Ryerson University

Department of Aerospace Engineering

LABORATORY MANUAL

AER 507 Materials and Manufacturing

Prepared By
Hamid Ghaemi, PhD, Peng, Sept. 2005
Updated By
Peter Bradley, Aug. 2009
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
LAB 1: TENSILE TESTING ____________________________________________________ 3
1.1 Purpose___________________________________________________________ 3
1.2 Materials _________________________________________________________ 3
1.3 Theory ___________________________________________________________ 3
1.4 Test Procedure ____________________________________________________ 5
1.5 Report____________________________________________________________ 5
Appendix A: Summary of Basic Stress and Strain Formulas_____________________ 7
LAB 2: HARDNESS TESTING__________________________________________________ 8
2.1 Purpose___________________________________________________________ 8
2.2 Theory ___________________________________________________________ 8
2.3 Apparatus ________________________________________________________ 8
2.5 Test Procedure ___________________________________________________ 11
2.6 Report___________________________________________________________ 11
Appendix B: Tables for Hardness Test Data Recording________________________ 13
LAB 3: HEAT TREATMENT OF PLAIN CARBON STEEL _________________________ 15
3.1 Purpose__________________________________________________________ 15
3.2 Materials ________________________________________________________ 15
3.3 Theory __________________________________________________________ 15
3.4 Procedure________________________________________________________ 16
3.5 Test Procedure ___________________________________________________ 17
3.6 Report___________________________________________________________ 17
LAB 4: MACHINING DEMONSTRATION_______________________________________ 18
4.1 Purpose__________________________________________________________ 18
4.2 Theory __________________________________________________________ 18
4.3 Procedure________________________________________________________ 21
4.4 Report___________________________________________________________ 24
LAB 5: DEMONSTRATION OF CNC MILLING __________________________________ 25
5.1 Purpose__________________________________________________________ 25
5.2 G-code __________________________________________________________ 25
5.3 Report___________________________________________________________ 26
LAB 6: Project – Fibreglass Composite Wing ___________________ 27
6.1 Purpose: ______________________________________________________________ 27
6.2 Apparatus: ____________________________________________________________ 27
6.3 Preparation Prior to Lab: _________________________________________________ 27
6.4 Procedure: ____________________________________________________________ 28
6.5 Flight Test ____________________________________________________________ 30
7: REFERENCES ____________________________________________________________ 37

2
 LAB 1: TENSILE TESTING
Instructor: Alan Machin, Lab in KHE 25

1.1 Purpose

· To determine the modulus of elasticity, specific modulus, and specific strength for each
material.
· To determine the yield strength (Y), tensile strength (TS), fracture strength (FS) and ductility
of an aluminum alloy and composite material.

1.2 Materials

In this experiment the specimens of the following three materials will be tested:
· Cold rolled 70/30 Brass
· Cold rolled 0.18% Steel
· Aluminum alloy6061 T6

The steel and brass will be tested in the elastic region only, while the aluminum alloy will be
tested to fracture.

1.3 Theory
A diagram representing the relation between stress and strain in a given material is an important
characteristic of a material. Stress is defined as the load acting over the cross sectional area of the
test specimen and strain is defined as the elongation over the length (gauge length). To obtain the
stress-strain curve, one usually conducts a tensile test.
F d
s= & e=
A L
Where F is the applied load
A is the cross sectional area
δ is the elongation (change in length)
L is the original length of the specimen

The stress-strain curve of different materials varies widely and tensile tests on the same material
may yield different results depending on the temperature and loading rate. However, they can be
divided into two broad categories, ductile and brittle.

Ductile materials such as 1018 steel have the ability to yield and show a linear stress-strain
relation up to the yielding point (elastic region on the diagram). After the critical yielding point,
the specimen undergoes large deformations with a small increase in load (plastic region on the
diagram). As can be noted from the figure 1.1, the elongation of the test specimen after the yield
point may be up to 200 times larger than the elongation before the yield point. After a certain
value of load is reached (depending on the material), the geometry of the test specimen begins to
change noticeably as the result of local instability. This phenomenon is called necking. The

3
necking phenomenon shows that the rupture takes place along the surface that forms an angle of
approximately 45o to the applied load (original surface). This indicates that shear stress is the
primary reason for the failure in ductile materials and under uniaxial loading, shear stress is
largest on the surfaces forming an angle of 45o to the applied load.

Necking takes
place at 45o angle

Figure 1.1 Tensile specimen of ductile material under uniaxial

loading and necking phenomenon

Brittle material such as cast iron, glass and stone are characterized by the fact that rupture occurs
without a change in the rate of deformation (elongation). In the case of brittle materials, there is
no difference between the ultimate strength and rupture strength. In addition, strain at rupture
for brittle materials is much smaller than ductile materials. It is important to know that the
necking phenomenon does not exist in brittle materials.

In this laboratory exercise, ductile materials will be tested in tension. Figure 1.2 depicts the
typical stress-strain curve for ductile materials. The tensile test is used to determine basic
mechanical properties including: yield strength (Y), tensile strength (TS), modulus of elasticity
(E), and ductility.

E.L.

Figure 1.2: A typical stress-strain curve

4
1.3.1 Elastic Portion of the Curve

The Elastic Limit (E.L.) is the limit of elastic deformation, below which the material will not be
permanently deformed. Since it is difficult to determine this limit, the yield strength is used
instead. This is the stress seen at a permanent deformation of typically 0.2% strain.

The yield strength is the value used in structural design to ensure the material operates in the
elastic region (e.g. design stress = Y/1.5). The modulus of elasticity (Young’s modulus), E, is
important in design for stiffness. For example, it measures the extent of deflection a beam would
exhibit when loaded. Even more important properties are the specific strength (TS/r) and the
specific modulus (stiffness) (E/r). Each of these properties allows a comparison of various
materials in order to provide the desired load bearing capacity at the lowest weight and is of
significant importance in the aerospace industry.

1.3.2 Plastic Portion of Curve

The plastic portion of the curve shows that the material increases in strength as deformation
proceeds. The maximum stress achieved is the (ultimate) tensile strength (TS). The total extent
of permanent deformation to fracture is measured by % strain or % elongation and is referred to
as ductility. With low ductility materials, the fracture stress (FS) and the tensile strength (TS)
coincide. With ductile materials, the FS is lower than the TS. With completely brittle materials,
the ductility is zero.

TS and ductility are important properties used in mechanical working operations such as forging,
extrusion, and rolling where extensive plastic deformation occurs.

1.4 Test Procedure

1. Obtain from the instructor the test strips of brass, steel, aluminum.
2. Measure in inches the width and thickness of the strips in the reduced section using the
Vernier callipers. Determine the cross sectional area.
3. The instructor will demonstrate the use of the extensometer and the testing apparatus. Begin
test with the steel strip.
4. Carefully position the extensometer on the test strip.

