Momentum Transfer Filtration

Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology

Department of Chemical Engineering
FILRTATION
Submitted by:
GUY, Erick Kristonne R.
SANTOS, Amabelle C.
VALDEZ, Loisroi R.
YEPES, Anna Lyn G.
Submitted to:
Engr. Denvert C. Pangayao, PhD
September 16, 2017
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Filtration 3
History 4
Applications 6
Classification of Filtration Equipment 9
According to Driving Forces 9
According to filtration mechanism 12
According to process goal or objective 14
EQUIPMENT 17
Top suspended centrifuge 17
Continuous centrifugal separator 20
Rapid Sand Filter 23
Slow Sand Filter 28
Liquid Clarification 33
Cartridge Filtration 34
Bag Filter 38
Crossflow Filtration 44
Filter Pore Size 47
Discontinuous Pressure Filters 53
Discontinuous Vacuum Filters 57
Filter Press 63
Rotary Vacuum Drum Filter 70
References 75
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FILTRATION
Filtration is the removal of solid particles from a fluid by passing the fluid
through a filtering medium, or septum, on which the solids are deposited.
Industrial filtrations range from simple staining to highly complex separation.
The fluid may be a liquid or gas; the valuable stream from the filter may be the
fluid, or the solids or both.
Fluid flows through a filter

medium by virtue of a pressure
differential across the medium. Filters
are also classified; therefore, into those
that operate with a pressure above
atmospheric on the upstream side and
a vacuum on the downstream side.
Pressures above atmospheric may be
developed by the force of gravity acting on a column of liquid, by pump or blower,
or by centrifugal force.
Most industrial filters are pressure filters, vacuum filters, or centrifugal

separators. They are also either continuous or discontinuous, depending on
whether the discharge of filtered solids is steady or intermittent. During much of
the operating cycle of a discontinuous filter, the flow of a fluid through the device
is continuous, but it must be interrupted periodically to permit discharging the
accumulated solids. In a continuous filter the discharge of both solids and fluid
is uninterrupted as long as the equipment is in operation.
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Basic Operation: Slurry mixture enters the inlet pipe and will pass through
several layers of filters. Small particles will only pass on the filters depending on
the type and size of the pores of the filter. Liquid passed through all series of
filter are drained at the outlet pipe. Large particles will be deposited on the
surface of the filters and may form cake. This cake formation may be drained by
cleaning or by other methods.
HISTORY
During the 19th and 20th centuries, water filters for domestic water
production were generally divided into slow sand filters and rapid sand filters
(also called mechanical filters and American filters). While there were many
small-scale water filtration systems prior to 1800, Paisley, Scotland is generally
acknowledged as the first city to receive filtered water for an entire town. The
Paisley filter began operation in 1804 and was an early type of slow sand filter.
Throughout the 1800s, hundreds of slow sand filters were constructed in the UK
and on the European continent. An intermittent slow sand filter was constructed
and operated at Lawrence, Massachusetts in 1893 due to continuing typhoid
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fever epidemics caused by sewage contamination of the water supply. The first
continuously operating slow sand filter was designed by Allen Hazen for the city
of Albany, New York in 1897. The most comprehensive history of water filtration
was published by Moses N. Baker in 1948 and reprinted in 1981.
Rapid Sand Filtration
In the 1800s, mechanical filtration was an industrial process that

depended on the addition of aluminium sulfate prior to the
filtration process. The filtration rate for mechanical
filtration was typically more than 60 times faster than slow
sand filters, thus requiring significantly less land area.
The first modern mechanical filtration plant in the U.S.
was built at Little Falls, New Jersey for the East Jersey
Water Company. George W. Fuller designed and
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supervised the construction of the plant which went

into operation in 1902. In 1924, John R. Baylis
developed a fixed grid backwash assist system which
consisted of pipes with nozzles that injected jets of
water into the filter material during expansion.
APPLICATION
On an industrial scale, filtration is used by the oil, gas, food and beverage,
and among others. Municipalities use filtration techniques when treating sewage
and purifying water.
Filtration cleans up river streams or other water streams. Furnaces use filtration
to prevent the furnace elements from fouling with particulates. Pneumatic
conveying systems often employ filtration to stop or slow the flow of material that
is transported, through the use of a baghouse.
In Water Treatment
Water purification is the process

of removing undesirable chemicals,
biological contaminants, suspended
solids and gases from water. The goal
is to produce water fit for a specific
purpose. Most water is disinfected for
human consumption (drinking water),
but water purification may also be
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designed for a variety of other purposes, including fulfilling the requirements of

medical, pharmacological, chemical and industrial applications.
The most common type of filter is a rapid sand filter. Water moves vertically
through sand which often has a layer of activated carbon or anthracite coal above
the sand. The top layer removes organic compounds, which contribute to taste
and odor. The space between sand particles is larger than the smallest
suspended particles, so simple filtration is not enough. Most particles pass
through surface layers but are trapped in pore spaces or adhere to sand
particles.
In Oil Refinery
Crude oil treatment. The

recovery of crude oil from
underground requires separation
treatment in two main places: at
the well bottom, and at the well
head. In the very restricted space at
the bottom of the producing well,
solid/liquid filtration is necessary
to prevent the passage up the well
pipe of as much suspended solids as possible. Once the oil reaches the surface,
there is more working space for any required filtration, and the major separation
requirement is to recover the crude oil from its mixture with the produced water.
This means that any emulsion of oil and water will have to be broken before
final oil/water separation. For safety’s sake, a microfilter may be used at the well
head, although the flow rates will be high, and the filters will have to be
automatically (or easily manually) cleaned.
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In Gas Treatment
Natural gas produced in association with crude oil will not normally
present a filtration problem - from solids at least, although it may need
separation from oil or water droplets. However, there is nowadays an increasing
need for the injection of gases into underground strata, to improve oil production
rates. Increasingly this is done directly into the rock formation, either as an
enhanced oil recovery process or as a sequestration method for carbon dioxide
disposal.
The direct injection of gases will require that they be free from suspended solids,
possibly down to the same size level as is the case for water injection, namely
around 2μm. This will be done in the same sort of filters as are used for engine
intakes, using V-block minipleat filter panels, for example.
In Food Industy
Within the dairy industry, four different

membrane filtration processes are used:
microfiltration (MF), ultrafiltration (UF),
nanofiltration (NF), and reverse osmosis (RO).
The figure illustrates which milk and whey
components can be concentrated by means of
each process, depending on the density of the
membrane.
Reverse osmosis (RO). RO is the tightest

possible membrane process in liquid
separation. It concentrates the total solids,
and only water can pass through the
membrane; all dissolved and suspended material is rejected.
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Nanofiltration (NF). NF separates a range of minerals from a liquid, allowing only

the fluid and certain monovalent ions to pass through the membrane.
Ultrafiltration (UF). The ultrafiltration (UF) membrane separates the feed (e.g.
skim milk) into two streams, allowing water, dissolved salts, lactose, and acids
to pass through it in either direction, while retaining (and thereby concentrating)
proteins and fat.
Microfiltration (MF). Microfiltration uses the most open type of membrane, which
is used to separate bacteria, spores, and fat globules from the stream, and for
fractionation of skim milk.
CLASSIFICATION OF FILTRATION EQUIPMENT
1. According to Driving Forces

• Gravity
• Pressure
• Vacuum
• Centrifugation
GRAVITY FILTRATION
In gravity filtration, a suspension of a

solid in a liquid is allowed to flow by gravity
through a porous medium such as a filter
paper. It is also the method of choice to
remove solid impurities from an organic
liquid. The impurity can be a drying agent or
an undesired side product or leftover
reactant. Gravity filtration can be used to collect solid product, although
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generally vacuum filtration is used for this purpose because it is faster.

(Filtration, n.d.)
Additionally, gravity filtration is a physical process for the separation of

solids from liquids. Used for filtering potable water or treated wastewater effluent
in tertiary treatment applications, the underdrain is the heart of every gravity
filter. If the underdrain is well designed, durable and efficient, the filter will
provide many years of continuous service.
Ex. Rapid Sand Filter, Slow Sand Filter
PRESSURE FILTRATION
In pressure filtration, the liquid is forced through

the interstices of the filter by direct atmospheric
pressure, the air being exhausted from the receiver; or
by hydrostatic pressure, obtained either by means of a
high column of the liquid, or by a force pump. By the
first method, called suction filtration, the liquid may be
forced downward through the filter into a receiver; the
precipitate collects on the top of the filter and becomes
a part of the filtering layer. This sometimes causes
difficulty, for the particles of certain precipitates unite
to form an impervious layer. Or the filtrate may be
drawn upwards through the filter, which is suspended
in the liquid to be filtered; thus, clogging does not occur
so easily, as a large part of the precipitate settles to the bottom of the vessel and
does not come in contact with the filter until most of the liquid has been drawn
off.
Ex. Plate and Frame Filter Press, Shell and Leaf Filters
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Vacuum Filtration
Suction filtration is a
filtration technique which
allows for a greater rate of
filtration. Whereas in normal
filtration gravity provides the
force which draws the liquid
through the filter paper, in
suction filtration a pressure
gradient performs this
function. This has the advantage of offering a variable rate depending on the
strength of the pump being used to extract air from the Büchner flask. Care
must be taken not to use such a strong vacuum that the filter paper rips (in
which case all the solid will be lost back into the solvent) or in extreme cases the
glass flask breaks. Suction filtration is used in recrystallisation experiments.
Ex. Rotary Drum Vacuum Filter, Vacuum Belt Filter Press
CENTRIFUGATION
Centrifugal filtration is the removal of a liquid from a slurry by introducing

the slurry into a rapidly rotating basket, where the solids are retained on a
porous screen and the liquid is force out of the
cake by centrifugal action.
The centrifuge works using the

sedimentation principle, where the centripetal
acceleration causes denser substances and
particles to move outward in the radial direction.
At the same time, objects that are less dense are
displaced and move to the center. Inside
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the centrifuge, an oil driven rotor spins at high speeds of up to 7000 rpm. The
resulting gravitational force draws any particles outwards while the purified
substance passes back into your machinery. This way, soot and other
contaminants are continually removed during normal engine operation.
Ex. Continuous Centrifuge Filter, Flat Centrifuge Filter Separator
2. According to filtration mechanism

