AUTOMATIC BOARD CLEANER

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of

DIPLOMA
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
BY

Under the guidance of ------------------------

2004-2005

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Register number: _________________________
This is to certify that the project report titled “SOLAR
BOARD CLEANER” submitted by the following students
for the award of diploma engineering is record of bonafide
work carried out by them.

CERTIFICATE

Done by

Mr. /Ms._______________________________

In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of

Diploma in Mechanical Engineering

During the Year- (2004-2005)

_________________ _______________
Head of Department Guide

Submitted for the university examination held on ___________

Cuddalore –607 109.

Date:

_________________ ________________
Internal Examiner External
Examiner
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

At this pleasing moment of having successfully

completed our project, we wish to convey our
sincere thanks and gratitude to the management
of our college and our beloved chairman
…………………………………………………, who provided all
the facilities to us.
We would like to express our sincere thanks to
our principal ………………………………………, for
forwarding us to do our project and offering
adequate duration in completing our project.
We are also grateful to the Head of
Department Prof. …………………………………….., for
her constructive suggestions & encouragement
during our project.

With deep sense of gratitude, we extend our

earnest & sincere thanks to our guide
…………………………………………………….., Department
of Mechanical for her kind guidance &
encouragement during this project.
 We also express our indebt thanks to our
TEACHING and NON TEACHING staffs of
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,
……………………….(COLLEGE NAME).

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 AUTOMATIC BOARD CLEANER
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CONTENTS
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CONTENTS

CHAPTER PARTICULAR PAGE No.

1. SYNOPSIS

2. INTRODUCTION

3. COMPONENTS AND DESCRIPTION

4. TYPES OF MOTOR

5. D.C MOTOR

6. BLOCK DIAGRAM

7. WORKING

8. DESIGN AND CALCULATION

9. LIST OF PARTS

10. COST ESTIMATION

11. ADVANTAGES
 12. DISADVANTAGES

13. APPLICATIONS

14. CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHY

PHOTOGRAPHY

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Chapter-1
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SYNOPSIS
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CHAPTER-1

SYNOPSIS
 The main aim of our project is to save time. It’s highly impossible to spend
our time always in cleaning of the white board. Instead of this, we can control the
D.C motor so that the white board to be cleaned. This indeed saves our valuable,
precious time. We can do this huge work, merely by using forward/reverse switch
control. It is highly useful, as it possess various advantages. Our objective is to
design and develop a electric system normally “AUTOMATIC BOARD
CLEANER”.

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Chapter-2
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INTRODUCTION
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CHAPTER-2

INTRODUCTION

MAN AND ENERGY:

 Man has needed and used energy at an increasing rate for its sustenance and well

being ever since he came on the earth a few million years ago. Primitive man required

energy primarily in the form of food. He derived this by eating plants or animals, which

he hunted. Subsequently he discovered fire and his energy needs increased as he started

to make use of wood and other bio mass to supply the energy needs for cooking as well

as agriculture. He added a mew dimension to the use of energy by domesticating and

training animals to work for him. With further demand for energy, man began to use the

wind for sailing ships and for driving windmills, and the force of failing water to turn

water wheels. Till this time, it would not be wrong to say that the sun was supplying all

the energy needs of man either directly or indirectly and that man was using only

renewable sources of energy.

The industrial revolution, which began with the discovery of the steam engine

(AD 1700), brought about great many changes. For the first time, man began to use a

new source of energy, viz. coal, in large quantities.

A little later, the internal combustion engine was invented (AD1870) and the other

fossil fuels, oil and natural combustion engine extensively. The fossil fuel era of using

non-renewable sources had begun and energy was now available in a concentrated form.

The invention of heat engines and then use of fossil fuels made energy portable and
introduced the much needed flexibility in mans movement. For the first time, man could

get the power of a machine where he required it and was not restricted to a specific site

like a fast-running stream for running a water wheel or a windy hill for operating a

windmill.

This flexibility was enhanced with the discovery of electricity the development of

central power generating stations using either fossil fuels or waterpower. A new source of

energy-nuclear energy-came on the scene after the Second World War The first large

nuclear power station was commissioned about 40 years ago, and already, nuclear energy

is providing a small but significant amount of the energy requirements of many countries.

Thus today, every country draws its energy needs from a variety of sources. We

can broadly categorize these sources as commercial and noncommercial. The

commercial sources include the fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas), hydroelectric

power and nuclear power, while the non-commercial sources include wood, animal

wastes, geothermal energy and agricultural wastes.

In an industrialized country like USA, most of the energy requirements are meant

from commercial sources, while in an industrially less developed country like India, the

use of commercial and noncommercial sources is about equal. In the past few years, it

has become obvious that fossil fuel resources are fast depleting and that the fossil fuel era
is gradually coming to an end. This is particularly true for oil and natural gas. It will be

use full there fore to first examine the rates of consumption of the different sources of

energy and to give some indication of the reserves available this study will be done for

the world as a whole and then for India in particular with the help of these figures it will

be possible to form estimates of the time periods for which the existing source will be

available. The need for alternative energy options will thus be established and these

options will then be briefly described.

Before passing on to these topics, it is worth noting that while man’s large-scale

use of commercial energy has led to a better quality of life it has also created many

problems. Perhaps the most serious of these is the harmful effect on the environment.

The combustion of the fossil fuel has caused serious air pollution problems in many areas

because of the localized release of large amounts of harmful gases into the atmosphere. It

has also resulted in the phenomenon of global warning, which is now a matter of great

concern. Similarly the releases of large amounts of waste heat from power plants have

caused thermal pollution in lakes and rivers leading to the destruction of many forms of

plants and animals life.