1.5 Report

1. Using Excel to plot the elastic stress - strain curve for all materials. Determine the modulus
of elasticity and then calculate the specific modulus.
2. Using Excel plot the stress – strain curve for aluminium alloy. The total strain value is
obtained by the final elongation value at fracture.
3. For the aluminium alloy, determine the yield stress (Y) at 0.2% strain and the specific
strength. Compare the specific strength to that of brass and steel from reference data.
4. Determine the tensile strength of the aluminum alloy.
5. Determine the nominal and true fracture stress of the aluminium alloy.

5
A sample Excel plot is provided as seen in Figure 1.3.

In the report, comment on the following questions:

1. Which material has the highest specific strength? What significance has this for design?
2. Which difference is seen in their specific modulii? What significance has this for design?
3. Is the true fracture stress of Aluminium greater than the tensile strength? If it is, why is this
so?

80000
70000
60000
stress (psi)

50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
strain %

Figure 1.3: A sample stress-strain curve obtained using a tensile testing machine

6
Appendix A: Summary of Basic Stress and Strain Formulas

Stress = load (lbs)

[Original cross sectional area (in2) = thickness x width]

Strain = extension (in)

Original gauge length = 2.0”

% Elongation = final gauge length – original gauge length x 100% = %strain

Original gauge length

Modulus of elasticity = Stress (lb/in2)

Strain (in/in)

Yield Strength = Stress at 0.2% strain (lbs/in2)

Tensile Strength = Maximum load observed (lbs/in2)

Original cross sectional area

Fracture Stress = Load at fracture (lbs/in2)

Original cross sectional area

True Facture Stress = Load at fracture (lbs/in2)

Cross sectional area at fracture

Specific Strength = Tensile strength lbs/sq. in

Density lbs/cu. in

Specific Stiffness = Modulus of elasticity lbs/sq. in

Density lbs/cu. in

7
 LAB 2: HARDNESS TESTING
Instructor: Alan Machin, Lab in KHE 25

2.1 Purpose
Several tests are employed in industry to determine certain mechanical properties of materials;
hardness as a measure of resistance to penetration, impact resistance (resistance to shock
loading), fatigue strength (cyclic stress), creep strength (strength at higher temperature), yield
strength, tensile strength, etc…. In this experiment, the techniques for hardness testing will be
considered and the approximate tensile strength will be interpreted from this hardness testing.

2.2 Theory
One of the simplest tests which can provide a measure of strength is the hardness test. Hardness
is defined as the resistance to penetration or to abrasion. In general, increased hardness indicates
increased strength but lower toughness and ductility. Hardness testing is often used as a simple
quality control evaluation procedure. Hardness is not an intrinsic material property dictated by
precise definitions in terms of fundamental units of mass, length and time. A hardness property
value is the result of a defined measurement procedure. There are several types of hardness
testers:
· Brinell hardness tester
· Rockwell hardness tester
· Vickers hardness tester and the
· Shore scleroscope

These hardness tests differ principally in the amount of load and the type of penetrator used in
the testing. For example, the Shore scleroscope utilizes a diamond tipped dart dropped from a
standard height. The Vickers machine utilizes weights from a 1 kg to 120 kg and a square based
diamond pyramid penetrator. The Shore scleroscope is of low accuracy and is utilized mainly
because of its portability. The Vickers unit is more of a research tool. In practice, routine
hardness evaluations are generally restricted to the Brinell and Rockwell testers. In this
laboratory experiment, only Brinell and Rockwell tests will be considered.

2.3 Apparatus

2.3.1 Brinell hardness

The Brinell hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a 10 mm diameter
hardened steel or carbide ball subjected to a load of 3000 kg. For softer materials the load can be
reduced to 1500 kg or 500 kg to avoid excessive indentation. The diameter of the indentation left
in the test material is measured with a low powered microscope (see Figure 2.1). The Brinell
hardness number is calculated by dividing the load applied by the surface area of the indentation.
Equally, the Brinell hardness number table can simplify the determination of the Brinell
hardness. The diameter of the impression is calculated by taking the average of two readings at

8
right angles to each other. As a general rule, the tensile strength in psi for a ferrous material is
considered to be approximately 500 x HB.
2F
HB =
pD( D - D 2 - Di2 )

Applied
Force, F

Indenter
Diameter, D D

Di

Figure 2.1: Schematic of a Brinell hardness test

On tests of extremely hard metals, a tungsten carbide ball is substituted for the steel ball.
Compared to the other hardness test methods, the Brinell ball makes the deepest and widest
indentation, so the test averages the hardness over a wider amount of material, which will more
accurately account for multiple grain structures and any irregularities in the uniformity of the
material. This method is the best for achieving the bulk or macro-hardness of a material,
particularly those materials with heterogeneous structures.

2.3.2 Rockwell hardness

The Rockwell hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a diamond cone
or hardened steel ball indenter. The indenter is forced into the test material under a preliminary
minor load F0 (Figure. 2.2A) usually 10 kgF. When equilibrium has been reached, an indicating
device is set to a datum position. While the preliminary minor load is still applied an additional
major load is applied with resulting increase in penetration (Figure. 2.2B). When equilibrium has
again been reached, the additional major load is removed but the preliminary minor load is still
maintained. Removal of the additional major load allows a partial recovery, so reducing the
depth of penetration (Figure. 2.2C). The permanent increase in depth of penetration, resulting
from the application and removal of the additional major load is used to calculate the Rockwell
hardness number. The formula is:

HR = E - e

where
F0 = preliminary minor load in kgf
F1 = additional major load in kgf
F = total load in kgf
e = permanent increase in depth of penetration due to F1, measured in units of 0.002 mm
E = a constant depending on form of indenter: 100 units for diamond indenter, 130 units
for steel ball indenter
HR = Rockwell hardness number
D = diameter of steel ball

9
 Figure 2.2 Rockwell Principle

The Rockwell hardness tester measures the difference in depth of penetration between a minor
and a major load. The advantage of this machine is its relatively simple operation and the range
of scales (hardness values) available by combining different loads (60 – 150 kg) with different
penetrators (1/16”, 1/8” steel ball, diamond penetrator). From prepared charts, it is also possible
to estimate the tensile strength in psi based on the hardness values. Table 2.1 summarizes the
scale, indentor, minor, and major load.

Table 2.1 Rockwell Hardness Scale

Minor Load Major Load Total Load
Value of
Scale Indenter F0 F1 F
E
kgf kgf kgf
A Diamond cone 10 50 60 100
B 1/16" steel ball 10 90 100 130
C Diamond cone 10 140 150 100
D Diamond cone 10 90 100 100
E 1/8" steel ball 10 90 100 130
F 1/16" steel ball 10 50 60 130
G 1/16" steel ball 10 140 150 130
H 1/8" steel ball 10 50 60 130
K 1/8" steel ball 10 140 150 130
L 1/4" steel ball 10 50 60 130
M 1/4" steel ball 10 90 100 130
P 1/4" steel ball 10 140 150 130
R 1/2" steel ball 10 50 60 130
S 1/2" steel ball 10 90 100 130
V 1/2" steel ball 10 140 150 130

10
2.5 Test Procedure
The Brinell and Rockwell testers will be demonstrated first. There are 28 samples in total; each
student is to test at least one sample.