• Cake
• Crossflow
• Depth
Cake filtration
The filter cake grows in the course of filtration, becomes "thicker" as

particulate matter is being retained. With increasing layer thickness the flow
resistance of the filter cake increases. After a certain time of use the filter cake
has to be removed from the filter, e.g. by backflushing. If this is not
accomplished, the filtration is disrupted because the viscosity of the filter cake
gets too high, thus too little of the mixture to be filtered can pass through the
filter cake and the filter plugs. The specifications of the filter cake dictate the
filtration method of choice.
Crossflow filtration Crossflow filtration is different

from dead-end filtration in which the feed is passed
through a membrane or bed, the solids being trapped in
the filter and the filtrate being released at the other end.
Cross-flow filtration gets its name because the majority of
the feed flow travels tangentially across the surface of the
filter, rather than into the filter. The principal advantage of
this is that the filter cake (which can blind the filter) is
substantially washed away during the filtration process, increasing the length of
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time that a filter unit can be operational. It can be a continuous process, unlike
batch-wise dead-end filtration.
This type of filtration is typically selected for feeds containing a high proportion
of small particle size solids (where the permeate is of most value) because solid
material can quickly block (blind) the filter surface with dead-end filtration.
Industrial examples of this include the extraction of
soluble antibiotics from fermentation liquors.
Depth filtration
Depth filters are the variety of filters that use a porous filtration medium to
retain particles throughout the medium, rather
than just on the surface of the medium. These
filters are commonly used when the fluid to be
filtered contains a high load of particles because,
relative to other types of filters, they can retain a large mass of particles before
becoming clogged.
Depth filtration typified by multiple porous layers with depth are used to capture
the solid contaminants from the liquid phase. Due to the tortuous and channel-
like nature of the filtration medium, the particles are retained throughout the
medium within its structure, as opposed to on the surface. Depth filters pose the
added advantage that they are able to attain a high quantity of particles without
compromising the separation efficiency. Depth filters are commonly
characterised by the sand filter and have the ability to be used with substantially
higher filter rates than in other designs. It is these characteristics that have
cemented the use and popularity of depth filters as an effective medium for
separation. With ongoing advances in process technologies depth filter designs
are continuously adapting and improving to meet the needs of industry.
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• By process goal or objective
The process goal of filtration may be dry solids (the cake is the product of value),
clarified liquid (the filtrate is the product of value), or both. Good solids recovery
is best obtained by cake filtration, while clarification of the liquid is accomplished
by either depth or cake filtration.
CAKE FILTRATION
A filter cake is formed by the substances that are retained on a filter. The filter
cake grows in the course of filtration, becomes "thicker" as particulate matter is
being retained. However, cake filtration in terms of process goal or objective
mainly focuses on the cake as its product. An example is the process of Miscella
Filtration for oils.
For miscella filter (miscella = 20 - 25 % oil and 80 - 75

% hexane) we can use high flow rates which will allow the filters to be
relative small but some will still prefer filtration in the crude oil phase
after the evaporators. The filter cake from the filters is send back to th
e extractor from where it will be mixed with the
rest of the cake follow its way to the DT. (http://dkbi-
activatedbleachingearth.com/miscella-filtration/, 2012).
CLARIFYING FILTRATION
Clarifying filters remove small amounts of solids or

liquid droplets from either liquids or gases. The
particles are trapped inside the filter medium or on
its surfaces. Clarification differs from screening, in
that pores in the filter medium are larger- sometimes
much larger- than the particles to be removed. The
particles are caught by surface forces and immobilized o the surfaces or within
FILTRATION 14
the flow channels, where they reduce the effective diameter of the channels but
usually do not block them completely.
The usual objective of clarifying filtration is to separate solids at a very low

concentration from a liquid stream. The liquid may be drinking (potable) water,
wine, beer, etc. and it is usually the liquid which is the valuable product. The
techniques used in clarification processes include: deep-bed, precoat, candle and
cartridge filtration all of which involve capture of particles inside the porous
mass of the filter. Such techniques produce clearer filtrates than those obtained
in clarification by sedimentation.
Here is an example of Direct

Filtration equipment:
CROSS FLOW FILTRATION
Cross flow filtration (CFF, also

known as tangential flow filtration
TFF) is a filtration technique in
which the starting solution passes
tangentially along the surface of
the filter. A pressure difference
across the filter drives components
that are smaller than the pores
through the filter. Components
larger than the filter pores are
retained and pass along the
membrane surface, flowing back to the feed reservoir.
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Solution that is
directed to the
membrane surface
is called the feed.
Solution that
passes along the
membrane surface
and back to the
feed reservoir is
the retentate. This
solution is usually pumped back to the feed reservoir and recirculated. Solution
that passes across the membrane is the permeate.
The principle of crossflow filtration can be applied to concetrate suspensions of

fine particles or colloidal material or to fractionate solutions of macromolecules.
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EQUIPMENT
THE TOP-SUSPENDED CENTRIFUGE
The top-suspended centrifuge is

a batch centrifuge where the basket,
lined with filter medium, is held at a
lower end of a free swinging vertical
shaft driven. The perforated basket
separates the cake from the liquid
removed by centrifugal force. The
perforated baskets range from 750 –
1,200 mm (30 – 48 in.) in diameter and
from 18 to 30 in. deep and turn at
speeds between 600 to 1800 rpm.
PARTS
1. Motor – it holds the vertical shaft that holds and spins the basket during
the process.
2. Feed Inlet - entrance of the slurry mixture.
3. Liquor Outlet – exit of the liquid or the filtrate.
4. Screen or Filter – the medium to filter solids from liquid or liquid to liquid.
5. Perforated Basket – a wall that has holes in it that enables the filtrate to
escape from the solids, which then stops at the casing.
6. Casing – is a wall that prevents the filtrate to escape from the sides. The
casing also provides guide in where the solids it to be discharged.
7. Wash Inlet – solvent or water discharge that will help to dissolve the
remaining soluble components in the cake.
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8. Adjustable Unloader Knife – this cuts the cake formation in the lining of
the filter. It removes the cake and drops it into the solid discharge outlet.
MECHANISM
Feed slurry enters the rotating basket through an inlet pipe or chute.
Liquor drains through the filter medium into the casing and out a discharge pipe:
the solids form a cake 50 to 150 mm (2 – 6 in.) thick in the basket. Wash liquid
may be sprayed through the solids to remove soluble material. The cake is then
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spun as dry as possible, sometimes at a higher speed than during the loading
and washing steps. The motor is shut off and the basket nearly stopped by means
of a brake. With the basket slowly turning at perhaps 30 – 50 rpm, the solids are
discharged by cutting them out with an unloader knife, which peels off the filter
medium and drops it through an opening in the basket floor. The filter medium
is rinsed clean, the motor turned on, and the cycle repeated.
The typical operating cycles of a batch centrifuge are composed of (1)

accelerate to loading speed, (2) loading of slurry, (3) accelerate to full speed, (4)
washing of cake, (5) spin to dry, (6) decelerate to unloading speed, and (7)
unloading of cake.
APPLICATION
Top-suspended centrufuges are used extensively in sugar refining, where

they operate on short cycle of 2 – 3 minutes per load and produce up to 5 ton
per hour or crystals per machine. The massecuite/slurry enters the preliminary
separation stage of the basket, in which already a large part of the mother liquor
is separated from the crystals (syrup). The sugar crystals are held back on the
screen. As the diameter increases, the centrifugal force increases and the
separating effect also increases. The remaining mother liquor is washed from the
crystals by the addition of water through the jets installed in the centrifuges. The
right quantity of water is extremely important to avoid unnecessarily dissolving
of the crystals.
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CONTINUOUS CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATOR
A continuous centrifugal
separator is a continuous type
centrifuge rotating on a vertical axis
and can be used for a 2-phase
liquid/solid separation or a 3-phase
liquid/liquid/solid separation. Usually
used when there are fines or soft solids
approximately 1% -10% by volume.
Separation takes place in the bowl
assembly. The feed to the centrifuge is
continuous and not interrupted.
A continuous centrifugal
separator for coarse crystals is the
reciprocating conveyor centrifuge. The gentle acceleration of the feel slurry and
deceleration of the discharged solids minimize breakage of the crystals.
Multistage units that minimize the distance of travel of the crystals in each stage
are used with solid cakes that do not “convey” properly in a single-stage machine.
Reciprocating centrifuges are made with baskets ranging in diameter from 300
to 1200 mm (12 to 48 in.). They dewater and wash 0.3 to 0.25 tons/h of solids
containing no more than 10 percent by weight of materials finer than 100- mesh.
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PARTS
1. Reciprocating Piston Rod – holds the piston so that it can move