In the case of nuclear power plants there is also concern over the possibility of

radio activity being released into the atmosphere in the event of an accident and over the

long term problems of disposal of radioactive wastes from these plants. The gravity of

most of these environmental problems had not really been foreseen. Now however, as
man embarks on the search for alternative sources of energy, it is clear that the would do

well to keep the environmental in mind. So her we take geothermal energy as a project

and discussed below.

This is an era of automation where it is broadly defined as replacement of manual

effort by mechanical power in all degrees of automation. The operation remains an
essential part of the system although with changing demands on physical input as the
degree of mechanization is increased.

Degrees of automation are of two types, viz.

Full automation.
Semi automation.

In semi automation a combination of manual effort and mechanical power is required

whereas in full automation human participation is very negligible.

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Chapter-3
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COMPONENTS AND
DESCRIPTION
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CHAPTER-3

COMPONENTS AND DESCRIPTION

The physical setup of this project are given below and it is been explained as follows
 1. Battery

2. Permanent magnet D.C motor

3. Belt

4. Frame

5. pully

1 BATTERY:-

INTRODUCTION:

In isolated systems away from the grid, batteries are used for storage of excess

solar energy converted into electrical energy. The only exceptions are isolated sunshine

load such as irrigation pumps or drinking water supplies for storage. In fact for small

units with output less than one kilowatt. Batteries seem to be the only technically and

economically available storage means. Since both the photo-voltaic system and batteries

are high in capital costs. It is necessary that the overall system be optimized with respect

to available energy and local demand pattern. To be economically attractive the storage

of solar electricity requires a battery with a particular combination of properties:

(1) Low cost

(2) Long life

(3) High reliability

 (4) High overall efficiency

(5) Low discharge

(6) Minimum maintenance

(A) Ampere hour efficiency

(B) Watt hour efficiency

We use lead acid battery for storing the electrical energy from the solar panel for

lighting the street and so about the lead acid cells are explained below.

LEAD-ACID WET CELL:

Where high values of load current are necessary, the lead-acid cell is the type most

commonly used. The electrolyte is a dilute solution of sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄). In the

application of battery power to start the engine in an auto mobile, for example, the load

current to the starter motor is typically 200 to 400A. One cell has a nominal output of

2.1V, but lead-acid cells are often used in a series combination of three for a 6-V battery

and six for a 12-V battery.

The lead acid cell type is a secondary cell or storage cell, which can be recharged.

The charge and discharge cycle can be repeated many times to restore the output voltage,

as long as the cell is in good physical condition. However, heat with excessive charge
and discharge currents shortends the useful life to about 3 to 5 years for an automobile

battery. Of the different types of secondary cells, the lead-acid type has the highest

output voltage, which allows fewer cells for a specified battery voltage.

CONSTRUCTION:

Inside a lead-acid battery, the positive and negative electrodes consist of a group

of plates welded to a connecting strap. The plates are immersed in the electrolyte,

consisting of 8 parts of water to 3 parts of concentrated sulfuric acid. Each plate is a grid

or framework, made of a lead-antimony alloy. This construction enables the active

material, which is lead oxide, to be pasted into the grid. In manufacture of the cell, a

forming charge produces the positive and negative electrodes. In the forming process, the

active material in the positive plate is changed to lead peroxide (pbo₂). The negative

electrode is spongy lead (pb).

 Automobile batteries are usually shipped dry from the manufacturer. The

electrolyte is put in at the time of installation, and then the battery is charged to from the

plates. With maintenance-free batteries, little or no water need be added in normal

service. Some types are sealed, except for a pressure vent, without provision for adding

water.

The construction parts of battery are shown in figure (6).

CHEMICAL ACTION:

Sulfuric acid is a combination of hydrogen and sulfate ions. When the cell

discharges, lead peroxide from the positive electrode combines with hydrogen ions to

form water and with sulfate ions to form lead sulfate. Combining lead on the negative

plate with sulfate ions also produces he sulfate. There fore, the net result of discharge is

to produce more water, which dilutes the electrolyte, and to form lead sulfate on the

plates.

As the discharge continues, the sulfate fills the pores of the grids, retarding

circulation of acid in the active material. Lead sulfate is the powder often seen on the

outside terminals of old batteries. When the combination of weak electrolyte and

sulfating on the plate lowers the output of the battery, charging is necessary.
 On charge, the external D.C. source reverses the current in the battery. The

reversed direction of ions flows in the electrolyte result in a reversal of the chemical

reactions. Now the lead sulfates on the positive plate reactive with the water and sulfate

ions to produce lead peroxide and sulfuric acid. This action re-forms the positive plates

and makes the electrolyte stronger by adding sulfuric acid.

At the same time, charging enables the lead sulfate on the negative plate to react

with hydrogen ions; this also forms sulfuric acid while reforming lead on the negative

plate to react with hydrogen ions; this also forms currents can restore the cell to full

output, with lead peroxide on the positive plates, spongy lead on the negative plate, and

the required concentration of sulfuric acid in the electrolyte.

The chemical equation for the lead-acid cell is

Charge

Pb + pbO₂ + 2H₂SO₄ 2pbSO₄ + 2H₂O

Discharge
 On discharge, the pb and pbo₂ combine with the SO₄ ions at the left side of the

equation to form lead sulfate (pbSO₄) and water (H₂O) at the right side of the equation.

One battery consists of 6 cell, each have an output voltage of 2.1V, which are connected

in series to get an voltage of 12V and the same 12V battery is connected in series, to get

an 24 V battery. They are placed in the water proof iron casing box.