1. If you have one of the first nine ferrous and non-ferrous samples from group A, test it on the
Rockwell machine, altering loads and indenters to suit the metal:
· HRB – soft steels
· HRE – soft, non-ferrous materials (e.g. aluminum, magnesium.)
Take at least 2 readings on each sample. Hardness values within 2 digits of each other are
acceptable, if not, a third reading should be taken.

2. If you have one of the three given cast irons, test it on the Brinell machine.
Make one impression on each sample and measure the diameter of the impression using the
measuring instrument. Two readings of the diameter should be taken, one at 90 degrees to the
other and the average diameter obtained can be used to determine the HB from the supplied
chart.

3. Record your readings on the table given, and obtain the rest of readings from your group
members.

2.6 Report
Although you only carry out one test from one of three test groups, each student is required to do
the following for all three test groups.

Questions for test group A

1. Based on hardness data, compare the relative strengths of all the materials tested.
2. Why are difference hardness scales required for different materials?
3. Make a list of temper designations for the aluminium alloys vs. hardness, from the
hardest or the softest.

Questions for test group B

1. Plot a graph of hardness verses tempering temperature.

2. What effect does tempering temperature have on toughness?

Questions for test group C

1. Plot hardness verses log time for both aging temperatures

2. Is there any evidence of over-aging where a peak is reached?
3. Show the results by Excel bar graph.
4. From hardness values, determine the approximate tensile strength of each sample tested,
and include them in the Excel bar graph, as shown in the Figure 2.3.

11
 800
700
600
500
HB
400
TS (Mpa)
300
200
100
0
ed

d
y

n
um
llo
lo

le

ro
al

Al

ea
ni
la

ti
ne

ta

as
Al

nn
ee
an

Ti

C
la
St
y

ke
lo
Al

ic
N
Al

Figure 2.3: Tensile strength determined by hardness test

12
Appendix B: Tables for Hardness Test Data Recording

Test Group A: Various Metals

Material Material code Hardness Hardness

(with temper Scale Readings
designation)
2024 O HRE

2024 T3 HRE

Aluminum 6061 T6 HRE

7075 O HRB

7075 T6 HRB
Low carbon
91 HRB
steels
92 HRB
Chilled cast
HRC
iron
Magnesium AZ91 HRE

1 HB

Cast irons 2 HB

3 HB

13
Test Group B: Tempering of Steel

All samples were austenitized for 2 hours and rapid quenched in oil. They were then held at the
indicated tempering temperature for 1 hour and oil quenched.

Tempering Hardness TS
Material code
Temperature (F) Readings (HRC) (ksi)
600
800
4140 900
1000
1100
1200

Test Group C: Precipitation Hardening of Aluminium

All samples were solution treated for 1 hour and rapid quenched in water. They were then held
at the indicated temperature for the indicated length of time and water quenched.

(Aging)
Temperature Hardness
Material code Time
(°C) Readings (HRE)
(hours)
.1

6160 300 10

100

500

.1

6160 400 5

10

100

14
 LAB 3: HEAT TREATMENT OF PLAIN CARBON STEEL
Instructor: Alan Machin, Lab in KHE 30

3.1 Purpose
To determine the effect of various heat treatments on the hardness and strength of steels of
varying carbon content.

3.2 Materials

· CR – 0.17% C
· CM – 0.40% C
· XIO – 1.0% C

3.3 Theory
Heat Treatment is the controlled heating and cooling of metals to alter their physical and
mechanical properties without changing the product shape. Heat treatment is sometimes done
inadvertently due to manufacturing processes that either heat or cool the metal such as welding
or forming.

Heat Treatment is often associated with increasing the strength of material, but it can also be
used to alter certain manufacturability objectives such as to improve machinability, improve
formability, and restore ductility after a cold working operation. It is manufacturing process that
can not only help other manufacturing process, but can also improve product performance by
increasing strength or other desirable characteristics.

Steels are particularly suitable for heat treatment, since they respond well to heat treatment and
the commercial use of steels exceeds that of any other material. Steels are heat treated for one of
the following reasons

3.3.1 Softening

The softening operation is primarily performed to reduce strength or hardness, remove residual
stresses, improve toughness, restore ductility, refine grain size or change the electromagnetic
properties of the steel.

Restoring ductility or removing residual stresses is a necessary operation when a large amount of
cold working is to be performed, such as in a cold-rolling operation or wiredrawing. Annealing
such as spheroidizing, normalizing and tempering such as austempering, martempering are the
principal ways by which steels are softened.

15
3.3.2 Hardening

Hardening of steels is done to increase the strength and wear properties. One of the pre-requisites
for hardening is sufficient carbon and alloy content. If there is sufficient carbon content then the
steel can be directly hardened. Otherwise the surface of the part has to be carbon enriched using
some diffusion treatment techniques prior to heat treatment.

3.4 Procedure

1. Annealing

· These samples have been fully annealed to the softest temper.

· Take three or four hardness readings on each sample using the Rockwell C scale
(HRC).
· Place the three samples in the furnace set at 1625°F for 20 minutes making sure to
identify the respective samples.
· After heating, remove one sample with the aid of tongs and quench by stirring rapidly
in water until cool to the touch. Repeat this procedure for the remaining steel bars.
· After quenching the steel samples remove the oxide layer and the possible
decarburized layer by grinding the surfaces previously used for hardness
measurement. Grinding should be continued until there is no trace of previous
hardness indentation marks. Measure the hardness of each sample and record the
results.
· Now place the three steel samples in a furnace preset at 900°F for 25 minutes. Allow
the samples to cool in air for three minutes then cool in running water. Grind the
surfaces as above and measure the hardness. This process of reheating after
quenching is called “tempering” or “drawing”.
· Hand in all used materials and portable equipment.

2. Quenching (If quenching is required follow the rules below)

· One member of group opens and closes the door

· Operate rapidly – grab samples at a non-critical spot
· Have quenching media close at hand – move specimen forth and back in the quench
medium.

3. Furnace

· Leave furnace ON after you have finished the experiment.

4. Overheating

· Beware of overheating of heat treated samples while belt grinding.

Note: Do not change the temperature setting on a furnace without notifying the lab instructor.
Occasionally, a different furnace from the one stated will be made available.

16
3.5 Test Procedure
1. For each of the above-mentioned three materials, three samples will be prepared, namely
annealed, quenched from 885 oC, and tempered from 900 oF.
2. Obtain one sample from your instructor.
3. Belt grind your sample and determine hardness using the HRC scale.
4. Record your reading on the table given and obtain the rest of readings from your group
members.
5. Come back to see the quenching demo performed by the instructor.

