Indian Journal of Health and Wellbeing © 2014 Indian Association of Health,

2014, 5(10), 1124-1129 Research and Welfare

http://www.iahrw.com/index.php/home/journal_detail/19#list ISSN-p-2229-5356,e-2321-3698

Study on depression, hopelessness, anxiety, cognitive rigidity, affective

dysregulation and family environment as predictors of suicide
ideation among male adolescents
Ibadat Khan, V.V. Upmanyu and Seema Vinayak Sajjan Kumar
Department of Psychology, Panjab University Government College for Women
Chandigarh Lakhanmajra, Rohtak, Haryana

Suicide is a social as well mental problem worldwide. Suicide ideation is the pre-indication of suicide attempts or
completion of suicide. Adolescents are at risk of suicide ideation while facing life challenges. It is often seen in the
higher rate of suicide commitment among young male population. Many cognitive, emotional, and familial factors
play a major role in evoking suicidal thoughts among male adolescents. The present study was an attempt to
investigate the role of depression, hopelessness, anxiety, cognitive rigidity, affective dysregulation, and family
environment as predictors of suicide ideation. The sample consisted of 150 male adolescents with age range of 15-
17 years from different government schools of Chandigarh. The obtained data was analyzed with stepwise
regression analysis. The results revealed that combination of decreased organization and moral-religious emphasis
in family environment and depression were the potent predictors of suicide ideation among male adolescents.

Keywords: suicide ideation, adolescents, depression, affective dysregulation, family environment