CARING FOR LEAD-ACID BATTERIES:

Always use extreme caution when handling batteries and electrolyte. Wear gloves,

goggles and old clothes. “Battery acid” will burn skin and eyes and destroy cotton and

wool clothing.

The quickest way of ruin lead-acid batteries is to discharge them deeply and leave

them stand “dead” for an extended period of time. When they discharge, there is a

chemical change in the positive plates of the battery. They change from lead oxide when

charge out lead sulfate when discharged. If they remain in the lead Sulfate State for a

few days, some part of the plate dose not returns to lead oxide when the battery is

recharged. If the battery remains discharge longer, a greater amount of the positive plate

will remain lead sulfate. The parts of the plates that become “sulfate” no longer store

energy. Batteries that are deeply discharged, and then charged partially on a regular basis
can fail in less then one year. Check your batteries on a regular basis to be sure they are

getting charged. Use a hydrometer to check the specific gravity of your lead acid

batteries. If batteries are cycled very deeply and then recharged quickly, the specific

gravity reading will be lower than it should because the electrolyte at the top of the

battery may not have mixed with the “charged” electrolyte.

Check the electrolyte level in the wet-cell batteries at the least four times a year

and top each cell of with distilled water. Do not add water to discharged batteries.

Electrolyte is absorbed when batteries are very discharged. If you add water at this time,

and then recharge the battery, electrolyte will overflow and make a mess.

Keep the top of your batteries clean and check that cables are tight. Do not tighten

or remove cables while charging or discharging. Any spark around batteries can cause a

hydrogen explosion inside, and ruin one of the cells, and you.

On charge, with reverse current through the electrolyte, the chemical action is

reversed. Then the pb ions from the lead sulfate on the right side of the equation re-form

the lead and lead peroxide electrodes. Also the SO₄ ions combine with H₂ ions from the

water to produce more sulfuric acid at the left side of the equation.
CURRENT RATINGS:

Lead-acid batteries are generally rated in terms of how much discharge currents

they can supply for a specified period of time; the output voltage must be maintained

above a minimum level, which is 1.5 to 1.8V per cell. A common rating is ampere-hours

(A.h.) based on a specific discharge time, which is often 8h. Typical values for

automobile batteries are 100 to 300 A.h.

As an example, a 200 A.h battery can supply a load current of 200/8 or 25A, used

on 8h discharge. The battery can supply less current for a longer time or more current for

a shorter time. Automobile batteries may be rated for “cold cranking power”, which is

related to the job of starting the engine. A typical rating is 450A for 30s at a temperature

of 0 degree F.

Note that the ampere-hour unit specifies coulombs of charge. For instance, 200

A.h. corresponds to 200A*3600s (1h=3600s). the equals 720,000 A.S, or coulombs. One

ampere-second is equal to one coulomb. Then the charge equals 720,000 or 7.2*10^5ºC.

To put this much charge back into the battery would require 20 hours with a charging

current of 10A.
 The ratings for lead-acid batteries are given for a temperature range of 77 to 80ºF.

Higher temperature increase the chemical reaction, but operation above 110ºF shortens

the battery life.

Low temperatures reduce the current capacity and voltage output. The ampere-

hour capacity is reduced approximately 0.75% for each decreases of 1º F below normal

temperature rating. At 0ºF the available output is only 60 % of the ampere-hour battery

rating. In cold weather, therefore, it is very important to have an automobile battery unto

full charge. In addition, the electrolyte freezes more easily when diluted by water in the

discharged condition.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY:

Measuring the specific gravity of the electrolyte generally checks the state of

discharge for a lead-acid cell. Specific gravity is a ratio comparing the weight of a

substance with the weight of a substance with the weight of water. For instance,

concentrated sulfuric acid is 1.835 times as heavy as water for the same volume.

Therefore, its specific gravity equals 1.835. The specific gravity of water is 1, since it is

the reference.
 In a fully charged automotive cell, mixture of sulfuric acid and water results in a

specific gravity of 1.280 at room temperatures of 70 to 80ºF. As the cell discharges, more

water is formed, lowering the specific gravity. When it is down to about 1.150, the cell is

completely discharged.

Specific-gravity readings are taken with a battery hydrometer. Note that the

calibrated float with the specific gravity marks will rest higher in an electrolyte of higher

specific gravity.

The decimal point is often omitted for convenience. For example, the value of

1.220 is simply read “twelve twenty”. A hydrometer reading of 1260 to 1280 indicates

full charge, approximately 12.50 are half charge, and 1150 to 1200 indicates complete

discharge.

The importance of the specific gravity can be seen from the fact that the open-

circuit voltage of the lead-acid cell is approximately equal to

V = Specific gravity + 0.84

For the specific gravity of 1.280, the voltage is 1.280 = 0.84 = 2.12V, as an

example. These values are for a fully charged battery.

CHARGING THE LEAD-ACID BATERY:

The requirements are illustrated in figure. An external D.C. voltage source is

necessary to produce current in one direction. Also, the charging voltage must be more

than the battery e.m.f.

Approximately 2.5 per cell are enough to over the cell e.m.f. so that the charging

voltage can produce current opposite to the direction of discharge current. Note that the

reversal of current is obtained just by connecting the battery VB and charging source VG

with + to + and –to-, as shown in figure. The charging current is reversed because the

battery effectively becomes a load resistance for VG when it higher than VB. In this

example, the net voltage available to produce charging currents is 15-12=3V. A

commercial charger for automobile batteries is essentially a D.C. power supply, rectifying

input from the AC power line to provide D.C. output for charging batteries.