3.6 Report
1. Record hardness readings and determine tensile strengths of each piece of steel for each heat
treatment.
2. Construct iron-iron-carbide diagram and locate position of each piece of on heating to 885
o
C. What phase(s) is/are present at this temperature for each piece of?
3. What is this heating procedure referred to?
4. What is the procedure of heating to 885 oC and quenching in water called? Why?
5. What is the procedure of re-heating each steel sample to 900 oF called?
6. Discuss the effect of composition on each heat treatment and the mechanism by which
changes in hardness occurs.

Table for Heat Treatment Test Data Recording

Material Annealed Quenched Tempered

Hardness Hardness Hardness

CR

CM

X10

17
 LAB 4: MACHINING DEMONSTRATION
Instructor: Peter Bradley Lab in EPH130

4.1 Purpose
In this laboratory experiment, the student will be introduced only to lathe machine tool and some
important operations on the lathe will be explained and demonstrated. However, the basic drill
and milling machine tools are briefly explained strictly for interested students.

4.2 Theory

Almost all products used by people, whether in mining, construction, transportation or

communication are dependent on machining and machine tools for their manufacturing. The
following will introduce some of the basics of machining operations for manufacturing. These
basic operations are:
· Drilling
· Milling
· Turning

4.2.1 Drilling

Drilling is defined as the operation of producing a hole in a material utilizing a cutting tool called
a twist drill. Other operations that are performed using a drilling machine are:

· Reaming - smoothing a previously made hole by using a cutting tool with several cutting
edges called a reaming tool
· Countersinking - producing a tapered and cone-shaped enlargement to a previously made
hole.
· Counterboring - producing an opening or recess to the top of a previously drilled hole to
accommodate bolt heads.
· Boring - enlarging a hole by means of a single point cutting tool called a boring bar.
· Tapping - cutting internal threads in a hole with a tool called tap. A special attachment is
needed if tap is used with machine.

There are several different types of drilling machines such as the standard drill press, Gang drill,
and the Radial drill press. A standard dill press is used for small or medium sized parts. Gang
drills are used when several operations have to be performed on one job. For instance, drilling
followed by reaming and tapping. Radial drills are primarily used for heaver and larger work
pieces.

4.2.2 Milling

Milling machines are very versatile. They are usually used to machine flat surfaces, but can also
produce irregular surfaces. They can also be used to drill, bore, cut gears, and produce slots. The

18
type of milling machine most commonly found in a student shop is a vertical spindle machine
with a swivelling head. Most milling machines are equipped with power feeds for one or more of
the axes. Power feeding is smoother than manual feeding and therefore can produce a better
surface finish. Power feeding also reduces operator fatigue on long cuts. On some machines, the
power feed is controlled by a forward-reverse lever and a speed control knob.

4.2.3 Lathe

The purpose of a lathe is to rotate a part against a tool, in which the tool position is controlled. It
is useful for fabricating parts and features that have a circular cross section. The spindle is the
part of the lathe that rotates. Various workholding attachments such as a three or four jaw chuck,
collets, and centers can be held in the spindle. The spindle is driven by an electric motor through
a system of belt drives or gear trains. Spindle speed is controlled by varying the geometry of the
drive train (see Figure 4.1.)

The tailstock can be used to support the end of the workpiece with a center, or to hold tools for
drilling, reaming, threading, or cutting tapers. It can be adjusted in position along the way to
accommodate different workpiece lengths. The carriage part of the lathe controls and supports
the cutting tool. The carriage consists of:

· A saddle that mates with and slides along the ways of the bed.
· An apron that controls the feed mechanism.
· A cross slide that controls transverse motion of the tool (toward or away from the
operator).
· A tool compound that adjusts to permit angular tool movement.
· A T-slot that holds the tool-post.

Figure 4.1: Metal Cutting Lathe

19
Lathe Cutting Tool

Figure 4.2 depicts a schematic diagram of a typical cutting tool and identifies the terminology
used to define each profile. Note that the actual tool geometry may vary with the type of
workpiece to be machined. The standard cutting tool shapes for various operations on a lathe are
as follows (see Figure 4.3):

· Facing tools are ground to provide clearance with a center.

· Roughing tools have a small side relief angle to leave more material to support the
cutting edge during deep cuts.
· Finishing tools have a more rounded nose to provide a finer finish. Round nose tools are
for lighter turning. They have no back or side rake to permit cutting in either direction.
· Left hand cutting tools are designed to cut best when traveling from left to right.

Figure 4.2: Turning cutting tool Terminology

Figure 4.3: Standard cutting tools

20
4.3 Procedure
The following is the definition of lathe operation that will be reviewed in this lab:

4.3.1. Installing a Cutting Tool

Lathe cutting tools are held by tool holders. To install a tool, first clean the holder, insert the
cutting tool into the housing of the tool holder, place the tool holder onto the tool post and then
tighten the bolts. The tool post is secured to the compound with a T-bolt. The tool holder is
secured to the tool post using a quick release lever.

4.3.2. Positioning the Tool

In order to move the cutting tool, the lathe saddle and cross slide can be moved by hand. There
are also power feeds for these axes. Procedures vary from machine to machine. A third axis of
motion is provided by the compound. The angle of the compound can be adjusted to allow tapers
to be cut at any desired angle (depending on the machine). First, loosen the bolts securing the
compound to the saddle. Then rotate the compound to the desired angle referencing the indicator
at the base of the compound. Retighten the bolts. Now the tool can be hand fed along the desired
angle. No power feed is available for the compound. If a fine finish is required, use both hands to
achieve a smoother feed rate

4.3.3. Feed, Speed, and Depth of Cut

Cutting speed is defined as the speed at which the workpiece moves with respect to the tool
(usually measured in feet per minute). Feed rate is defined as the distance the tool travels during
one revolution of the part. Cutting speed and feed rate determine the surface finish, power
requirements, and material removal rate. The primary factor in choosing a feed rate and speed is
the material to be cut and the type of cutting tool. An additional factor that should be considered
in choosing a feed rate are the rigidity of the workpiece, the size and condition of the lathe, and
depth of cut. For instance using a high speed tool bit in rough operation, 200 feet / minute is the
cutting speed and the feed rate is between 0.015 to .030 inches. In finishing operation, the cutting
speed can be set at 300 feet / minute and the feed rate is 0.005 to 0.0100. To calculate the proper
spindle speed, divide the desired cutting speed by the circumference of the work. Experiment
with feed rates to achieve the desired finish. The following equations can be used to determine
the spindle speed and machining time.