Suicidal ideation refers to thoughts of harming or killing oneself.
Attempted suicide is a non-fatal, self-inflicted destructive act with
explicit or inferred intent to die. Suicide is a fatal self-inflicted
destructive act with explicit or inferred intent to die. Suicidality
refers to all suicide-related behaviors and thoughts including
completing or attempting suicide, suicidal ideation or
communications. Suicidal behavior has different levels such as
ideation, contemplation, planning and preparation, attempt, and
consummation. Likewise, suicidal behavior comprises all the actions
aimed at achieving suicide. Rate of completed suicide is much higher
in male adolescents as compared to female adolescents (Grunbaum
et al., 2004). Male adolescents are more prone to suicidality due to
various psycho-social factors such as use of more lethal methods,
unemployment, weaker coping mechanisms, social expectations and
role-perception in the modern society. Male suicide reached a peak
for those aged 2529 years (21.9 per 100,000) while female suicide
showed less variation with age (Lotrakul, 2006).
It is seen that due to depressive reactions, in adolescence, there is a
tendency to a reduction of emotional well-being. Thus, adolescents
may engage in dangerous behavior, extreme narcissism and
individualization, exclusion and a feeling social isolation. Another
element playing an important role during adolescence is self-esteem.
Low self-esteem could lead to isolation, passivity, and apathy.
Murphy (1998) suggested that men were more likely to complete
suicide due to the decreased likelihood that major depression will be
recognized and treated in later life. Recurrent depression is a strong
predictor of suicidal ideation which further leads to suicide attempt
among the male adolescents (Roaten, 2008). On the other hand, high
self-esteem is associated with more active lives, a greater control
over situational challenges, less anxiety and greater capacity to cope
with internal and external stress. Although there are other factors that
could predispose adolescents toward suicidal behavior, certain
Correspondence should be sent to Ibadat Khan
Department of Psychology, Panjab University, Chandigarh
studies have identified depressive symptomatology as the most
powerful and independent risk factor in suicidal ideation and it has
been argued that it should be regarded as an expression of severe
depression (Tapia, Barrios, & González-Forteza, 2007).
Further, depression may raise the risk of suicide in children and
adolescents, as it does in adults. According to data from the Youth
Risk Behavior Surveillance Survey, nearly 20% of youth seriously
considered attempting suicide during the preceding year (Glied &
Pine, 2002).
Further, hopelessness is one of the major components of Beck's
negative cognitive triad i.e. negative cognitions about future. When
confronted with a negative event, individuals with a negative
thinking process are vulnerable to depression, because they will
infer that negative consequences will follow from this negative
event and\ that occurrence of that event means that the individuals
themselves are worthless or flawed (McGinn, 2000). The expression
of hopelessness in conjunction with a mental disorder such as
depression represents a very dangerous warning sign and always
needs to be taken seriously. It is a feeling that conditions will never
improve, that there is no solution to a problem, and, for many, a
feeling that dying by suicide would be better than living. Most
people who feel hopeless have depression, and untreated depression
is the number one cause for suicide. This powerful predictor of
eventual suicide addressed three major aspects of hopelessness:
feelings about the future, loss of motivation, and expectations
(Pompoli et al., 2007). There is a high association with hopelessness
in long-term suicide risk. Not specific to depression, hopelessness
can accompany demoralization with a number of other syndromes:
schizophrenia, anxiety disorder, and chronic conditions, including
medical condition According to Beck's formulation, hopelessness is
a core characteristic of depression and serves as the link between
depression and suicide. Furthermore, hopelessness associated with
other psychiatric disorders also predisposes the patient to suicidal
behavior. The central role of hopelessness in the development of
suicidal ideation has been supported by empirical research (Dyer &
1125 Indian Journal of Health and Wellbeing 2014, 5(10), 1124-1129
Kreitman, 1984; Nekanda-Trepka, Bishop, & Blackburn, 1983;
Bedrosian & Beck, 1979; Minkoff, Bergman, Beck, & Beck, 1973).
Wetzel et al. (1980) reviewed studies addressing the relationships
among depression, hopelessness, and suicidal ideation and
concluded that the preponderant evidence supported the linkage of
hopelessness and suicide intent.
Likewise, anxiety is one of the most common psychological
disorders in school-aged children and adolescents worldwide
(Costello, Mustillo, Erkanli, Keeler, & Angold, 2003). Anxiety is
considered to be a universal phenomenon existing across cultures,
although its contexts and manifestations are influenced by cultural
beliefs and practices (Guarnaccia, 1997; Kleinman & Good, 1985).
Anxiety is associated with substantial negative effects on children's
social, emotional and academic success (Essau, Conradt, &
Petermann, 2000). Specific effects include poor social and coping
skills, often leading to avoidance of social interactions (Weeks,
Coplan, & Kingsbury, 2009; Albano, Chorpita, & Barlow, 2003).
Importantly, school avoidance, decreased problem solving abilities,
and lower academic achievement have also been noted as
consequences (McLoone, Hudson, & Rapee, 2006).
Bettes and Walker (1986), using a clinical interview method
among 7,828 black children, ranging in age from 11 to 18 years,
identified a higher prevalence of anxiety among those who reported
suicidal ideation compared with those without suicidal ideation.
They also found that the suicidal boys were markedly more anxious
than the suicidal girls. Brent and colleagues (1986), using the
Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (DISC; Costello,
Edelbrock, Kalas, Kessler, & Klaric, 1982), identified high levels of
anxiety among suicidal children and adolescents, ranging in age from 6
to 18 years, who had been referred for an outpatient evaluation.
Cognitive rigidity has been defined as a rigid style of perceiving
and reacting to the environment that render it difficult for a suicidal
individual to formulate alternative approaches to problem
(Patsiokas, Clum, & Luscomb, 1979). Cognitive rigidity and
dichotomous thinking play a significant role in suicide ideation and
self destructive methods. These aspects of self-destructive behavior
have mostly been observed in clinical settings (Shneidman, 1985),
Suicidal individuals have been found to be rigid in their
personality structure, cognition, self-definition and behaviour
(Duberstein, 1995; Clark & Fawcett, 1992; Ellis, 1962). Similarly,
Eliason (2001) compared psychiatric suicide attempters and non-
attempters. The attempters were found to have much more rigid
personalities and rigid cognitions than the former. With regard to