Float charging refers to a method in which the charger and the battery are always

connected to each other for supplying current to the load. In figure the charger provides

current for the load and the current necessary to keep the battery fully charged. The

battery here is an auxiliary source for D.C. power.

 It may be of interest to note that an automobile battery is in a floating-charge

circuit. The battery charger is an AC generator or alternator with rectifier diodes, driver

by a belt from the engine. When you start the car, the battery supplies the cranking

power. Once the engine is running, the alternator charges he battery. It is not necessary

for the car to be moving. A voltage regulator is used in this system to maintain the output

at approximately 13 to 15 V.

The constant voltage of 24V comes from the solar panel controlled by the charge

controller so for storing this energy we need a 24V battery so two 12V battery are

connected in series. It is a good idea to do an equalizing charge when some cells show a

variation of 0.05 specific gravity from each other. This is a long steady overcharge,

bringing the battery to a gassing or bubbling state. Do not equalize sealed or gel type

batteries. With proper care, lead-acid batteries will have a long service life and work very

well in almost any power system. Unfortunately, with poor treatment lead-acid battery

life will be very short.

1. PERMANENT MAGNET D.C. MOTOR:-

DESCRIPTION OF DC MOTOR

An electric motor is a machine which converts electrical energy to mechanical

energy. Its action is based on the principle that when a current-carrying conductor is

placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a magnetic force whose direction is given by

Fleming’s left hand rule.

 When a motor is in operation, it develops torque. This torque can produce

mechanical rotation. DC motors are also like generators classified into shunt wound or

series wound or compound wound motors.

FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE:

Keep the force finger, middle finger and thumb of the left hand mutually

perpendicular to one another. If the fore finger indicates the direction of magnetic field

and middle finger indicates direction of current in the conductor, then the thumb indicates

the direction of the motion of conductor.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF DC MOTOR:

Figure I show a uniform magnetic field in which a straight conductor carrying no

current is placed. The conductor is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field.

In figure II the conductor is shown as carrying a current away from the viewer, but

the field due to the N and S poles has been removed. There is no movement of the

conductor during the above two conditions. In figure III the current carrying conductor is

placed in the magnetic field. The field due to the current in the conductor supports the

main field above the conductor, but opposes the main field below the conductor.
 Movement of

Conductor

N S

Magnetic flux current carrying

Conductor

The result is to increase the flux density in to the region directly above the

conductor and to reduce the flux density in the region directly below the conductor. It is

found that a force acts on the conductor, trying to push the conductor downwards as

shown by the arrow. If the current in the conductor is reversed, the strengthening of flux

lines occurs below the conductor, and the conductor will be pushed upwards (figure-IV).

Now consider a single turn coil carrying a current as shown in the above figure. in

view of the reasons given above, the coil side A will be forced to move downwards,

whereas the coil side B will be forced to move upwards. The forces acting on the coil

sides A and B will be of same magnitude. But their direction is opposite to one another.

As the coil is wound on the armature core which is supported by the bearings, the

armature will now rotate. The commutator periodically reverses the direction of current

flow through the armature. Therefore the armature will have a continuous rotation.
 A simplified model of such a motor is shown in figure VI. The conductors are

wound over a soft iron core. DC supply is given to the field poles for producing flux.

The conductors are connected to the DC supply through brushes

Let's start by looking at the overall plan of a simple 2-pole DC electric motor. A

simple motor has 6 parts, as shown in the diagram below.

 An armature or rotor

 A commutator

 Brushes

 An axle

 A field magnet

 A DC power supply of some sort

 An electric motor is all about magnets and magnetism: a motor uses magnets to

create motion. If you have ever played with magnets you know about the fundamental

law of all magnets: Opposites attract and likes repel.

So if you have 2 bar magnets with their ends marked north and south, then the

North end of one magnet will attract the South end of the other. On the other hand, the

North end of one magnet will repel the North end of the other (and similarly south will

repel south). Inside an electric motor these attracting and repelling forces create rotational

motion. In the diagram above and below you can see two magnets in the motor, the

armature (or rotor) is an electromagnet, while the field magnet is a permanent magnet

(the field magnet could be an electromagnet as well, but in most small motors it is not to

save power).
Electromagnets and Motors:

To understand how an electric motor works, the key is to understand how the

electromagnet works. An electromagnet is the basis of an electric motor. You can

understand how things work in the motor by imagining the following scenario. Say that

you created a simple electromagnet by wrapping 100 loops of wire around a nail and

connecting it to a battery. The nail would become a magnet and have a North and South

pole while the battery is connected.

Now say that you take your nail electromagnet, run an axle through the middle of

it, and you suspended it in the middle of a horseshoe magnet as shown in the figure

below. If you were to attach a battery to the electromagnet so that the North end of the

nail appeared as shown, the basic law of magnetism tells you what would happen: The

North end of the electromagnet would be repelled from the north end of the horseshoe

magnet and attracted to the south end of the horseshoe magnet.

The South end of the electromagnet would be repelled in a similar way. The nail

would move about half a turn and then

stop in the position shown.

You can see that this half-turn of

motion is simple and obvious because of the way magnets naturally attract and repel one

another. The key to an electric motor is to then go one step further so that, at the moment

that this half-turn of motion completes, the field of the electromagnet flips. The flip

causes the electromagnet to complete another half-turn of motion.

You flip the magnetic field simply by changing the direction of the electrons

flowing in the wire (you do that by flipping the battery over). If the field of the

electromagnet flipped at just the right moment at the end of each half-turn of motion, the

electric motor would spin freely.