CS ´ 12 Dist
RPM = Time =
pD Rate

Where CS is cutting speed Dist is length of cut

D id the part diameter Rate is feed rate x RPM

21
4.3.4 Facing

A lathe can be used to create a smooth, flat face very accurately, perpendicular to the axis of a
cylindrical part. This operation is called facing. To perform a facing operation, bring the tool
approximately into position, but slightly off of the part. Always turn the spindle by hand before
turning on the machine. This ensures that no parts interfere with the rotation of the spindle. Move
the tool outside the part and adjust the saddle to take the desired depth of cut. Then, feed the tool
across the face with the cross slide (power feed or hand feed).

4.3.5 Drilling

A lathe can also be used to drill holes accurately and concentric to the centerline of a cylindrical
part. The operation is very straight forward; first install a drill chuck into the tail stock and make
sure the chuck is securely in place. Then place the drill bit into the chuck and tighten the chuck.
Move the saddle forward to make room for the tailstock. Move the tailstock into position, and
lock it in place. Always use a centerdrill to start the hole and use cutting fluid with the
centerdrill. It has shallow flutes and doesn’t cut as easily as a drill bit. Always drill past the
beginning of the taper to create a funnel to guide the bit in. The drill chuck can be removed from
the tail stock by drawing back the drill chuck as far as it will easily go, then about a quarter turn
more. A pin will press the chuck out of the collet.

4.3.6 Turning

The operation of reducing the diameter of the part to the desired dimension is called turning.
When operating a lathe and holding part using chuck only, the part should not extend more than
three times its diameter. If you are feeding the saddle toward the headstock, use a right-hand
turning tool. Once the spindle speed, feed rate and depth of cut is determined, the power feed of
the machine can be used to generate a smooth surface.

4.3.7 Parting or Undercutting Groove

Parting is the operation of cutting off the workpiece at a desired location. A parting tool is deeper
and narrower than a turning tool. It is designed for making narrow grooves as well as for cutting
off parts. When a parting tool is installed, ensure that it hangs over the tool holder enough that
the holder just clears the workpiece. Ensure that the parting tool is perpendicular to the axis of
rotation and the tip is at the same height as the center of the part. When the cut is deep, the side
of the part can rub against sides of the groove, so it is especially important to apply cutting fluid.

4.3.8 Knurling

Knurling is the process of impressing a diamond shape or straight line pattern into the surface of
the workpiece to provide a better gripping surface. In many instances the knurling tool is used to
increase the diameter of workpiece. In this case, mostly the straight knurling tool is used. The
knurling operation is much like the turning operation except that in turning the diameter of the
workpiece is reduced where as in knurling the diameter of the workpiece is increased. To
perform knurling, make sure that the right end of the workpiece is supported with the tail stock

22
of the machine. Place the knurling tool onto the tool-post and ensure that the knurling tool is at
right angles to the workpiece. Feed the knurling tool and lightly touch the workpiece surface then
start the machine to ensure the rollers of the knurling tool are tracking properly. Set the machine
to run at one quarter of the speed for turning operation. At this stage, start the machine and force
the knurling tool into the workpiece until the proper pattern is made and start the power feed.

Figure 4.4: Detailed drawing of the part to be machined

Route Sheet (process planning sheet)

No Operation Machine
05 Cut off bar stock 1” DIA and 4 3/8” long Cut-off saw
10 Deburr with a file Bench
15 Hold in a 3-jaw chuck, face & centre drill both end Lathe
20 Hold between two centres, turn two diameters Lathe
25 Under cut grooves using a 0.125” parting tool Lathe
30 Chamfer 2 @ 0.06” & front @ 0.07” Lathe
35 Cut thread 7/8 – 9 – UNC Lathe
40 Knurl 0.95” DIA Lathe
45 Inspect part two drawing Lathe

23
4.4 Report
a) Identify the equipment used, lathe and tools.
b) Record the turning parameters (RPM, feed, and depth of cut) for operation # 20 (ask the
instructor).
c) Calculate the following for task # 20:
i) For a cutting speed of 120fpm calculate the required (RPM).
ii) Material removal rate for both rough and finish cuts (in3/min).
iii) Total cutting time for each operation.
d) Describe the procedure for operation # 35.
e) Describe the procedure for operation # 40.

24
 LAB 5: DEMONSTRATION OF CNC MILLING
Instructor: Devin Ostrom, Lab in EPH331

5.1 Purpose
The purpose of this laboratory is to introduce NC programming and G-code to a student. A demo
will be provided to mill a curved slot on the part as shown in Figure 5.1 given below. The
associated G-code is also provided.

Figure 5.1: Working drawing of the part considered for machining.

5.2 G-code
(PROGRAM NAME - JEFF )
(DATE=DD-MM-YY - 07-09-04 TIME=HH:MM - 08:53 )
N100 G20
N102 G0 G17 G40 G49 G80 G90
(1/4 FLAT ENDMILL TOOL - 2 DIA. OFF. - 2 LEN. - 2 DIA. - .25 )
N110 T2 M6
N112 G0 G90 X0. Y0. S3200 M3
N114 G43 H2 Z.25
N116 Z.1
N118 G1 Z-.1 F4.
N120 Y2. F8.
N122 X1.
N124 G2 X2. Y1. R1.
N126 G1 Y.5
N128 G2 X1.5 Y0. R.5
N130 G1 X0.
N132 G0 Z.25

25
 N134 M5
N136 G91 G28 Z0.
N138 G28 X0. Y0.
N140 M30
%

5.3 Report

Read the G-code and then show the part zero and cutting path in the figure provided above,
andalso explain the functions for each block of the G-code.

26
 LAB 6: Project – Fibreglass Composite Wing
Instructor: Peter Bradley, Lab EPH 130

6.1 Purpose:
To construct a composite wing that is lighter and stiffer than the existing foam wing supplied
with the Firebird Phantom RTF plane kit.

6.2 Apparatus:
Mold: Mold constructed from F/G composite or P/U casting.
Weigh Scale: To measure fiberglass cloth and resin weight.
Calculator: To determine epoxy and hardener amounts based on glass weight.
6.2.1 Tools:
Scissors: Trim cloth to required shape.
Mixing Tub 8oz: For mixing resin and hardener.
Stir Sticks To mix resin and hardener.
Brush, Roller, Squeegee: Apply and roll out epoxy resin onto the fibreglass cloth.
Marker: Layout cutting line on cloth.
Dust Mask: For trimming and dry sanding of cured laminate (Optional).
Gloves: To be worn by the persons mixing and laminating.

6.2.2 Materials:
Resin Matrix: Epoxy Resin to Hardener: mix ratio100:19.
Reinforcement: Woven Glass Cloth 1.9oz/yd2.
Spar: Closed Cell Foam Strip
Trailing Edge: Open Cell Foam Strip
Mold release agent: Formula 5 Mold Release Wax.
Cleaning solvent: Acetone.