periodically.
2. Feed Inlet - entrance of the slurry mixture.
3. Liquor Outlet – exit of the liquid or the filtrate.
4. Funnel – the purpose of the funnel is to accelerate the feed slurry gently
and smoothly.
5. Perforated Basket – a wall that has holes in it that enables the filtrate to
escape from the solids, which then stops at the casing.
6. Casing or Housing – is a wall that prevents the filtrate to escape from the
sides. The casing also provides guide in where the solids are collected.
7. Wash Inlet or Nozzle – solvent or water discharge that will help to dissolve
the remaining soluble components in the cake.
8. Water Discharge – it is where the water used for cleaning is removed.
9. Piston – this presses the cake and remove crystals in the filtrate.
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MECHANISM
Feed enters the small end of the funnel from a stationary pipe at the axis
of rotation of the basket. It travels toward the large end of the funnel, gaining
speed as it goes, and when it spills off the funnel onto the wall of the basket, it
is moving in the same direction as wall and at very nearly the same speed. Liquor
flows through the basket wall, which may be covered with a woven metal cloth.
A layer of crystals 25 to 75 mm (1 to 3 in,) thick is formed. This layer is removed
over the filtering surface by a reciprocating pusher. Each stroke of the pusher
moves the crystals a few inches toward the lip of the basket; on the return stroke
a space is opened on the filtering surface in which more cake can be deposited.
When the crystals reach the lip of the basket, they fly outward into a large casing
and drop into a collector chute. Filtrate and any was liquid that is sprayed on
the crystals during their travel leave the casing through separate outlets.
APPLICATION
After crystallization the drugs are separated from the mother liquor by
centrifugation. For example traces of mother liquor is separated from aspirin
crystals by centrifugation method. During manufacturing they remain in
colloidal dispersion in water. By normal methods of filtration it is difficult to
separate the colloid particles. In those cases centrifugal methods are used.
Insulin is purified from other precipitates of protein materials by centrifugation.
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RAPID SAND FILTER
The rapid sand filter or rapid

gravity filter is a type of filter used
in water purification and is commonly
used in municipal drinking water
facilities as part of a multiple-stage
treatment system.
The first modern rapid sand filtration plant was designed and built
by George W. Fuller in Little Falls, New Jersey. Fuller's filtration plant went into
operation in 1920 and its success was responsible for the change to this
technology in the U.S Rapid sand filters were widely used in large municipal
water systems by the 1920s, because they required smaller land areas compared
to slow sand filters.
Today a combination of flocculation

and coagulation, sedimentation, filtration
and disinfection is the most widely
applied water treatment technology for
treating large quantities of drinking water
in industrialized countries.
Rapid sand filtration, in contrast

to slow sand filtration, is a purely
physical treatment process. As the water
flows through several layers of coarse-
grained sand and gravel, relatively large
particles are held back safely. However,
RSFs never provide safe drinking water without adequate pre-treatment and
FILTRATION 23
final disinfection. Usually, coagulation and flocculation and chlorination are

applied for that purpose.
DESIGN AND OPERATION
The major parts of a gravity rapid sand filter are:
• Chamber: filter tank or filter box

• Filter media (sand)
• Gravel support
• Under drain system
• Wash water troughs
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The filter chamber is

usually made out of reinforced
concrete, filled with sand and
gravel to the height of 1.5-2
metres. The water is supplied to
the top of the sand-bed and
filtered as it flows through the layers of graded sand and gravel. A system of
perforated pipes on the bottom
drains the chamber (WHO 1996).
The filter chamber can be
constructed as open tanks (rapid
gravity filters) or closed tanks
(pressure filters).
This filtering process is determined by two basic physical principles. First,

relatively large suspended particles get stuck between the sand grains as they
pass the filter medium (mechanical straining). Second, smaller particles adhere
to the surface of the sand grains caused by the effect of the van der Waals forces
(physical adsorption). A chemical filter-aid (i.e. coagulant or flocculant) might be
added to promote additional adhesion (SCHMITT & SHINAULT 1996).
In the course of these processes, more and more particles accumulate in

the filter medium, increasingly causing clogged filters and decreased
performance. Initial filtering performance can be re-achieved through a cleaning
of the filter bed. This is usually conducted through backwashing: the flow of
water is reversed, so that treated water flows backwards through the filter. The
sand is re-suspended and the solid matter is separated in the surface water.
Often, air is injected additionally to support the cleaning process (WHO 1996).
As soon as most particles are washed out and the backward flowing water is
clear, the filter is put back to operation. Clearly, relatively large quantities
FILTRATION 25
of sludge are generated through backwashing and require some form of

treatment before discharge into the environment (UNEP 1998).
Moderately effective for: Somewhat effective for: Not effective for:

- Turbidity - Odour, taste - Viruses
- Iron, manganese - Bacteria - Fluoride
- Organic matter - Arsenic
- Salts
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE COSTS
The cost of energy required to operate a rapid sand filter and the costs for
treatment of generated sludge during backwashing may add significant costs
(UNEP 1998). Although operation is usually conducted automatically, frequent
inspection by a well-educated worker is necessary to ensure proper treatment.
Maintenance costs will include repairs of the filters and replacement of
equipment. In general, construction, operation and maintenance costs for rapid
sand filters are significantly higher than costs for slow sand filters (UNEP 1998).
Working Principle After being pre-treated (coagulation-

flocculation), freshwater flows through a sand- and
gravel bed. Hereby, particles are removed through a
physical filtering process
Capacity/Adequacy Large urban areas where land area is limited and
chemicals, electricity and skilled labour are easily
available
Performance 4’000 – 12’000 litres per hour per square metre of
surface (WHO 1996); generally only removes solids and
suspended particles; requires pre-
FILTRATION 26
treatment (coagulation-flocculation) and post-

treatment (disinfection)
Costs In general, construction, operation and
maintenance costs for rapid sand filters are
significantly higher than costs for slow sand
filters(UNEP 1998)
Self-help Rather low, highly technical facilities, chemicals
Compatibility and energy required
O&M Very frequent cleaning (every 24 - 72h) and skilled
caretakers required
Reliability Highly reliable if properly operated
Main strength Rapid and efficient in removing turbidity
Main weakness Not effective for the removal of bacteria, pre-
treatment (e.g. coagulation/flocculation) and
final disinfection (e.g. chlorine) are therefore needed
ADVANTAGES
• Highly effective for removal of turbidity (usually < 0.1-1 NTU)

• High filter rate (4’000 – 12’000 litres per hour per square metre of surface),
small land requirements
• No limitations regarding initial turbidity levels (if coagulant or flocculant
is available and correctly applied)
• Cleaning time (backwashing) only takes several minutes and filters can be
put back into operation instantly
DISADVANTAGES
• Not effective in removing bacteria, viruses, fluoride, arsenic, salts, odour

and organic matter (requires pre- and post-treatment)
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• High capital and operational costs

• Frequent cleaning (backwashing) required (every 24-72h)
• Skilled supervision essential (e.g. for flow control and dosage of
disinfectant)
• High energy input required
• Backwashing water and sludge needs treatment; sewage system or
stabilization ponds required
SLOW SAND FILTER
Slow sand filtration is a type of centralised or semi-centralised water

purification system. A well-designed and properly maintained slow sand
filter (SSF) effectively removes turbidity and pathogenic organisms through
various biological, physical and chemical processes in a single treatment step.
Only under the prevalence of a significantly high degree of turbidity or algae-
contamination, pre-treatment measures (e.g. sedimentation) become necessary.
Slow sand filtration systems are characterised by a high reliability and rather
low lifecycle costs. Moreover, neither construction nor operation and
maintenance require more than basic skills. Hence, slow sand filtrationis a
promising filtration method for small to medium-sized, rural communities with
a fairly good quality of the initial surface water source. As stated by the WHO,
slow sand filtration provides a simple but highly effective and considerably cheap
tool that can contribute to a sustainable water management system.
Slow sand filtration has been an effective water treatment process for
preventing the spread of gastrointestinal diseases for over 150 years, having been
used first in Great Britain and later in other European countries (LOGSDON
2002). SFFs are still used in London and were relatively common in Western
Europe until recently and are still common elsewhere in the world. The move
away from slow sand filtration in industrialized countries has largely been a
function of rising land prices and labour costs, which increased the cost
FILTRATION 28
of SSF produced water. Where this is not the case, SSFs still represent a cost-
effective method for water treatment (WHO n.y.). Since these conditions prevail
in many developing countries, it is a very promising technique for water
purification and, therefore, the development of a sustainable water system.
DESIGN AND OPERATION
The basic principle of the

process is very simple.
Contaminated freshwater flows
through a layer of sand, where it not
only gets physically filtered but
biologically treated. Hereby, both
sediments and pathogens are
removed. This process is based on the
ability of organisms to
remove pathogens. In this context, it is important to distinguish slow and rapid
sand filtration. The difference between the two is not simply a matter of
the filtration speed, but of the underlying concept of the treatment process. Slow
sand filtration is essentially a biological process whereas rapid sand filtration is
a physical treatment process (WHO n.y.).
Although the physical removal of sediments is an important part of the

purification process, the relevant aspect is the biological filtration. The top layers
of the sand become biologically active by the establishment of a microbial
community on the top layer of the sand substrate, also referred to as
‘schmutzdecke’. These microbes usually come from the source water and
establish a community within a matter of a few days. The fine sand and
slow filtrationrate facilitate the establishment of this microbial community. The
majority of the community are predatory bacteria that feed on water-borne
microbes passing through the filter (WHO n.y.). Hence, the underlying principle
FILTRATION 29
of the SSF is equivalent to the bio-sand filtration. While the former is applied to
semi-centralised water treatment, the latter mainly serves household purposes.
Structure
As the process itself, the basic structure is very elementary. Essentially,