The Armature:

The armature takes the place of the nail in an electric

motor. The armature is an electromagnet made by coiling thin wire

around two or more poles of a metal core. The armature has an

axle, and the commutator is attached to the axle.

In the diagram above you can see three different views of the same armature:

front, side and end-on. In the end-on view the winding is eliminated to make the

commutator more obvious. You can see that the commutator is simply a pair of plates

attached to the axle. These plates provide the two connections for the coil of the

electromagnet.
The Commutator and brushes:

The "flipping the electric field" part of an electric motor is

accomplished by two parts: the commutator and the brushes. The

diagram at the right shows how the commutator and brushes work

together to let current flow to the electromagnet, and also to flip

the direction that the electrons are flowing at just the right

moment. The contacts of the commutator are attached to the axle

of the electromagnet, so they spin with the magnet. The brushes are just two pieces of

springy metal or carbon that make contact with the contacts of the commutator.

Putting It All Together:

When you put all of these parts together, what you have is a complete electric motor:
 In this figure, the armature winding has been left out so that it is easier to see the

commutator in action. The key thing to notice is that as the armature passes through the

horizontal position, the poles of the electromagnet flip. Because of the flip, the North

pole of the electromagnet is always above the axle so it can repel the field magnet's North

pole and attract the field magnet's South pole. If you ever take apart an electric motor you

will find that it contains the same pieces described above: two small permanent magnets,

a commutator, two brushes and an electromagnet made by winding wire around a piece

of metal. Almost always, however, the rotor will have three poles rather than the two

poles as shown in this article. There are two good reasons for a motor to have three poles:

It causes the motor to have better dynamics. In a two-pole motor, if the

electromagnet is at the balance point, perfectly horizontal between the two poles

of the field magnet when the motor starts; you can imagine the armature getting

"stuck" there. That never happens in a three-pole motor.

Each time the commutator hits the point where it flips the field in a two-pole

motor, the commutator shorts out the battery (directly connects the positive and

negative terminals) for a moment. This shorting wastes energy and drains the

battery needlessly. A three-pole motor solves this problem as well.

It is possible to have any number of poles, depending on the size of the motor and

the specific application it is being used in.

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Chapter-4
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TYPES OF MOTOR
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CHAPTER-4

TYPES OF MOTOR

Motor Types
Industrial motors come in a variety of basic types. These variations are suitable for many

different applications. Naturally, some types of motors are more suited for certain

applications than other motor types are. This document will hopefully give some

guidance in selecting these motors.

 AC Motors

 DC Motors

 Brushless DC Motors

 Servo Motors

 Brushed DC Servo Motors

 Brushless AC Servo Motors

 Stepper Motors

 Linear Motors

AC Motors

The most common and simple industrial motor is the three phase AC induction motor,

sometimes known as the "squirrel cage" motor. Substantial information can be found

about any motor by checking its (nameplate).

Advantages

 Simple Design

 Low Cost
  Reliable Operation

 Easily Found Replacements

 Variety of Mounting Styles

 Many Different Environmental Enclosures

Simple Design

The simple design of the AC motor -- simply a series of three windings in the exterior

(stator) section with a simple rotating section (rotor). The changing field caused by the 50

or 60 Hertz AC line voltage causes the rotor to rotate around the axis of the motor.

The speed of the AC motor depends only on three variables:

1. The fixed number of winding sets (known as poles) built into the motor, which

determines the motor's base speed.

2. The frequency of the AC line voltage. Variable speed drives change this frequency

to change the speed of the motor.

3. The amount of torque loading on the motor, which causes slip.

Low Cost

The AC motor has the advantage of being the lowest cost motor for applications requiring

more than about 1/2 hp (325 watts) of power. This is due to the simple design of the

motor. For this reason, AC motors are overwhelmingly preferred for fixed speed

applications in industrial applications and for commercial and domestic applications

where AC line power can be easily attached. Over 90% of all motors are AC induction

motors. They are found in air conditioners, washers, dryers, industrial machinery, fans,

blowers, vacuum cleaners, and many, many other applications.

Reliable Operation

The simple design of the AC motor results in extremely reliable, low maintenance

operation. Unlike the DC motor, there are no brushes to replace. If run in the appropriate

environment for its enclosure, the AC motor can expect to need new bearings after

several years of operation. If the application is well designed, an AC motor may not need

new bearings for more than a decade.

Easily Found Replacements

The wide use of the AC motor has resulted in easily found replacements. Many

manufacturers adhere to either European (metric) or American (NEMA) standards. (For

Replacement Motors)

Variety of Mounting Styles

AC Motors are available in many different mounting styles such as:

 Foot Mount

 C-Face

 Large Flange
  Vertical

 Specialty

Many Different Environmental Enclosures

Because of the wide range of environments in which people want to use motors, the AC

motor has been adapted by providing a wide range of enclosures:

 ODP - Open Drip Proof

 TEFC - Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled

 TEAO - Totally Enclosed Air Over

 TEBC - Totally Enclosed Blower Cooled

 TENV - Totally Enclosed Non-Ventilated

 TEWC - Totally Enclosed Water Cooled

Disadvantages

 Expensive speed control

 Inability to operate at low speeds

 Poor positioning control

Expensive speed control

Speed control is expensive. The electronics required to handle an AC inverter drive are

considerably more expensive than those required to handle a DC motor. However, if

performance requirements can be met -- meaning that the required speed range is over

1/3rd of base speed -- AC inverters and AC motors are usually more cost-effective than

DC motors and DC drives for applications larger than about 10 horsepower, because of

cost savings in the AC motor.