6.3 Preparation Prior to Lab:

The goal is to produce a composite wing that is lighter than the 32g (1.13oz) foam wing
supplied. Become familiar with how to calculate the amount of resin to hardener based on the
mix ratio. You will need to recalculate this during the lab. The original projected wing area is
approximately 116in2 per side. The glass cloth weight is approximately 1.4oz per square yard.
Calculate the glass cloth weight assuming two layers for the top skin and one layer for the
bottom skin. For general hand layup, it is assumed that the weight of the resin is equal to the
weight of the glass. Therefore you must weigh your cut glass cloth and mix an equal weight of
resin. The mixing ratio of resin to hardener is 100:19. You must calculate the weight of resin
and hardener based on this ratio for your measured weight of glass cloth. In order to minimize
the error in mixing such a small amount of epoxy, you will be doubling the weights of resin and
hardener mixed, but not using all of it. This is to account for resin absorbed by the excess cloth,
foam spars, and some left on the squeegee and in the mixing tub, etc. During the layup process,
work carefully and try to achieve an improved ratio of 40% resin to 60% glass.

27
Note: Arrange to work in groups of 5 people prior to the lab and agree to split up the work
between you during the scope of the project. Remove any jewellery, watches and wear
older clothing and shoes in case of any resin spills during the lab. Safety glasses, gloves,
and dust masks will be provided but lab coats are the student’s responsibility if desired.

Sample Calculation: Measured glass weight : 10.7 g

Resin weight at a ratio of 1:1 10.7 g
Weight of resin doubled: 21.4 g

Resin Wt = 21.4 * 100 = 18.0 g

(100+19)

Hardener Wt= 21.4 * 19 = 3.4 g

100+19)

Check: 18.0 + 3.4 = 21.4 g

Component: Ratio Weight

Resin 100 18.0 g
Hardener 19 3.4 g
Filler 0 0.0 g
Pigment 0 0.0 g
Total 119 12.7 g

Note: Your actual fibreglass cloth weight will be heavier than calculated due to excess material
on the edges to be trimmed off later. We will not be adding filler or pigment but filler would
usually be added to reduce resin cost and pigment would be added for UV protection. UV
protection could also be achieved by painting the exterior of the wing.

6.4 Procedure:
6.4.1 Part I (Week I)
Wet Layup:
1. Lay the glass cloth on top of each mold and trim roughly to size. Press the cloth into the
mold and lightly mark the cutting line approximately ½” away from the cavity edge. Use
the marker provided and place a series of dots along the trim line. Do this for both
molds. Make sure that the cloth does not interfere with the alignment dimples in the
mold.
2. For the second layer on the top skin mold, leave 1” of excess material along the leading
edge and ½” for the other edges.
3. Cut the open cell foam strip to the length of the trailing edge and place to one side for
later.
4. Roll the glass cloth up and measure the weight on the scales provided.

28
5. Calculate the resin mix amounts based on the measured glass weight. Double check that
the sum of the individual component weights add up to the total mixture weight. Double
the amount of resin to be mixed. See the sample calculation.
6. While the resin is being mixed, one person can now apply a final coat of wax to the mold
and buff it smooth. Do not handle the fibreglass cloth if there is wax on your fingers.
7. To mix the resin, start by placing a small 8oz cup on the scale. Note the weight and tare
the scale.
8. Slowly and carefully pour the required amount of resin into the cup. Use the tongue
depressor to add the final drops. Caution: Do not switch the resin and hardener
tongue depressors. Do not get any droplets of hardener in the resin container.
9. Either tare the scale again and carefully pour in the hardener up to the calculated
hardener weight, or add the hardener up to the total calculated mixture weight. It is better
to have additional hardener than not enough, so be sure to add at least the minimum
calculated amount.
10. Remove the cup from the scale with both hands and place it on your work table. Take a
new tongue depressor and stir the resin mixture for at least one minute. Be careful not to
induce bubbles into the resin or slosh any out of the cup.
11. While the resin is being mixed, one layer of glass cloth can be placed in each of the mold
halves. Make sure your hands are clean and align the cloth and shape it into the mold
cavity. Be careful that the glass does not cover the alignment dimples on the mold but it
must cover the mold cavity.
12. Once mixed the resin has a maximum pot life of about 11 minutes so you must work
quickly to get the resin spread over the cloth. Once the resin is spread out, the cure rate
will be slower.
13. Pour a bead of resin along the center length of each mold and spread it out towards the
edges with the squeegee. Make sure that the cloth does not slide around until it sticks to
the mold.
14. Spread the resin around and allow it to soak into the cloth. You may need to use your
fingers to press the cloth into the tighter radius edges to remove any bubbles.
Continuously check that you have some extra flashing material around the outside of the
cavity and that it is also wetted out.
15. Add extra resin as needed to fully wet out the cloth but do not allow the resin to puddle in
the middle. Squeegee any excess resin towards the edges.
16. Once the first layer is wetted out in the top skin mold, you can lay the second layer of
cloth into it. Be sure to align it carefully before you press it down, and then pour on more
resin. Force out any air bubbles or excess resin with the squeegee or your fingers.
17. Once all the glass is fully wet, you can lay in the open cell foam strip along the trailing
edge of the top mold cavity. Be sure to remove the adhesive backing strip. Trim it to end
exactly at each wing tip.
18. You can now lay the closed cell foam strip along the leading edge. Start by centering it
along the leading edge and work towards the wing tips. You will need to snip a small V
shaped piece out of each of the leading corners and bend the foam along the wing tip.
19. Once the foam strip is in place, carefully pull the second layer of cloth back to cover all
the foam pieces. This will form a stiffening spar at the leading edge, and reinforce the
joints.

29
 20. Optional ribs may be added if supplied. These should be placed in the top skin mold and
must fit in between the foam strips.
21. Do a final check to ensure that there are no air bubbles, all the cloth has been wetted out,
and that there are no puddles or excess resin in the low areas. Scrape off any extra resin
and put it back in the cup.
22. While the resin is still wet, carefully pick up the bottom skin mold, turn it upside down
and place it on top of the top skin mold. Make sure that both leading edges are facing
forward. The mold halves should nest together on the three alignment pins.
23. Check the fit and then, with clean hands, lightly screw the wing nuts on. Do not over
tighten but make sure there is even pressure on all the nuts. Some resin may be squeezed
out so make sure this does not drip on your clothes.
24. If desired, weigh any resin left in the cup and record the value. Subtract this value from
the original amount and use this to calculate your actual resin to glass ratio.
25. Discard the cups and gloves in the garbage and clean your hands with hand cleaner and
warm water.