only the filter chamber, a type of reservoir and pipes are required. The filter
chamber can either be constructed as an open or as a closed box. Depending on
climatic and other factors, the one or the other is more reasonable (e.g. cold
climate requires a closed box since low temperatures decrease the performance
of the process).
Once a SSF facility is built, only clean sand is required for occasional
replacement. The sand layers are put in gradually according to their grain sizes:
rather coarse grains at the bottom and fine grains at the top. The sand-bed is
usually covered with one meter of supernatant water (LOGSDON 2003). As the
process of biological filtration requires a fair amount of time in order to purify
the water sufficiently, SSFs usually operate at slow flow rates between 0.1 – 0.3
m3/h per square metre of surface (WHO n.y.). The water thus remains in the
space above the medium for several hours and larger particles are allowed to
separate and settle (see also sedimentation). It then passes through the sand-
bed where it goes through a number of purification processes (HUISMAN 1974).
FILTRATION 30
The water requires some kind of physical pressure in order to pass the
drag created by the sand layers. In terms of construction, two different types are
feasible. The pressure can be built up either by pumps or gravity. While pump
systems need some type of engine and a more elaborate construction, gravity
systems work without any highly technological means (HUISMAN 1974).
Highly effective for Somewhat Not effective for

effective for
- Bacteria - Odour, Taste - Salts
- Protozoa - Iron, Manganese - Fluoride
- Viruses - Organic Matter - Trihalomethane (THM)
- Turbidity - Arsenic Precursors
- Heavy metals (Zn, Cu, - Majority of chemicals
Cd, Pb)
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE COSTS
Operational costs are incurred almost solely from the cleaning of the filter
beds. No chemicals or other materials are needed for the process. No compressed
air, mechanical stirring, or high-pressure water is needed for backwashing.
There is thus a saving not only in the provision of plant but also in the cost of
fuel or electricity (HUISMAN 1974).
At a Glance
Working Principle Freshwater flows through a sand-bed with a thin

layer populated by microorganisms. Hereby, the
water gets purified through various biological,
physical and chemical processes.
Capacity/Adequacy Primarily small, rural communities due to large land
requirements (WATER FOR THE WORLD n.y.)
FILTRATION 31
Performance Removes turbidity, protozoa, pathogens, viruses

and heavy metals. 100–300 litres per hour per square
metre of surface (HUISMAN 1974)
Costs 100–300 USD per square metre (BRIKKE & BREDERO
2003)
Self-help Very high
Compatibility
O&M Simple, low costs
Reliability Very high if properly operated and maintained
Main strength Simplicity; can be constructed, operated and
maintained by the community; often no need for
pumps/electricity
Main weakness Large land requirements; excessive turbidity (>30 NTU)
in the fresh water can cause the filter to clog rapidly
(BRIKKE & BREDERO 2003)
ADVANTAGES
• Very effective removal of bacteria, viruses, protozoa, turbidity and heavy

metals in contaminated fresh water
• Simplicity of design and high self-help compatibility: construction,
operation and maintenance only require basic skills and knowledge and
minimal effort
• If constructed with gravity flow only, no (electrical) pumps required
• Local materials can be used for construction
• High reliability and ability to withstand fluctuations in water quality
• No necessity for the application of chemicals
• Easy to install in rural, semi-urban and remote areas, Simplicity of
design and operation
FILTRATION 32
• Long lifespan (estimated >10 years)
DISADVANTAGES
• Minimal quality and constant flow of fresh water required: turbidity (<10-
20 NTU) and low algae contamination. Otherwise, pre-treatment may be
necessary
• Cold temperatures lower the efficiency of the process due to a decrease in
biological activity
• Loss of productivity during the relatively long filter skimming and ripening
periods
• Very regular maintenance essential; some basic equipment or ready-made
test kits required to monitor some physical and chemical parameters
• Possible need for changes in attitude (belief that water that flows through
a green and slimy filter is safe to drink without the application of
chemicals), Chemical compounds (e.g. fluorine) are not removed
• Natural organic matter and other DBPs precursors not removed (may be
formed if chlorine is applied for final disinfection)
• May require electricity
• Requirement of a large land area, large quantities of filter media and
manual labor for cleaning, Low filtration rate
Liquid Clarification
Clarifiying filters for liquids include the gravity-bed filters for water treatment
and a variety of cartridge filters. Some cake filters, especially tank filters and
precoat filters are also used extensively for clarification. In a batch unit, the
filtration rate and soilds removal efficiency are typicallt almost constant for a
considerable period of operation, but eventually the soild content of the effluent
rises to an unacceptable value and backwashing of the filter becomes necessary.
FILTRATION 33
CARTRIDGE FILTRATION
Cartridge filters are a very important means of effecting a clarification and have
found use in a wide variety of industries. Advances in membrane manufacture
have enabled cartridge suppliers to use filtration media capable of retaining all
particulates down to 0.1 μm in diameter, and with significant removal of colloidal
material below this size. Cartridge filters can be classified into three groups:
depth, surface and edge, with additional subdivision.
A typical cartridge filter is a series of thin metal disks 75 to 250mm(3 to 10 in)

in diameter set in a vertical stack with very narrow uniform spaces between
them. The disks are carried on a vertical hollow shaft and fit into a closed
cylindrical casing. Liquid is admitted to the casing under pressure. It flows
inward between the disks to openings in the central shaft and out through the
FILTRATION 34
top of the casing. Solids are trapped between the disks and remain in the filter.
Periodically, the accumulated solids must be dislodged from the cartridge.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages Disadvantages
Save on water – no backwashing can More air pressure when compressed.
result in saving thousands of litres
per year.
Low maintenance – most only need More difficult of reverse air.
cleaning once or twice per season.
Easy to install. There is less plumbing Less choice of filter material.
required because there is no
backwash piping required.
They generally take up less room. Not be as efficient when filtering larger
particulate at higher concentrations.
Cartridge filters are generally
regarded as filtering down to 30
microns. However, over a short period
of time they can be filtering down to
5-10 micron.
Very effective against very small
contaminants, at a concentration of
less than 50 ppm.
FILTRATION 35
Gas Cleaning
Filters for gas cleaning include pad filters for atmospheric dust and granular
beds and bag filters for process dusts. Air is cleaned by passing it through pads
of cellulose pulp, cotton, felt, glass fiber or metal screening; the pad material
may be dry or coated with a viscous oil to act as a dust holder. For light duty the
pads are disposable but in large-sclae gas ceaning they are frequently rinsed and
recoated with oil.
Granular bed filters contain stationary or moving beds of granules. A bag filter
contains one or more large bags of felt or thin woven fabric, mounted inside a
metal housing. Dust-laden gas usually enters the bag at the bottom and passes
outward, leaving the dust behind. Efficiencies are typically 99% even with
exteremmely fine partciles – far finer than the openings in the bag material.
FILTRATION 36
• Principle of Clarification
If the solid particles being removed completely plug the pores of the filter
medium and the rate of plugging is constant with time, the mechanism is known
as dierct sieving. Direct sieving is rarely encountered. Much more commonly the
particles partially block the pores, giving a gradual reduction in pore size; this is
called standard blocking.
Much more commonly, especially in cleaning gases, the separation is by

impingement of the particles against a solid surface placed in the flowing stream.
The particles, because of their inertia, are expected to cross the streamlines of
the fluid and strike and adhere to the solid, from which they can subsequently
be removed.
FILTRATION 37
BAG FILTER
A baghouse (BH, B/H), bag filter (BF) or fabric filter (FF) is an air pollution
control device that removes particulates out of air or gas released from
commercial processes. Power plants, steel mills, pharmaceutical producers, food
manufacturers, chemical producers and other industrial companies often use
baghouses to control emission of air pollutants. Baghouses came into
widespread use in the late 1970s after the invention of high-temperature fabrics
(for use in the filter media) capable of withstanding temperatures over 350 °F.
Most baghouses use long, cylindrical bags (or tubes) made of woven or felted
fabric as a filter medium. (For applications where there is relatively low dust
loading and gas temperatures are 250 °F or less, pleated, nonwoven cartridges
are sometimes used as filtering media instead of bags.) Dust-laden gas or air
enters the baghouse through hoppers (large funnel-shaped containers used for
storing and dispensing particulate) and is directed into the baghouse
compartment. The gas is drawn through the bags, either on the inside or the
outside depending on cleaning method, and a layer of dust accumulates on the
filter media surface until air can no longer move through it. When sufficient
pressure drop (delta P) occurs, the cleaning process begins. Cleaning can take
place while the baghouse is online (filtering) or is offline (in isolation). When the
compartment is clean, normal filtering resumes.
Types of Baghouses
• Mechanical shakers
In mechanical-shaker baghouses, tubular filter bags are fastened onto a

cell plate at the bottom of the baghouse and suspended from horizontal
beams at the top. Dirty gas enters the bottom of the baghouse and passes
through the filter, and the dust collects on the inside surface of the bags.
FILTRATION 38
Cleaning a mechanical-shaker baghouse is accomplished by shaking the

top horizontal bar from which the bags are suspended. Vibration
produced by a motor-driven shaft and cam creates waves in the bags to
shake off the dust cake.
• Reverse air (R/A)
In reverse-air baghouses, the bags are fastened onto a cell plate at the
bottom of the baghouse and suspended from an adjustable hanger frame
at the top. Dirty gas flow normally enters the baghouse and passes
through the bag from the inside, and the dust collects on the inside of the
bags.
Reverse-air baghouses are compartmentalized to allow continuous

operation. Before a cleaning cycle begins, filtration is stopped in the
compartment to be cleaned. Bags are cleaned by injecting clean air into
the dust collector in a reverse direction, which pressurizes the
compartment. The pressure makes the bags collapse partially, causing
FILTRATION 39
the dust cake to crack and fall into the hopper below. At the end of the
cleaning cycle, reverse airflow is discontinued, and the compartment is
returned to the main stream.
The flow of the dirty gas helps maintain the shape of the bag. However, to
prevent total collapse and fabric chafing during the cleaning cycle, rigid
rings are sewn into the bags at intervals.
Space requirements for a reverse-air baghouse are comparable to those