Inability to operate at low speeds

Standard AC motors should not be operated at speeds less than about 1/3rd of base speed.

This is due to thermal considerations. A DC motor should be considered for these

applications.

Poor positioning control

Positioning control is expensive and crude. Even a vector drive is very crude when

controlling a standard AC motor. Servo motors are more appropriate for these

applications.

DC Motors

The brushed DC motor is one of the earliest motor designs. Today, it is the motor of

choice in the majority of variable speed and torque control applications.

Advantages
  Easy to understand design

 Easy to control speed

 Easy to control torque

 Simple, cheap drive design

Easy to understand design

The design of the brushed DC motor is quite simple. A permanent magnetic field is

created in the stator by either of two means:

 Permanent magnets

 Electro-magnetic windings

If the field is created by permanent magnets, the motor is said to be a "permanent magnet

DC motor" (PMDC). If created by electromagnetic windings, the motor is often said to be

a "shunt wound DC motor" (SWDC). Today, because of cost-effectiveness and reliability,

the PMDC motor is the motor of choice for applications involving fractional horsepower

DC motors, as well as most applications up to about three horsepower.

At five horsepower and greater, various forms of the shunt wound DC motor are most

commonly used. This is because the electromagnetic windings are more cost effective

than permanent magnets in this power range.

Caution: If a DC motor suffers a loss of field (if for example, the field power connections

are broken), the DC motor will immediately begin to accelerate to the top speed which
the loading will allow. This can result in the motor flying apart if the motor is lightly

loaded. The possible loss of field must be accounted for, particularly with shunt wound

DC motors.

Opposing the stator field is the armature field, which is generated by a changing

electromagnetic flux coming from windings located on the rotor. The magnetic poles of

the armature field will attempt to line up with the opposite magnetic poles generated by

the stator field. If we stopped the design at this point, the motor would spin until the poles

were opposite one another, settle into place, and then stop -- which would make a pretty

useless motor!

However, we are smarter than that. The section of the rotor where the electricity enters

the rotor windings is called the commutator. The electricity is carried between the rotor

and the stator by conductive graphite-copper brushes (mounted on the rotor) which

contact rings on stator. Imagine power is supplied:

The motor rotates toward the pole alignment point. Just as the motor would get to this

point, the brushes jump across a gap in the stator rings. Momentum carries the motor

forward over this gap. When the brushes get to the other side of the gap, they contact the

stator rings again and -- the polarity of the voltage is reversed in this set of rings! The

motor begins accelerating again, this time trying to get to the opposite set of poles. (The

momentum has carried the motor past the original pole alignment point.) This continues

as the motor rotates.

In most DC motors, several sets of windings or permanent magnets are present to smooth

out the motion.

Easy to control speed

Controlling the speed of a brushed DC motor is simple. The higher the armature voltage,

the faster the rotation. This relationship is linear to the motor's maximum speed.

The maximum armature voltage which corresponds to a motor's rated speed (these

motors are usually given a rated speed and a maximum speed, such as 1750/2000 rpm)

are available in certain standard voltages, which roughly increase in conjuntion with

horsepower. Thus, the smallest industrial motors are rated 90 VDC and 180 VDC. Larger

units are rated at 250 VDC and sometimes higher.

Specialty motors for use in mobile applications are rated 12, 24, or 48 VDC. Other tiny

motors may be rated 5 VDC.

Most industrial DC motors will operate reliably over a speed range of about 20:1 -- down

to about 5-7% of base speed. This is much better performance than the comparible AC

motor. This is partly due to the simplicity of control, but is also partly due to the fact that

most industrial DC motors are designed with variable speed operation in mind, and have

added heat dissipation features which allow lower operating speeds.

Easy to control torque

In a brushed DC motor, torque control is also simple, since output torque is proportional

to current. If you limit the current, you have just limited the torque which the motor can

achieve. This makes this motor ideal for delicate applications such as textile

manufacturing.

Simple, cheap drive design

The result of this design is that variable speed or variable torque electronics are easy to

design and manufacture. Varying the speed of a brushed DC motor requires little more

than a large enough potentiometer. In practice, these have been replaced for all but sub-

fractional horsepower applications by the SCR and PWM drives, which offer relatively

precisely control voltage and current. Common DC drives are available at the low end

(up to 2 horsepower) for under US$100 -- and sometimes under US$50 if precision is not

important.

Large DC drives are available up to hundreds of horsepower. However, over about 10

horsepower careful consideration should be given to the price/performance tradeoffs with

AC inverter systems, since the AC systems show a price advantage in the larger systems.

(But they may not be capable of the application's performance requirments).

Disadvantages

 Expensive to produce

 Can't reliably control at lowest speeds

  Physically larger

 High maintenance

 Dust

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Chapter-5
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

D.C MOTOR
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-5

D.C MOTOR

D.C. MOTOR (PERMANENT MAGNET):

DESCRIPTION OF DC MOTOR
 An electric motor is a machine which converts electrical energy to mechanical
energy. Its action is based on the principle that when a current-carrying conductor is
placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a magnetic force whose direction is given by
Fleming’s left hand rule.

When a motor is in operation, it develops torque. This torque can produce

mechanical rotation. DC motors are also like generators classified into shunt wound or

series wound or compound wound motors.

FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE:

Keep the force finger, middle finger and thumb of the left hand mutually

perpendicular to one another. If the fore finger indicates the direction of magnetic field

and middle finger indicates direction of current in the conductor, then the thumb indicates

the direction of the motion of conductor.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF DC MOTOR:

Figure I show a uniform magnetic field in which a straight conductor carrying no

current is placed. The conductor is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field.
 In figure II the conductor is shown as carrying a current away from the viewer, but

the field due to the N and S poles has been removed. There is no movement of the

conductor during the above two conditions. In figure III the current carrying conductor is

placed in the magnetic field. The field due to the current in the conductor supports the

main field above the conductor, but opposes the main field below the conductor.

Movement of

Conductor

N S

Magnetic flux current carrying

Conductor

The result is to increase the flux density in to the region directly above the

conductor and to reduce the flux density in the region directly below the conductor. It is

found that a force acts on the conductor, trying to push the conductor downwards as

shown by the arrow. If the current in the conductor is reversed, the strengthening of flux

lines occurs below the conductor, and the conductor will be pushed upwards (figure-IV).
 Now consider a single turn coil carrying a current as shown in the above figure. in
view of the reasons given above, the coil side A will be forced to move downwards,
whereas the coil side B will be forced to move upwards. The forces acting on the coil
sides A and B will be of same magnitude. But their direction is opposite to one another.
As the coil is wound on the armature core which is supported by the bearings, the
armature will now rotate. The commutator periodically reverses the direction of current
flow through the armature. Therefore the armature will have a continuous rotation.

A simplified model of such a motor is shown in figure VI. The conductors are

wound over a soft iron core. DC supply is given to the field poles for producing flux.

The conductors are connected to the DC supply through brushes

Let's start by looking at the overall plan of a simple 2-pole DC electric motor. A

simple motor has 6 parts, as shown in the diagram below.

 An armature or rotor

 A commutator

 Brushes

 An axle

 A field magnet

 A DC power supply of some sort

 An electric motor is all about magnets and magnetism: a motor uses magnets to

create motion. If you have ever played with magnets you know about the fundamental

law of all magnets: Opposites attract and likes repel.

So if you have 2 bar magnets with their ends marked north and south, then the

North end of one magnet will attract the South end of the other. On the other hand, the

North end of one magnet will repel the North end of the other (and similarly south will

repel south). Inside an electric motor these attracting and repelling forces create rotational

motion.
 In the diagram above and below you can see two magnets in the motor, the

armature (or rotor) is an electromagnet, while the field magnet is a permanent magnet

(the field magnet could be an electromagnet as well, but in most small motors it is not to

save power).

Electromagnets and Motors:

To understand how an electric motor works, the key is to understand how the

electromagnet works. An electromagnet is the basis of an electric motor. You can

understand how things work in the motor by imagining the following scenario. Say that

you created a simple electromagnet by wrapping 100 loops of wire around a nail and

connecting it to a battery. The nail would become a magnet and have a North and South

pole while the battery is connected.

Now say that you take your nail electromagnet, run an axle through the middle of

it, and you suspended it in the middle of a horseshoe magnet as shown in the figure

below. If you were to attach a battery to the electromagnet so that the North end of the

nail appeared as shown, the basic law of magnetism tells you what would happen: The
North end of the electromagnet would be repelled from the north end of the horseshoe

magnet and attracted to the south end of the horseshoe magnet.

The South end of the electromagnet would be repelled in a similar way. The nail

would move about half a turn and then stop in the position shown.

You can see that this half-turn of

motion is simple and obvious because of

the way magnets naturally attract and

repel one another. The key to an electric

motor is to then go one step further so

that, at the moment that this half-turn of

motion completes, the field of the

electromagnet flips. The flip causes the

electromagnet to complete another half-turn of motion.

You flip the magnetic field simply by changing the direction of the electrons

flowing in the wire (you do that by flipping the battery over). If the field of the
electromagnet flipped at just the right moment at the end of each half-turn of motion, the

electric motor would spin freely.

The Armature:

The armature takes the place of the nail in an electric

motor. The armature is an electromagnet made by coiling thin wire

around two or more poles of a metal core. The armature has an

axle, and the commutator is attached to the axle. In the diagram

above you can see three different views of the same armature:

front, side and end-on. In the end-on view the winding is eliminated to make the

commutator more obvious. You can see that the commutator is simply a pair of plates

attached to the axle. These plates provide the two connections for the coil of the

electromagnet.

The Commutator and brushes:

 The "flipping the electric field" part of an electric motor is

accomplished by two parts: the commutator and the brushes. The

diagram at the right shows how the commutator and brushes work

together to let current flow to the electromagnet, and also to flip

the direction that the electrons are flowing at just the right

moment. The contacts of the commutator are attached to the axle

of the electromagnet, so they spin with the magnet. The brushes are just two pieces of

springy metal or carbon that make contact with the contacts of the commutator.

Putting It All Together:

When you put all of these parts together, what you have is a complete electric motor:
 In this figure, the armature winding has been left out so that it is easier to see the

commutator in action. The key thing to notice is that as the armature passes through the

horizontal position, the poles of the electromagnet flip. Because of the flip, the North

pole of the electromagnet is always above the axle so it can repel the field magnet's North

pole and attract the field magnet's South pole. If you ever take apart an electric motor you

will find that it contains the same pieces described above: two small permanent magnets,

a commutator, two brushes and an electromagnet made by winding wire around a piece

of metal. Almost always, however, the rotor will have three poles rather than the two

poles as shown in this article. There are two good reasons for a motor to have three poles:

It causes the motor to have better dynamics. In a two-pole motor, if the

electromagnet is at the balance point, perfectly horizontal between the two poles

of the field magnet when the motor starts; you can imagine the armature getting

"stuck" there. That never happens in a three-pole motor.

