
invading pathogens.
Auxin: some morphogen-like
o Lysozyme (sweat, tears, and
characteristics; have a cardinal role in
saliva)
coordination of many growth and
o Pathogens  phagocytosis behavioral processes
SENSORY AND MOTOR
Phagocytes  Lysosomes
Gibberellins: regulate growth MECHANISMS
o Histamine - dilation of blood vessel
Cytokinin (CK): promote cell division;
to allow more blood to flow
cytokinesis
SENSORY MECHANISMS
Acquired Immunity – highly specific response
Ethylene (ET): Defense from
developed only after exposure to pathogens
necrotrophic pathogens and herbivore ANIMALS
and cells by the recognition of lymphocytes –
insects
lymphocytes provide a specific defense Nervous System
against pathogens
Abscisic acid (ABA): bud dormancy
Sensory – sense changes both
o Antigen – any foreign molecule inside and out of the body
Sensory and Motor Mechanisms
o B cells – produce antibodies; Integrative – processing the info.
Animals Plants
triggered by antigens; remain in received from the sense organs
directly controlled controlled by
the lymphatic system and form by NS receptors
part of the memory B-cells. employ a wide -have sensory and Motor – response to stimuli
variety of sensory motor mechanisms
o T cells – attack infected cells by receptors and their plants react to Sensory Pathways:
phagocytosis or by injecting actions light, chemicals,
chemicals Sensory information gravity, water and Sensory Reception – stimulus
1. Presence of a even touch energy
Killer T cells – inject physical stimulus TROPISM
that that would (ability of plants to
chemicals into Transduction – action potential
allow certain respond to a
pathogens reactions certain stimulus)
2. Transduction of Transmission – CNS
Helper T cells – attract the stimulus into
and assist B cells in electrochemical Integration – response
antibody production impulses in the
sensory Neurons:
Suppressor T cells – receptors
stop the B and T cells 3. Transmission of Sensory – transmits repulses from
action potentials the sense receptors
after infection
in sensory
neurons Motor – transmits repulses from
o Y shape – each tip serves as the 4. Interpretation/
site for antibody-antigen binding brain/spine
Integration of the
stimulus
Relay – connects sensory & motor
perceived by the
CNS neurons
Classes of antibodies:
Sensory Receptors:

Mechanoreceptors – touch, sound, PLANTS

balance
Skeletal System – cartilage and calcified
Chemoreceptors – taste, smell bone

Electromagnetic Receptors Motor Neuron – carry signals from

the CNS to the outer parts of the
Thermoreceptors body

Nociceptors/Pain Receptors Muscular Movement – use of

muscle fibers for movement and
Photoreceptors – light-detecting; locomotion
eyes
Amoeboid Movement – unicellular
animals

PLANTS Ciliary Movement – ciciliatea

protozoans move from place to
Receptors – relay info. to effector
place in water medium
systems through chemical messengers

Photoreceptors – mediate
responses of plants to light

 Phytochromes – red
light; changes of
seasons

 Phototropins – blue
light; mediating
phototropic movements

 Cytochromes – blue
light; circadian rhythm

Amyloplasts – specialized plastids

that contain starch granules that
settle downward in response to
growth; involved in gravitopism

Mechanoreceptors – sense
physical deformation caused by
stimuli; involved in Thigmotropism

MOTOR MECHANISMS

ANIMALS

Nastic Movements – response to stimuli

coming from all directions

Tropic Movements – response in

the direction of the stimulus or
away from it

Phototropism – orientation of a
plant in response to light; toward
(+) away (-)

Geotropism – response to gravity

Hydrotropism – growth of roots

towards soil moisture

Thigmotropism – response to
touch