of a shaker baghouse; however, maintenance needs are somewhat
greater.
FILTRATION 40
• Pulse jet (aka Reverse Jet)
In reverse-pulse-jet baghouses, individual bags are supported by a metal

cage (filter cage), which is fastened onto a cell plate at the top of the
baghouse. Dirty gas enters from the bottom of the baghouse and flows
from outside to inside the bags. The metal cage prevents collapse of the
bag.
Bags are cleaned by a short burst of compressed air injected through a

common manifold over a row of bags. The compressed air is accelerated
by a venturi nozzle mounted at the reverse-jet baghouse top of the bag.
Since the duration of the compressed-air burst is short (0.1s), it acts as
a rapidly moving air bubble, traveling through the entire length of the
bag and causing the bag surfaces to flex. This flexing of the bags breaks
the dust cake, and the dislodged dust falls into a storage hopper below.
Reverse-pulse-jet dust collectors can be operated continuously and

cleaned without interruption of flow because the burst of compressed air
is very small compared with the total volume of dusty air through the
collector. Because of this continuous-cleaning feature, reverse-jet dust
collectors are usually not compartmentalized.
The short cleaning cycle of reverse-jet collectors reduces recirculation

and redeposit of dust. These collectors provide more complete cleaning
and reconditioning of bags than shaker or reverse-air cleaning methods.
Also, the continuous-cleaning feature allows them to operate at higher
air-to-cloth ratios, so the space requirements are lower.
This cleaning system works with the help of digital sequential timer
attached to the fabric filter. this timer indicates the solenoid valve to
inject the air to the blow pipe.
FILTRATION 41
FILTRATION 42
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
It is simple, continuous cleaning, has a high resistance which is about
resistance stability, high filtration 600-1200P
speed, no internal moving parts,
simple design and other
characteristics, is a high
performance bag filter.
High removal efficiency can trap It is easy to stoppage the bags and
more dust 0.3UM so dusty gas the operating life is about 3 to 5
purification to 15mg / m3 or less. years.
can capture electrostatic
precipitator dust is difficult to
recover, and to some extent,
nitrites, sulfides and other
compounds can be collected
changes in load adaptability,
especially suitable trapping fine
dry dust, collect dry dust to
facilitate the handling and
recycling.
baghouse collection containing
explosive or dusty gas with a spark
higher security.
FILTRATION 43
CROSSFLOW FILTRATION
Cross flow filtration (CFF, also known as tangential flow filtration TFF) is a
filtration technique in which the starting solution passes tangentially along the
surface of the filter. A pressure difference across the filter drives components
that are smaller than the pores through the filter. Components larger than the
filter pores are retained and pass along the membrane surface, flowing back to
the feed reservoir.
Solution that is directed to the membrane surface is called the feed. Solution
that passes along the membrane surface and back to the feed reservoir is the
retentate. This solution is usually pumped back to the feed reservoir and
recirculated. Solution that passes across the membrane is the permeate.
The principle of crossflow filtration can be applied to concetrate suspensions of

fine particles or colloidal material or to fractionate solutions of macromolecules.
FILTRATION 44
• CFF filters use membranes exclusively, while conventional filtration may

use membranes, paper, or other materials such as glass fiber to separate
components in a feed stream.
• CFF supports recirculation of the retentate solution. In normal flow
filtration, the feed usually passes once through the filter.
• In a CFF system, the retentate remains as a solution and may be
recovered directly. Retentate recovery is relatively uncommon in normal
flow filtration and requires resuspension of material collected on the filter.
System Configuration
Generalized scheme for the basic configuration of a Cross flow System.
• A feed pump maintains the flow of feed into the filter.
FILTRATION 45
• A retentate pump may be used to maintain and control flow of retentate back
into the feed reservoir.
• A permeate pump may be used to control flow of permeate from the filter. The
permeate pump, if used, should not create negative pressure on the permeate
side of the filter (i.e., the pump flow rate must be less than the spontaneous
permeate flux).
• A transfer pump may be used in washing and diafiltration applications to add

liquid (usually buffer) to the feed reservoir at a controlled rate.
Filter Configurations
Cartridge filters (often called hollow fiber filters): the membrane forms a set
of parallel hollow fibers. The feed stream passes through the lumen of the fibers
and the permeate is collected from outside the fibers. Cartridges are
characterized in terms of fiber length, lumen diameter and number of fibers, as
well as filter pore size.
Cassette filters: several flat sheets of membrane are held apart from each other
and from the cassette housing by support screens. The feed stream passes into
the space between two sheets and permeate is collected from the opposite side
of the sheets. Cassettes are characterized in terms of flow path length and
FILTRATION 46
channel height, as well as membrane pore size. The channel height is determined
by the thickness of the support screen
Filter Pore Size
FILTRATION 47
➢ Microfiltration filters
Filters with pore sizes of 0.1 μm and larger are classified as microfilters.
In CFF applications the pore size is usually in the range 0.1 to 1 μm.
These membranes are used for separation of cultured cells from the
growth medium (broth), as well as for removal of particulate material in
numerous biopharmaceutical processes.
➢ Ultrafiltration filters
Ultrafiltration membranes have pore sizes in the range 20 to 100 nm, and
are generally characterized in terms of the nominal molecular weight
cutoff (NMWC), which is the molecular weight of the largest globular
protein that can pass through the membrane. NMWC values range from
1 to 100 kD (kiloDalton). These filters are used for concentrating and
FILTRATION 48
fractionating protein streams, virus concentration, desalting and buffer

exchange. The objective of most ultrafiltration processes is to retain
soluble macromolecules such as proteins above a certain size, while
allowing smaller molecules such as salts, amino acids, and mono- or
disaccharides to pass through the membrane.
FILTRATION 49
➢ Nanofiltration
Nanofiltration (NF) is a relatively recent membrane filtration process used

most often with low total dissolved solids water such as surface water and
fresh groundwater, with the purpose of softening
(polyvalent cation removal) and removal of disinfection by-product
precursors such as natural organic matter and synthetic organic
matter. Nano filtration is a technique that has prospered over the past few
years. Today, nano filtration is mainly applied in drinking water
purification process steps, such as water softening, decolouring and
micropollutant removal.
During industrial processes nano filtration is applied for the removal of
specific components, such as colouring agents.
Nano filtration is a pressure related process, during which separation
takes place, based on molecule size. Membranes bring about the
separation. The technique is mainly applied for the removal of organic
substances, such as micro pollutants and multivalent ions. Nano
filtration membranes have a moderate retention for univalent salts.
FILTRATION 50
➢ Reverse Osmosis
Reverse Osmosis is based upon the fundamental pursuit for balance. Two fluids
containing different concentrations of dissolved solids that come in contact with
each other will mix until the concentration is uniform. When these two fluids are
separated by a semi permeable membrane (which lets the fluid flow through,
while dissolved solids stay behind), a fluid containing a lower concentration will
move through the membrane into the fluids containing a higher concentration
of dissolved solids. (Binnie e.a., 2002)
After a while the water level will be higher on one side of the membrane. The
difference in height is called the osmotic pressure.
By pursuing pressure upon the fluid column, which exceeds the osmotic
pressure, one will get a reversed effect. Fluids are pressed back through the
membrane, while dissolved solids stay behind in the column.
FILTRATION 51
Using this technique, a larger part the salt content of the water can be removed.
Reverse osmosis can remove many types of dissolved and suspended species
from water, including bacteria, and is used in both industrial processes and the
production of potable water. The result is that the solute is retained on the
pressurized side of the membrane and the pure solvent is allowed to pass to the
other side. To be "selective", this membrane should not allow large molecules or
ions through the pores (holes), but should allow smaller components of the
solution (such as solvent molecules) to pass freely.
FILTRATION 52
DISCONTINUOUS PRESSURE FILTERS. Pressure filters can apply a large

pressure differential across the septum to give economically rapid filtration with
viscous liquids or fine solids. The most common types of pressure filters are
filter presses and shell-and-leaf filters.
Filter press. A filter press contains a set of plates designed to provide a series
of chambers or compartments in which solids may collect. The plates are covered
with a filter medium such as canvas. Slurry is admitted to each compartment
under pressure; liquor passes through the canvas and out a discharge pipe,
leaving a wet cake of solids behind.
The plates of a filter press may be square or circular, vertical or horizontal.

Most commonly the compartments for solids are formed by recesses in the faces
of molded polypropylene plates. In other designs, they are formed as in the plate-
and-frame press, in which square plates 6 to 78 in. (150 mm to 2m) on a side
alternate with open frames. The plates are ¼ to 2 in. (6 to 50mm) thick, the
frames ¼ to 8 in. (6 to 200 mm) thick. Plates and frames sit vertically in a metal
rack, with cloth covering the face of each plate, and are squeezed tightly together
by a screw or a hydraulic ram. Slurry enters at one end of the assembly of plates
and frames. It passes through a channel running lengthwise through one corner
of the assembly. Auxiliary channels carry slurry from the main inlet channel
into each frame. Here the solids are deposited on the cloth-covered faces of the
plates. Liquor passes through the cloth, down grooves or corrugations in the
plate faces, and out of the press.
After assembly of the press, slurry is admitted from a pump or pressurized