Each time the commutator hits the point where it flips the field in a two-pole

motor, the commutator shorts out the battery (directly connects the positive and

negative terminals) for a moment. This shorting wastes energy and drains the

battery needlessly. A three-pole motor solves this problem as well.

It is possible to have any number of poles, depending on the size of the motor and

the specific application it is being used in.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-6
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

BLOCK DIAGRAM
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 CHAPTER-6

BLOCK DIAGRAM

The block diagram of automatic board cleaner is shown in figure, it consist of a

solar panel, 12V battery, D.C. motor, pulleys and frame stand. As we studied from the

sbattery gives a D.C. output of 12V this D.C. output is not always constant there is some

variation in this D.C.

The series connected battery gets changed then this D.C. storage is given to a D.C

motor. The motor and pulley driving mechanism is used to clean the board by using

battery energy

SPUR GEAR
MECHANISM PULLEYS AND
BATTERY P.M.D.C.
P.M.D.C. BOARD CLEANER
MOTOR
MOTOR
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-7
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

WORKING
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 CHAPTER-7

WORKING

The block diagram of automatic board cleaner is shown in figure, it consist of a

solar panel, 12V battery, D.C. motor, pulleys and frame stand. As we studied from the

sbattery gives a D.C. output of 12V this D.C. output is not always constant there is some

variation in this D.C.

The block diagram of Automatic board cleaner is shown in figure, it consist of a 2V

battery, D.C. motor, pulleys and frame stand. The forward and reverse switch is used to
control the D.C motor so that it’s run in both the direction. The motor and pulley driving
mechanism is used to clean the board with suitable arrangement.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-8
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

DESIGN AND CALCULATION

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 CHAPTER-8

DESIGN OF D.C. MOTOR

Torque in a motor:

By the term torque, it is meant the turning or twisting moment of a force about an
axis. It is measured by the product of the force and the radius at which this force acts.

For an armature of a motor, to rotate about its centre, a tangential force is

necessary. This force is developed with in the motor itself.

Torque (T) = ½ ( Ia / A ) BDC Z Newton meters

Using the relation,

B = φ/a

= φ/(ΠD/P)ł

= φ x P / ( Π Dł )

T = ½ x (Ia / A) x Z x φ x {P/ (ΠDł) } x Dł

= φ Z P Ia / ( 2ΠA ) Newton meters

= 0.159 x φ x Z x Ia X (P/A) Newton meters

= 0.162 x φ x Z x Ia x (P/A) Kg-m

The torque given by the above equation is the developed torque in the machine.
But the output torque is less than the developed torque due to friction and windage losses.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-9
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

LIST OF PARTS
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 CHAPTER-9

LIST OF PARTS

Sl. No. PARTS Qty. MATERIAL

i. belt 1 rubber
ii. frame Stand 1 Mild Steel
iii. Battery (12V D.C) 1 Lead-Acid
iv. Bolts & Nuts - Mild Steel
v. Permanent magnet D.C motor 1 Cu
vi. Connecting Wire - Cu
vii Pulleys 4 M.S

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-10
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

COST ESTIMATION
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-10

COST ESTIMATION
Sl. No. PARTS Qty. MATERIAL AMOUNT (Rs)
i. belt 1 rubber
ii. frame Stand 1 Mild Steel
iii. Battery (12V D.C) 1 Lead-Acid
iv. Bolts & Nuts - Mild Steel
v. Permanent Magnet D.C Motor 1 Cu
vi. Connecting Wire - Cu
vii Pulleys 4 M.S

TOTAL =

2. LABOUR COST

DRILLING, WELDING, POWER HACKSAW, GAS CUTTING, AND PCB

DESIGNING:
Cost =

3. OVERHEAD CHARGES

The overhead charges are arrived by “Manufacturing cost”

Manufacturing Cost = Material Cost + Labour cost

=
=

Overhead Charges = 20% of the manufacturing cost

 =

TOTAL COST

Total cost = Material Cost + Labour cost + Overhead Charges

=
=

Total cost for this project =

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-11
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ADVANTAGES
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-11

ADVANTAGES

Its construction is simple and requires less maintenance.

Low cost
 Portable in size and Easy transportable
No external devices are used here to control it.
Less Manual Work
Time saving Project

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-12
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

DISADVANTAGES
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-12

DISADVANTAGES

 Externally charged by the battery

  Additional cost is required

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-13
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

APPLICATION
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-13

APPLICATIONS

College and School Application

Tuition center, conference hall and meeting hall
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-14
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CONCLUSION
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 CHAPTER-14

CONCLUSION

This project work has provided us an excellent opportunity and experience, to use

our limited knowledge. We gained a lot of practical knowledge regarding, planning,

purchasing, assembling and machining while doing this project work. We feel that the

project work is a good solution to bridge the gates between institution and industries.

We are proud that we have completed the work with the limited time successfully.

The AUTOMATIC BOARD CLEANER is working with satisfactory conditions. We

are able to understand the difficulties in maintaining the tolerances and also quality. We

have done to our ability and skill making maximum use of available facilities.

In conclusion remarks of our project work, let us add a few more lines about our

impression project work. Thus we have developed an “AUTOMATIC BOARD

CLEANER” which helps to know how to achieve non-conventional board cleaning

process. By using more techniques, they can be modified and developed according to the

applications.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

BIBLIOGRAPHY
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

The books referred are,

1. SOLAR ENERGY UTILIZATION G.D.RAI

2. SOLAR ENERGY S.P.SUKHATME
3. NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY DEVICES
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

PHOTOGRAPHY
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PHOTOGRAPHY