6.4.2 Part II (Week II)

Part Removal:
26. The resin must cure for a minimum of 24 hours at room temperature but one week is
recommended to eliminate any warping of the final product.
27. To remove the part, unscrew the wing nuts and gently pry the molds apart. Use a smooth
wedge or similar item if needed to separate the mold halves. Do not use any sharp tools
such as screwdrivers, knives or scissors.
28. Once separated, carefully pry the part from the mold using a plastic squeegee, working
slowly in different areas.
29. Once the part is out, note the weight before any trimming is done.
30. Trim the flashing using scissors or the diamond blade saws provided. Leave about 1/16”
of material around the edges for sanding. Be careful to leave excess material on the
trailing edge and tips of the wing, to be carefully sanded off later. Do not cut the area
where the layers are bonded together or the top and bottom skin may separate. Wear
safety glasses, and the dust mask provided.
31. Measure the thickness of the flashing for use in later calculations.
32. Once you are satisfied with the trimming, dry sand the excess material using 120 grit
sandpaper. Sand only the parting line with the coarse grit. Look at the sample foam
wing and observe the final profile for the leading and trailing edges.
33. Weigh the wing again and compare it to the 32 gram foam wing.
34. To finish off the wing it may be necessary to wet sand it smooth using 400 and 600 grit
wet sand paper. Wet sanding does not produce any dust and so a mask is not necessary.
Due to the fine grit on these grades of sandpaper they will clog easily if not continuously
flushed with water. Because the wing is hollow, do not immerse it in water.
35. It will take more time to trim and sand the wing than is provided in the lab. A package
of sandpaper will be given out to finish off the project.

6.5 Part III (Week III)

Report and Flight:
The report should include the following:

30
 1. Wing identification, mold number, group members.
2. Final weight of composite wing to be as close to or less than 32 grams.
3. Appearance and finish: no holes or bubbles, dry spots, resin puddles, or deep
scratches from sanding.
4. Placement of the foam close to the edges but not outside the mold cavity.
5. For the group report include the following:
4a. Apparatus used
4b. Materials: Epoxy type and glass used
4c. Brief layup procedure
4d. Questions:
i) Calculate the volumetric percentage of each component
ii) Estimate the tensile properties of the composite wing material. See
Appendix A.
iii) Estimate the modulus of elasticity of the composite wing material.
iv) Estimate the section modulus and calculate the factor of safety. Given
the model weight of 8.5oz, calculate the wing load, is this a good material
choice?
v) When considering the method of manufacture is the hand layup method
superior to the Styrofoam Wing, a) in terms of performance, b) in terms of
cost?
5. While we would like everyone to participate, the flight test is optional and weather
dependent. Testing will take place in the quad with practice times available using a foam
wing prior to the actual lab date.

Technical data:
Fiberglass cloth 1.4oz/yd2 Ts = 2.0 GPa E = 72 GPa SG = 2.5

MVS-410/462 Epoxy (mixed) Ts = 68.6 MPa E = 3.31 GPa SG = 1.13

31
 Appendix A

Composite Background (By Hamid Ghaemi)

Theory:
Composites, by definition, are a material with two or more distinct phases. Therefore, composite
materials are heterogeneous. In other words, a composite material is a material in which two or
more distinct materials are combined together but remain uniquely distinguishable in the
mixture. One example is fibreglass; the glass fibres are mixed with a polymeric resin. In the
context of this laboratory work, fibrous composites are materials that have two phases;

1. a fibre that is the reinforcing agent

2. a matrix that act as bonding agent for the fibres

There are many composite materials that are readily distinguishable, such a fibreglass and carbon
epoxy. There are many others composite materials that are not readily distinguishable, such as
reinforced concrete, concrete itself (a composite of rock particles and cement), many inexpensive
plastic mouldings, and the exotic metal matrix composites used in the space program. Regardless
of the type of materials that make up the composite, the two or more constituent materials that
make up the composite are always readily distinguished when the material is sectioned or
broken.

Composite Forms:
Unidirectional lamina

This is a basic form of continuous fibre composites (see Figure 6.1). The lamina may be
composed of one or more layers of materials with all fibres in one direction. This lamina can be
manufactured using pre-impregnated sheets of material (prepreg), filament winding, or resin
transfer moulding. Typically, the stiffness of the lamina is much more in the direction of fibres
than the cross-fibres.

Figure 6.1: Unidirectional Lamina

Woven Fabric

The woven fabrics have been in use for many decades, such as cloth, baskets etc. Flexible fibres
such as carbon and aramid are woven into cloth, and then they are impregnated with epoxy.
Varieties of woven patterns are available, such as plain and harness. Figure 6.2 depicts the plane-
weave cloth since this type of cloth is used in the laboratory. The woven fabrics have better in-

32
plane effective properties than the unidirectional lamina. In addition, they lay better in the
structure and mould configuration with complex curvature.

Figure 6.2: Plain-weave carbon cloth

Laminate

Laminates are made up of stacking unidirectional plies of woven fabrics at different orientations.
The mechanical properties of the laminate depends on the stacking sequence, fibre orientation,
and thickness of the laminate. Laminated components can be designed such that they offer higher
load bearing capacity in the direction of applied load.

Hybrid Composites

The use of composite materials has risen in the past few decades and they are being used in a
variety of applications. When more than one family of fibres are used in making a composite
material or when the composites are stacked with layers of metal in a laminate, the material is
called a hybrid composite. One example of hybrid composites is the combination of Kevlar and
carbon fibre. Kevlar is excellent in tension and is less expensive than carbon however; carbon
provides a better compressive strength to the laminate. The combination of Kevlar and carbon
fibre is classified as a hybrid laminate that has excellent tensile and compressive strength.
Another example of a hybrid system is a laminate having layers of composite sandwiched
between layers of metal. The company, Alcoa, makes a material known as ARALL, in which
layers of aramid/epoxy are laminated with layers of aluminum. The advantages of this hybrid
laminate over all metal materials are better fatigue life, higher specific strength and higher
specific stiffness.

Chopped Fibre

33
Many fibres such as glass and carbon can be chopped in to smaller lengths and used in
compression or injection molding to produce components. There is a greater flexibility in the
molding process when manufacturing components with complex geometry. The chopped fibre
composite materials offer many advantages over continuous fibre composites such as fatigue,
corrosion, and creep resistance as well as greater specific strength and stiffness.

Composite Properties

The breaking load of fibre reinforced composite materials depends on the size of the piece of
fibre, laminate geometry, whether the composite is unidirectional, cloth or chopped fibre, and
type of loading. It also depends on what the composite is made of (carbon, glass or Kevlar). A
composite materials response to an applied load depends on the relative orientation of the fibres
relative to the direction of the applied load. It finally depends on the ratio of fibres to resin and
whether this ration is based on volume or weight?

By looking at the range of fibre products available and by seeking clarification on the structure
and composition of the fibre, we can identify the micro-structural variables that will control the
properties of the composite. These may be summarized as:

· The properties of the fibre reinforcement

· The properties of the matrix in which the reinforcement is placed
· The amount of reinforcement in the matrix.
· The orientation of the reinforcement
· The size and shape of the reinforcement.

For aligned continuous fibres, we only need to consider the mechanical properties of the fibres,
the polymeric resin used to bind them and the relative proportions of the two. If a composite
material is to stay in equilibrium, then the force we apply to the composite as a whole, F, must be
balanced by an equal and opposite force in the fibre, Ff and the matrix Fm, figure 6.3.