tank under a pressure of 3 to 10 atm. Filtration is continued until liquor no
longer flows out the discharge or the filtration pressure suddenly rises. These
occur when the frames are full of solid and no more slurry can enter. The press
is then said to be jammed. Wash liquid may then be admitted to remove soluble
impurities from the solids, after which the cake may be blown with steam or air
FILTRATION 53
to displace as much residual liquid as possible. The press is then opened, and
the cake of solids removed from the filter medium and dropped to a conveyor or
storage bin. In may filter presses these operations are carried out automatically.
Thorough washing in a filter press may take several hours, for the wash
liquid tends to follow the easiest paths and to bypass tightly packed parts of
cake. If the cake is less dense in some parts than in others, as is usually the
case, much of the wash liquid will be ineffective. If washing must be exceedingly
good, it may be best to reslurry a partly washed cake with a large volume of wash
liquid and refilter it or to use a shell-and-leaf filter, which permits more effective
washing than a plate-and-frame press.
Shell-and-leaf filters. For filtering under higher pressures than are possible in
a plate-and-frame press, to economize on labor, or where more effective washing
of the cake is necessary, a shell-and-leaf filter may be used. In the horizontal-
tank design, a set of vertical leaves is held on a retractable rack.
FILTRATION 54
FILTRATION 55
AUTOMATIC BELT FILTER. The Larox belt filter is a discontinuous pressure

filter that separates, compresses, washes, and automatically discharges the
cake. Filtration takes place in from 2 to 20 horizontal chambers, set on above
the other. A belt of filter cloth passes through the filter chambers in turn. With
the belt held stationary, each chamber is filled with solids during the filtration
cycle. High-pressure water is then pumped behind a flexible diaphragm in the
chamber ceiling, squeezing the cake and mechanically expressing some of the
liquid. With the diaphragm released, was water may be passed through the cake
and the cake recompressed by the diaphragm if desired. Finally, air is blown
through the cake to remove additional liquid.
The chambers are then opened hydraulically so that the belt may be moved
a distance somewhat greater than the length of one chamber. This action
discharges cake from both sides of the filter. At the same time, part of the belt
passes between spray nozzles for washing. After all the cake has been
discharged, the belt is stopped, the chambers are closed, and the filtration cycle
is repeated. All the steps are actuated automatically by impulses from a control
panel. Filter sizes range from 0.8m2 (8.6 ft2) to 31.5m2 (339 ft2). The overall
cycle is relatively short, typically 10 to 30 min, so that these filters can be used
in continuous processes.
FILTRATION 56
DISCONTINUOUS VACUUM FILTERS. Pressure filters are usually

discontinuous; vacuum filters are usually continuous. A discontinuous vacuum
filter, however, is sometimes a useful tool. A vacuum nutsch is little more than
a large Buchner funnel, 1 to 3m (3 to 10 ft) in diameter and forming a layer of
solids 100 to 300 mm (4 to 12 in.) thick. Because of its simplicity, a nutsch can
readily be made of corrosion-resistant material and is valuable where
experimental batches of a variety of corrosive materials are to be filtered.
Nutsches are uncommon in large-scale processes because of the labor involved
in digging out the cake; they are, however, useful as pressure filters in
combination filter-dryers for certain kinds of batch operations.
CONTINUOUS VACUUM FILTERS. In all continuous vacuum filters liquor is

sucked through a moving septum to deposit a cake of solids. The cake is moved
out of the filtering zone, washed, sucked dry, and dislodged from the septum,
which then reenters the slurry to pick up another load of solids. Some part of
the septum is in the filtering zone at all times, part is in the washing zone, and
part is being relieved of its load of solids, so that the discharge of both solids and
liquids from the filter is uninterrupted. The pressure differential across the
septum in a continuous vacuum filter is not high, ordinarily between 250 and
500 mm Hg. Various designs of filter differ in the method of admitting slurry,
the shape of the filter surface, and the way in which the solids are discharged.
Most all, however, apply vacuum from a stationary source to the moving parts of
the unit through a rotary valve.
Rotary-drum filter. The most common type of continuous vacuum filter is the
rotary-drum filter. A horizontal drum with slotted face turns at 0.1 to 2 r/min
in an agitated slurry trough. A filter medium, such as canvas, covers the face of
the drum, which is partly submerged in the liquid. Under the slotted cylindrical
face of the main drum is a second, smaller drum with a solid surface. Between
the two drums are radial partitions dividing the annular space into separate
FILTRATION 57
compartments, each connected by an internal pipe to one hole in the rotating

plate of the rotary valve. Vacuum and air are alternately applied to each
compartment as the drum rotates. A strip of filter cloth covers the exposed face
of each compartment to form a succession of panels.
Consider the figure. It is just about to enter the slurry in the trough. As
it dips under the surface of the liquid, vacuum is applied through the rotary
valve. A layer of solids builds up on the face of panel as liquid is drawn through
the cloth into the compartment, through the internal pipe, through the valve,
and into a collecting tank. As the panel leaves the slurry and enters the washing
and drying zone, vacuum is applied to the panel from a separate system, sucking
wash liquid and air through the cake of solids. As shown in the figure, wash
liquid is drawn through the filter into a separate collecting tank. After the cake
of solids on the face of the panel has been sucked as dry as possible, the panel
leaves the drying zone, vacuum is cut off, and the cake is removed by scraping
it off with a horizontal knife known as a doctor blade. A little air is blown in
under the cake to belly out the cloth. This cracks the cake away from the cloth
and makes it unnecessary for the knife to scrape the drum face itself. Once the
FILTRATION 58
cake is dislodged, the panel reenters the slurry and the cycle is repeated. The
operation of any given panel, therefore, is cyclic, but since some panels are in
each part of the cycle at all times, the operation of the filter as a whole is
continuous.
Many variations of the rotary-drum filter are commercially available. In

some designs there are no compartments in the drum; vacuum is applied to the
entire inner surface of the filter medium. Filtrate and wash liquid are removed
together through a dip pipe; solids are discharge by air flow through the cloth
from a stationary shoe inside the drum, bellying out the filter cloth and cracking
off the cake. In other models the cake is lifted from the filter surface by a set of
closely spaced parallel strings or by separating the filter cloth from the drum
surface and passing it around a small-diameter roller. The sharp change in
direction at this roller dislodges the solids. The cloth may be washed as it returns
from the roller to the underside of the drum. Wash liquid may be sprayed directly
on the cake surface, or, with cakes that crack when air is drawn through them,
it may be sprayed on a cloth blanket that travels with the cake through the
washing zone and is tightly pressed against its outer surface.
The amount of submergence of the drum is also variable. Most bottom-

feed filters operate with about 30 percent of their filter area submerged in the
slurry. When high filtering capacity and no washing are desired, a high-
submergence filter, with 60 to 70 percent of its filter area submerged, may be
used. The capacity of any rotary filter depends strongly on the characteristics of
the feed slurry and particularyly on the thickness of the cake that may be
deposited in practical operation. The cakes formed on industrial rotary vacuum
filters are 3 to about 40 mm (1/8 to 1 ½ in.) thick. Standard drum sizes range
from 0.3 m (1 ft) in diameter with a 0.3-m (1-ft) face to 3 m (10 ft) in diameter
with a 4.3-m (14-ft) face.
FILTRATION 59
Continuous rotary vacuum filters are sometimes adapted to operate under

positive pressures up to about 15 atm for situations in which vacuum filtration
is not feasible or economical. This may be the case when the solids are very fine
and filter very slowly or when the liquid has a high vapor pressure, has a viscosity
greater than 1 P, or is a saturated solution that will crystallize if cooled at all.
With slow-filtering slurries the pressure differential across the septum must be
greater than can be obtained in a vacuum filter; with liquids that vaporize or
crystallize at reduced pressure, the pressure on the downstream side of the
septum cannot be less than atmospheric. However, the mechanical problems of
discharging the solids from the filters, their high cost and complexity, and their
small size limit their application to special problems. Where vacuum filtration
cannot be used, other means of separation, such as continuous centrifugal
filters, should be considered.
FILTRATION 60
A precoat filter is a rotary-drum filter modified for filtering small amounts

of fine or gelatinous solids that ordinarily plug a filter cloth. In the operation of
this machine a layer of porous filter aid, such as diatomaceous earth, is first
deposited on the filter medium. Process liquid is then sucked through the layer
of filter aid, depositing a very thin layer of solids. This layer and a little of the
filter aid are then scraped off the drum by a slowly advancing knife, which
continually exposes a fresh surface of porous material for the subsequent liquor
to pass through. A precoat filter may also operate under pressure. In the
pressure type the discharged solids and filter aid collect in the housing, to be
removed periodically at atmospheric pressure while the drum is being recoated
with filter aid. Precoat filters can be used only where the solids are to be
discarded or where their admixture with large amounts of filter aid introduces
no serious problem. The usual submergence of a percoat-filter drum is 50
percent.
Horizontal belt filter. When the feed contains coarse fast-settling particles of
solid, a rotary-drum filter works poorly or not at all. The coarse particles cannot
be suspended well in the slurry trough, and the cake that forms often will not
adhere to the surface of the filter drum. In this situation a top-fed horizontal
filter may be used. The moving belt filter shown is one of several types of
horizontal filter; it resembles a belt conveyor, with a transversely ridged support
or drainage belt carrying the filter cloth, which is also in the form of an endless
belt. Central opening the drainage belt slide over a longitudinal vacuum box,
into which the filtrate is drawn. Feed slurry flows onto the belt from a distributor
at one end of the unit; filtered and washed cake is discharged from the other.
FILTRATION 61
Belt filters are especially useful in waste treatment, since the waste often
contains a very wide range of particle sizes. They are available in sizes from 0.6
to 5.5 m (2 to 18 ft) wide and 4.9 to 33.5 m (16 to 110 ft) long, with filtration
areas up to 110 m2 (1200 ft2). Some models are “indexing” belt filters, similar in
action to the Larox pressure filter described earlier; in these the vacuum Is
intermittently cut off and reapplied. The belt is moved forward half a meter or
so when the vacuum is off and is held stationary while vacuum is applied. This
avoids the difficulty of maintaining a good vacuum seal between the vacuum box
and a moving belt.
FILTRATION 62
Filter press
An industrial filter press is a tool used in separation processes, specifically to

separate solids and liquids. The process uses the principle of pressure drive, as
provided by a slurry pump. Among other uses, filter presses are utilized in
marble factories in order to separate water from mud in order to reuse the water
during the marble cutting process. A filter press contains a set of plates designed
to provide a series of chambers or compartments in which solids may collect.
The plates are covered with a filter
medium such as canvas. Slurry is
admitted to each compartment under
pressure; liquor passes through the
canvas and out a discharge pipe, leaving
a wet cake of solids behind.
Generally, the slurry that will be

separated is injected into the center of
the press and each chamber of the press is filled. (SIEMENS, 2011) Optimal
filling time will ensure the last chamber of the press is loaded before the mud in
the first chamber begins to cake. (Special Filter presses) As the chambers fill,
pressure inside the system will increase due to the formation of thick
sludge. Then, the liquid is strained through filter cloths by force using
compressed air or water. Pressurized water requires more time to pass through
the chambers compared to pressurized air, but the use of water could be more
cost-efficient in certain cases, such as if water was re-used from a previous
process.
The plates of a filter press may be square or circular, vertical or horizontal. Most
commonly the compartments for solids are formed by recesses in the faces of
molded polypropylene plates. In other designs, they are formed as in the plate-
and-frame press, in which square plates 6 to 78 in. (150 mm to 2m) on a side
FILTRATION 63
alternate with open frames. The plates are ¼ to 2 in. (6 to 50mm) thick, the
frames ¼ to 8 in. (6 to 200 mm) thick. Plates and frames sit vertically in a metal
rack, with cloth covering the face of each plate, and are squeezed tightly together
by a screw or a hydraulic ram. Slurry enters at one end of the assembly of plates
and frames. It passes through a channel running lengthwise through one corner
of the assembly. Auxiliary channels carry slurry from the main inlet channel
into each frame. Here the solids are deposited on the cloth-covered faces of the
plates. Liquor passes through the cloth, down grooves or corrugations in the
plate faces, and out of the press.
After assembly of the press, slurry is admitted from a pump or pressurized

tank under a pressure of 3 to 10 atm. Filtration is continued until liquor no
longer flows out the discharge or the filtration pressure suddenly rises. These
occur when the frames are full of solid and no more slurry can enter. The press
FILTRATION 64
is then said to be jammed. Wash liquid may then be admitted to remove soluble
impurities from the solids, after which the cake may be blown with steam or air
to displace as much residual liquid as possible. The press is then opened, and
the cake of solids removed from the filter medium and dropped to a conveyor or
storage bin. In may filter presses these operations are carried out automatically.
Thorough washing in a filter press may take several hours, for the wash
liquid tends to follow the easiest paths and to bypass tightly packed parts of
cake. If the cake is less dense in some parts than in others, as is usually the
case, much of the wash liquid will be ineffective. If washing must be exceedingly
good, it may be best to reslurry a partly washed cake with a large volume of wash
liquid and refilter it or to use a shell-and-leaf filter, which permits more effective
washing than a plate-and-frame press.
Types of filter presses
There are three main basic types of filter presses: plate and frame filter presses,
recessed plate and frame filter presses and automatic filter presses.
Plate and frame filter press
A plate and frame filter press is the most fundamental design, and many now
refer it as a "membrane filter plate". This type of
filter press consists of many plates and frames
assembled alternately with the supports of a pair
of rails. The presence of a centrifuge pump
ensures the remaining suspended solids do not
settle in the system, and its main function is to
deliver the suspension into each of the separating
chambers in the plate and frame filter. For each
of the individual separating chambers, there is one hollow filter frame separated
from two filter plates by filter cloths. The introduced slurry flows through a port
FILTRATION 65
in each individual frame, and the filter cakes are accumulated in each hollow
frame. As the filter cake becomes thicker, the filter resistance increases as well.
So when the separating chamber is full, the filtration process is stopped as the
optimum pressure difference is reached. The filtrate that passes through filter
cloth is collected through collection pipes and stored in the filter tank. Filter cake
(suspended solid) accumulation occurs at the hollow plate frame, then being
separated at the filter plates by pulling the plate and frame filter press apart. The
cakes then fall off from those plates and are discharged to the final collection
point. (Von Sperling, 2007)
Cake discharge can be done in many ways. For example: Shaking the plates
while they are being opened or shaking the cloths. A scraper can also be used,
by moving from one chamber to another and scraping the cake off the cloth. At
the end of each run, the cloths are cleaned using wash liquid and are ready to
start the next cycle. (Sutherland, K. 2008)
Automatic filter press
An automatic filter press has the same

concept as the manual filter and frame
filter, except that the whole process is
fully automated. It consists of larger
plate and frame filter presses with
mechanical "plate shifters". The function
of the plate shifter is to move the plates
and allow rapid discharge of the filter
cakes accumulated in between the plates. It also contains a diaphragm
compressor in the filter plates which aids in optimizing the operating condition
by further drying the filter cakes. (micronicsinc.com)
FILTRATION 66
Recessed plate filter press
A recessed plate filter press is made up of polypropylene squares at about 2 to 4

feet across with a concave depression and a hole in the center of each. Two plates
join together to form a chamber to
pressurize the slurry and squeeze the
filtrate out through the filter cloth lining in
the chamber. It is capable of holding 12 to
80 plates adjacent to each other, depending
on the required capacity. When the filter
press is closed, a series of chambers is
formed. The differences with the plate and
frame filter are that the plates are joined together in such a way that the cake
forms in the recess on each plate, meaning that the cake thickness is restricted
to 32mm unless extra frames are used as spacers. However, there are
disadvantages to this method, such as longer cloth changing time, inability to
accommodate filter papers, and the possibility of forming uneven cake.
Filter presses are used in a huge variety of different applications,

from dewatering of mineral mining slurries to blood plasma purification. At the
same time, filter press technology is widely established for
ultrafine coal dewatering as well as filtrate recovery in coal preparation plants.
According to G.Prat, the "filter press is proven to be the most effective and reliable
technique to meet today's requirement". One of the examples is Pilot scale plate
filter press, which is specialized in dewatering coal slurries. In 2013 the Society
for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration published an article highlighting this
specific application. It was mentioned that the use of the filter press is very
beneficial to plant operations, since it offers dewatering ultraclean coal as
product, as well as improving quality of water removed to be available for
equipment cleaning.
FILTRATION 67
Other industrial uses for automatic membrane filter presses include municipal
waste sludge dewatering, ready mix concrete water recovery, metal concentrate
recovery, and large-scale fly ash pond dewatering. (Tarleton, E. S. W. R., J. 2007)
Applications
Many specialized applications are associated with different types of filter press
that are currently used in various industries. Plate filter press is extensively used
in sugaring operations such as the production of maple syrup in Canada, since
it offers very high efficiency and reliability. According to M.Isselhardt,
"appearance can affect the value of maple syrup and customer's perception of
quality". This makes the raw syrup filtration process extremely crucial in
achieving desired product with high quality and appealing form, which again
suggested how highly appreciated filter press methods are in industry.
Filter medium
Typical cloth areas can range from 1 m2 or less on laboratory scale to 1000 m2 in
a production environment, even though plates can provide filter areas up to
2000 m2. Normally, plate and frame filter press can form up to 50 mm of cake
thickness, however, it can be push up to 200 mm for extreme cases. Recessed
plate press can form up to 32 mm of cake thickness. (Tarleton, E. S. W., R. J,
2007)
In the early days of press use in the municipal waste biosolids treatment
industry, issues with cake sticking to the cloth was problematic and many
treatment plants adopted less effective centrifuge or belt filter press
technologies. Since then, there have been great enhancements in fabric quality
and manufacturing technology that have made this issue obsolete. (Jingjin Filter
Cloth Manufacture and Quality Control) Unlike the USA, automatic membrane
filter technology is the most common method to dewater municipal waste
biosolids in Asia. Moisture is typically 10-15% lower and less polymer is
FILTRATION 68
required—which saves on trucking and overall disposal cost.
Large quantities
High solids content cake of inorganic conditioning chemicals

are commonly used
Very high chemical conditioning

dosages or thermal conditioning may
Can dewater hard-to-dewater sludges
be required for hard-to-dewater
sludges
High capital cost, especially for

Very high solids capture
variable-volume filter presses
Only mechanical device capable of