Figure 6.3: Parallel Loading

34
When considering 'Strength of Materials', we usually work in terms of stress (s) rather than force.
So the force on the fibres is simply the stress on the fibres Sf, divided by the cross-sectional area
of the fibres. Letting the volume fraction occupied by the fibres to be Vf and the total area of
composite to be A, the area of fibre can be calculated as (Vf x A). Similarly, the area fraction of
epoxy can be calculated as ((Vf -1) x A). Since the cross-sectional area, A, is the common factor
in Equation 6.2, then Equation 6.2 takes the following final form of Equation 6.3. So the stress in
the composite is just the sum of the stresses in the fibre and the matrix multiplied by their
respective fraction (volume or area fraction).

F = Fm + F f [6.1]

sA = s m A(1 - V f ) + s f AV f [6.2]

s = s m (1 - V f ) + s f V f [6.3]

The stress in the fibre and the stress in the matrix are not the same. We can now use Hooke's
Law, which states that the stress (or Force) experienced by a material is proportional to the strain
(or deflection). This applies as long as the stresses are low and the material is linear elastic such
as metals, ceramics, graphite and many polymers. Hooke's Law is:

s = Ee [6.4]

Where E is the elastic modulus; the bigger this number, the stiffer the material becomes. For
compatibility, the strain, e, must be the same in both the fibres and the matrix. This is known as
the Iso-Strain Rule. Using the same rule of volume or fraction, the stiffness of the composite is
the combination of the fibre and matrix stiffness:

E m (1 - V f ) + E f V f = E [6.5]

The fibre and matrix often have quite different elastic moduli. For instance, the elastic modulus
of the glass is approximately 75GPa which is much greater than that of the polyester matrix of
approximately 5GPa. Therefore, as the volume fraction of fibres is increased, the elastic modulus
of the composite increases linearly. In practice it is difficult to manufacture composite materials
with 60% volume of fibres. While the rule of mixtures has proved adequate for tensile modulus
(E) in the axial direction, the rule of mixtures does not work for either the shear (G) or bulk (k)
moduli.

On the other hand, the stiffness perpendicular to the fibre is quite different than along the fibre as
explained above, in Figure 6.4. If we were to apply a load perpendicular to the fibre axis then the
composite would respond in a very different way.

35
 Figure 6.4: Perpendicular Loading

In a fibrous composite with the applied stress aligned perpendicular to the fibres, the stress is
transferred to the fibres through the fibre matrix interface and both the fibre and the matrix
experience the same stress. Since the matrix and the fibre have different elastic properties, each
will experience a different strain. The strain in the composite will be the combination of the
strain in each material. Since the stress is the same in each phase this is known as the Iso-Stress
Rule of Mixture. Perpendicular load to the fibres causes the fibre and the matrix to stretch in the
same direction. The total deflection, δ, is just the sum of the deflections in the fibre, δ f, and the
matrix, δ m.

d = dm +d f [6.6]

se = e m (1 - V f ) + e f V f [6.7]

s s s
= (1 - V f ) + Vf [6.8]
E Em Ef

We use the Hooke's law to introduce the elastic modulus. Since this is an Iso-stress condition,
stress can be factored out and the stiffness takes the following form:

æ E f Em ö
E =ç ÷ [6.9]
ç (1 - V ) E + V E ÷
è f f f m ø

Note that the stiffness of the composite, measured perpendicular to the fibres increases much
slower than the stiffness measured parallel to the fibres as the volume fraction of the fibres is
increased.

36
 7: REFERENCES
1. Callister, W. D., “Material Science and Engineering, an introduction”, 3rd Edition, John
Wiley & Sons Inc. 1994.
2. Beer, F.P., Johnston, E.R., “Mechanics of Materials”, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill Inc.
1992.
3. Oswald, K. “Technology of Machine Tools”, 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill Ryerson ltd.
1987.
4. Boyes, W.E., Dunlap, D.D., “Fundamental of Tool Design”, 3rd Edition, Published by
Society of Manufacturing Engineers, 1991.
5. Herakovich, C.T., “Mechanics of Fibrous Composites”, John Wiley & Sons Inc. New
York, 1998.

37
 Appendix B

Style: 108

Finish: Untreated

Weave Pattern: Plain

Yarn Description:
Warp: ECD 900 1/2

Fill: ECD 900 1/2

Count: Ends X Picks (in) 60 in X 47 in

Weight: 1.40 oz / yd²

Breaking Strength: (lb / in)

Warp: 70 lb / in

Fill: 40 lb / in

Thickness: 0.0024 in

Roll Length: 1250 yd

38
 Appendix C
Firebird Phantom RTF Electric http://www.hobbyzonesports.com/

Features:
· *HobbyZone’s revolutionary Anti-Crash Technology (ACT™)

· *Proportional FM 3-channel control through throttle, steering and pitch with a 1,300-foot range and digital
trims

· *7-cell 300mAh battery pack for up to 8 minutes of flying fun

· *AC wall adapter and DC auto charger so batteries can be charged wherever it’s convenient

· *Soft nose provides added durability in the case of a hard landing or crash

· *High-performance 180 power motor for faster climbs and speed

· *Instructional video CD and manual

· *Four AA batteries included (for transmitter)

· *Assembles in minutes—everything needed is included

Overview
The Firebird Phantom® is your ticket to the easiest RC flying experience ever. Equipped with HobbyZone’s
revolutionary Anti-Crash Technology (ACT™) for added safety and security, the Firebird Phantom is the ultimate
plane if you have never flown before. You can be up and flying solo on your very first flight. It’s that easy.

At the heart of this simplicity is HobbyZone’s Anti-Crash Technology system that helps prevent crashes from over-
control. If you’ve never flown before, turn the ACT on so the sensors monitor the position of the plane. If the plane
enters a dive and the sensors detect that the plane’s orientation is incorrect, the system will automatically correct
the control inputs and help prevent the plane from crashing, allowing you time to regain control. After you’ve
mastered the basics, you can turn off ACT for complete control and increased maneuverability.

Additionally, the Firebird Phantom has 3 channels with true control of rudder, elevator and throttle, making the
transition to flying more advanced aircraft easier.

Product Specifications
Wingspan: 29.75 in (760mm) Transmitter Range: 1300 feet (400m)

Overall Length: 23.5 in (600mm) Available Frequencies: 6 frequencies on 27MHz

Flying Weight: 8.5 oz (240 g) Smart Trak: Yes

Motor Size: 180 power X-Port: No

Radio: Proportional 3-channel FM with ACT Anti-Crash Technology: Yes

Recommended Battery: 7-cell 8.4V 300mAh Ni- Charger: 12V DC Peak Charger with AC adapter
MH
Pitch: Yes
Approx. Flying Duration: 5-8 minutes
Landing Gear: Yes
Approx. Assembly Time: 5 minutes
Steering: Yes

39