Labor cost may be high if sludge is
producing a cake dry enough to meet
poorly conditioned and if press is not
landfill requirements in some
automatic
locations
Replacement of the media is both

expensive and time consuming
Noise levels caused by feed pumps

can be very high
Requires grinder or prescreening

equipment on the feed
FILTRATION 69
Rotary Drum Vacuum Filter
Rotary-drum filter. The most common

type of continuous vacuum filter is the
rotary-drum filter. A horizontal drum
with slotted face turns at 0.1 to 2 r/min
in an agitated slurry trough. A filter
medium, such as canvas, covers the
face of the drum, which is partly
submerged in the liquid. Under the
slotted cylindrical face of the main drum
is a second, smaller drum with a solid surface. Between the two drums are radial
partitions dividing the annular space into separate compartments, each
connected by an internal pipe to one hole in the rotating plate of the rotary valve.
Vacuum and air are alternately applied to each compartment as the drum
rotates. A strip of filter cloth covers the exposed face of each compartment to
form a succession of panels.
FILTRATION 70
Consider the figure. It is just about to enter the slurry in the trough. As
it dips under the surface of the liquid, vacuum is applied through the rotary
valve. A layer of solids builds up on the face of panel as liquid is drawn through
the cloth into the compartment, through the internal pipe, through the valve,
and into a collecting tank. As the panel leaves the slurry and enters the washing
and drying zone, vacuum is applied to the panel from a separate system, sucking
wash liquid and air through the cake of solids. As shown in the figure, wash
liquid is drawn through the filter into a separate collecting tank. After the cake
of solids on the face of the panel has been sucked as dry as possible, the panel
leaves the drying zone, vacuum is cut off, and the cake is removed by scraping
it off with a horizontal knife known as a doctor blade. A little air is blown in
under the cake to belly out the cloth. This cracks the cake away from the cloth
and makes it unnecessary for the knife to scrape the drum face itself. Once the
cake is dislodged, the panel reenters the slurry and the cycle is repeated. The
operation of any given panel, therefore, is cyclic, but since some panels are in
each part of the cycle at all times, the operation of the filter as a whole is
continuous.
FILTRATION 71
Many variations of the rotary-drum filter are commercially available. In

some designs there are no compartments in the drum; vacuum is applied to the
entire inner surface of the filter medium. Filtrate and wash liquid are removed
together through a
dip pipe; solids
are discharge by
air flow through
the cloth from a
stationary shoe
inside the drum,
bellying out the
filter cloth and
cracking off the
cake. In other
models the cake is lifted from the filter surface by a set of closely spaced parallel
strings or by separating the filter cloth from the drum surface and passing it
around a small-diameter roller. The sharp change in direction at this roller
dislodges the solids. The cloth may be washed as it returns from the roller to
the underside of the drum. Wash liquid may be sprayed directly on the cake
surface, or, with cakes that crack when air is drawn through them, it may be
sprayed on a cloth blanket that travels with the cake through the washing zone
and is tightly pressed against its outer surface.
The amount of submergence of the drum is also variable. Most bottom-

feed filters operate with about 30 percent of their filter area submerged in the
slurry. When high filtering capacity and no washing are desired, a high-
submergence filter, with 60 to 70 percent of its filter area submerged, may be
used. The capacity of any rotary filter depends strongly on the characteristics of
the feed slurry and particularly on the thickness of the cake that may be
deposited in practical operation. The cakes formed on industrial rotary vacuum
FILTRATION 72
filters are 3 to about 40 mm (1/8 to 1 ½ in.) thick. Standard drum sizes range
from 0.3 m (1 ft) in diameter with a 0.3-m (1-ft) face to 3 m (10 ft) in diameter
with a 4.3-m (14-ft) face.
Continuous rotary vacuum filters are sometimes adapted to operate under

positive pressures up to about 15 atm for situations in which vacuum filtration
is not feasible or economical. This may be the case when the solids are very fine
and filter very slowly or when the liquid has a high vapor pressure, has a viscosity
greater than 1 P, or is a saturated solution that will crystallize if cooled at all.
With slow-filtering slurries the pressure differential across the septum must be
greater than can be obtained in a vacuum filter; with liquids that vaporize or
crystallize at reduced pressure, the pressure on the downstream side of the
septum cannot be less than atmospheric. However, the mechanical problems of
discharging the solids from the filters, their high cost and complexity, and their
small size limit their application to special problems. Where vacuum filtration
cannot be used, other means of separation, such as continuous centrifugal
filters, should be considered.
Rotary vacuum drum filter (RVDF),

patented in 1872, is one of the oldest
filters used in the industrial liquid-
solids separation. It offers a wide range
of industrial processing flow sheets and
provides a flexible application of
dewatering, washing and/or
clarification.
A rotary vacuum filter consists of a large rotating drum covered by a cloth. The
drum is suspended on an axial over a trough containing liquid/solids slurry with
approximately 50-80% of the screen area immersed in the slurry.
FILTRATION 73
As the drum rotates into and out of the trough, the slurry is sucked on the
surface of the cloth and rotated out of the liquid/solids suspension as a cake.
When the cake is rotating out, it is dewatered in the drying zone. The cake is dry
because the vacuum drum is continuously sucking the cake and taking the
water out of it. At the final step of the separation, the cake is discharged as solids
products and the drum rotates continuously to another separation cycle.
The rotary vacuum filter is a

Due to the structure, the pressure
continuous and automatic operation,
difference is limited up to 1 bar
so the operating cost is low
The variation of the drum speed Besides the drum, other accessories,
rotating can be used to control the for example, agitators and vacuum
cake thickness pump, are required.
The process can be easily modified The discharge cake contains residual
(pre-coating filter process) moisture
Can produce relative clean product High energy consumption by vacuum

by adding a showering device pump
FILTRATION 74
REFERENCES
BRIKKE, F.; BREDERO, M. (2003): Linking Technology Choice with Operation

and Maintenance in the context of community water supply and sanitation. A
reference Document for Planners and Project Staff. Geneva: World Health
Organization and IRC Water and Sanitation Centre. URL[Accessed:
30.03.2010].
DEBOCH, B.; FARRIS, K. (1999): Evaluation on the Efficiency of Rapid Sand

Filtration. Addis Abada: 25th WECD Conference.
DIJK, J.C. van; OOMEN, J.H.C. (1978): Slow Sand Filtration for Community
Water Supply in Developing Countries. A Design and Construction Manual. (=
IRC Technical Paper Series, 11). The Hague: International Reference Centre for
Community Water Supply. URL [Accessed: 06.02.3012].
O'CONNOR, J.T.; O'CONNOR, T.L. (2001): Removal of Microorganisms by Rapid

Sand Filtration. Columbia MO: H2O’C Engineering. URL [Accessed:
15.02.2012].
EPA (Editor) (1990): Technologies for Upgrading Existing or Designing New

Drinking Water Treatment Facilities. Cincinnati: US Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA). URL [Accessed: 15.02.2012].
HUISMAN, L.; WOOD, W.E. (1974): Slow Sand Filtration. Geneva: World Health
Organisation (WHO). URL [Accessed: 06.02.2012].
SCHMITT, D.; SHINAULT, C. (1996): Rapid Sand Filtration1. Blacksburg:

Virginia Tech.. URL[Accessed: 05.02.2012].
SDWF (Editor) (n.y.): Conventional Water Treatment: Coagulation and

Filtration. Saskatoon: Safe Drinking Water Foundation (SDWF). URL [Accessed:
15.02.2011].
FILTRATION 75
SUFFUSS POLYMERS (Editor) (2011): Rapid Gravity Filtration Plants. West

Bengal: Suffuss Polymers Pvt Ltd.. URL [Accessed: 21.02.2012].
TWT (Editor) (n.y.): Components of an Open Rapid Sand Filter. The Water
Treatments (TWT). URL [Accessed: 21.02.2012].
WHO (Editor) (n.y.): Chapter 12: Water Treatment. In: WHO (Editor) (2009):
WHO Seminar Pack for Drinking Water Quality. . URL [Accessed: 07.02.2012].
WHO (Editor) (1996): Rapid Sand Filtration. (= Fact Sheets on Environmental

Sanitation, 2/14). Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO). URL [Accessed:
15.02.2012].
FILTRATION 76

Momentum Transfer Filtration

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Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila

College of Engineering and Technology

GUY, Erick Kristonne R.

YEPES, Anna Lyn G.

Engr. Denvert C. Pangayao, PhD

September 16, 2017

Fluid flows through a filter

Most industrial filters are pressure filters, vacuum filters, or centrifugal

In the 1800s, mechanical filtration was an industrial process that

supervised the construction of the plant which went

Water purification is the process

designed for a variety of other purposes, including fulfilling the requirements of

Crude oil treatment. The

Within the dairy industry, four different

Reverse osmosis (RO). RO is the tightest

Nanofiltration (NF). NF separates a range of minerals from a liquid, allowing only

CLASSIFICATION OF FILTRATION EQUIPMENT

1. According to Driving Forces

In gravity filtration, a suspension of a

generally vacuum filtration is used for this purpose because it is faster.

Additionally, gravity filtration is a physical process for the separation of

Ex. Rapid Sand Filter, Slow Sand Filter

In pressure filtration, the liquid is forced through

Ex. Rotary Drum Vacuum Filter, Vacuum Belt Filter Press

Centrifugal filtration is the removal of a liquid from a slurry by introducing

The centrifuge works using the

Ex. Continuous Centrifuge Filter, Flat Centrifuge Filter Separator

2. According to filtration mechanism

The filter cake grows in the course of filtration, becomes "thicker" as

Crossflow filtration Crossflow filtration is different

• By process goal or objective

For miscella filter (miscella = 20 - 25 % oil and 80 - 75

Clarifying filters remove small amounts of solids or

The usual objective of clarifying filtration is to separate solids at a very low

Here is an example of Direct

CROSS FLOW FILTRATION

Cross flow filtration (CFF, also

The principle of crossflow filtration can be applied to concetrate suspensions of

THE TOP-SUSPENDED CENTRIFUGE

The top-suspended centrifuge is

The typical operating cycles of a batch centrifuge are composed of (1)

Top-suspended centrufuges are used extensively in sugar refining, where

CONTINUOUS CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATOR

1. Reciprocating Piston Rod – holds the piston so that it can move

RAPID SAND FILTER

The rapid sand filter or rapid

Today a combination of flocculation

Rapid sand filtration, in contrast

final disinfection. Usually, coagulation and flocculation and chlorination are

DESIGN AND OPERATION

The major parts of a gravity rapid sand filter are:

• Chamber: filter tank or filter box

The filter chamber is

This filtering process is determined by two basic physical principles. First,

In the course of these processes, more and more particles accumulate in

of sludge are generated through backwashing and require some form of

Moderately effective for: Somewhat effective for: Not effective for:

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE COSTS

Working Principle After being pre-treated (coagulation-

treatment (coagulation-flocculation) and post-

• Highly effective for removal of turbidity (usually < 0.1-1 NTU)

• Not effective in removing bacteria, viruses, fluoride, arsenic, salts, odour

• High capital and operational costs

SLOW SAND FILTER