sensitivity to life events, early studies focused on the hypothesis that
a generalized cognitive rigidity mediates the relationship between
stressful life events and suicidal behaviour. However, more recent
findings are consistent with the possibility that among people with
depression those who attempt suicide differ from those who do not on
some but not all neuropsychological tests (King et al., 2000).
Further it can be noted that the successful accomplishment of the
developmental tasks of childhood and adolescence requires affect
regulation, and the ability to regulate their emotions as well as their
behaviour translates into physical and mental health for adolescents.
Affective dysregulation is marked by an inability to regulate
emotions appropriately and susceptibility to irritability and negative
affect (Mezzich, Tarter, Giancola, & Kirisci, 2001). According to
Plattner et al. (2007), in stressful situations, affectively dysregulated
individuals experience a confluence of negative emotions (i.e., fear,
sadness and anger) in a way that causes them to react in an overly
aggressive manner.
Arria et al. (2009) compared students with and without suicide
ideation on each item of the Affective Dysregulation subscale.
Interestingly, all but three items are significantly different between
the groups (p > .05), and some items exhibit particularly large
differences. In general, it appears that items relating to an inability to
control one's anger or depressed mood are observed much more
frequently in students with suicide ideation. Suicide ideation among
students is associated with affective dysregulation, independent of
depressive symptoms, social support, and other factors.
The impact of family environment also plays a significant role in
suicidal cognition as family settings and parenting affect the
psychological functioning and decision-making process. It is
generally accepted that the causes of suicidality are complex and
often result from the complex interplay of different variables
operating at different levels (e.g., George & van den Berg, 2012;
Cantor and Neulinger, 2000; Williams, 1997; Dubow et al., 1989).
Consistent with Bronfenbrenner's (1979) ecological model, these
variables can range from macro-level and external factors such as
broader cultural and economic climates (Durkheim, 1951) to micro-
level family and personal influences. Important family influences
are thought to include: the socio-economic or financial status of
households; the availability of employment; and, the quality of
family functioning. Unstable, unhappy, or less nurturing family
environments are thought to either cause or compound existing
personal problems that increase suicide risk. Such personal
problems can include poor self-esteem or self-image (e.g., body
image), negative mood or depression, feelings of anxiety and
malaise, poorer physical health or the capacity to form close
personal relationships. Some researches indicate that social
relationships relevant to adolescence also appear to influence
suicidality. For example, it has been found that young people who
are bullied, or bullies themselves, are more likely to score higher on
measures of suicidality (Turne, Finkelhor, Shattuck, & Hamby,
2012; Winsper, Lereya, Zanarini, & Wolke, 2012; Kolmek,
Sourander, & Gould, 2010; Peter, Roberts, & Buzdugan 2008).
The present study is an investigation to examine the relationship
of suicide ideation with depression, hopelessness, anxiety, affective
dysregulation, cognitive rigidity and family environment among
male adolescents. Many different psychosocial variables are
included to identify the best predictors of suicide ideation among
male adolescents. Indeed, the present study is also an attempt to
expand the existing literature by incorporating in its purview,
various gaps and limitations of earlier researches conducted on the
salience of suicide ideation.
Objective of the study
● To study the relationship of suicide ideation with depression,
hopelessness, anxiety, cognitive rigidity, affective dysregulation
and different dimensions of family environment among male
adolescents.
Hypotheses of the study
● It was expected that there would be positive relationship of
suicide ideation with depression, hopelessness, anxiety, cognitive
rigidity, and affective dysregulation among male adolescents.
● It was expected that suicide ideation would be differentially
related to different dimensions of perceived family functioning
among male adolescents.
 KHAN ET AL./ STUDY ON DEPRESSION, HOPELESSNESS, ANXIETY, COGNITIVE
Method
Participants
The sample for the present study comprised of 150 male adolescents
in the stage of mid-adolescence with age range of 15-17 years from
Government schools of Chandigarh. To select research sample,
purposive-incidental sampling technique was employed.
Participation was voluntary and informed consent was obtained. The
inclusion and exclusion criterion was considered before selecting the
participants.
Inclusion Criterion:
● The participants were selected from non-clinical population.
● There was no evidence of any substance abuse or alcoholism.
● The sample was selected from different Government schools of
Chandigarh.
● The sample was limited to mid-adolescence (15-17 years).
● All the participants belonged to intact families i.e. participants are
residing with their parents.
Exclusion Criterion:
Participants with current and post historic psychiatric inpatient
service were excluded.
Instruments
Zung Self-Rating Depression Inventory (Zung, 1965): Zung Self-
Rating Depression Scale was selected because it intended to quantify
depressive symptoms. It is appropriate for use in studies of
depressive symptomatology. For each item, respondent indicate the
frequency with which they have experienced a specific feature
during the preceding month by selecting one of the four alternatives
(i.e. a little, some, good part, or most of the time), with numerical
value ranging from 1 to 4 for positive statements. The maximum
possible ZSRS score is 80, while a score of 20 indicates the complete
absence of depressive symptoms. Higher the score the greater is the
symptomatology. The scale seems to be well balanced with equal
numbers of positive and negative statements as out of the 20 items
used ten are worded symptomatologically positive and other ten are
worded symptomatologically negative. The psychometric
characteristics of the scale are well established.
Affective Dysregulation Inventory (Mezzich, Tarter, Giancola, &
Kirisci, 2001): Affective dysregulation is 28-items subscale of
Dysregulation Inventory (DI) developed by Mezzich, Tarter,
Giancola, & Kirisci (2001). It measures the emotionally
dysregulated behaviour of individual. Respondents are asked to
indicate how often each statement is true in describing their behavior.
Responses are scored from 0 for “never true” to 3 for “always true.”
Higher scores on the affective dysregulation subscale (DI-A)
indicate high emotional reactivity and low control over one's
emotional state. Items were summed for the 28 items comprising the
affective dysregulation subscale (Cronbach's α=.884).
IPAT Anxiety Scale Questionnaire (Cattell & Scheier, 1963): The
IPAT Anxiety Scale Questionnaire is a 40-items scale. It gives an
accurate appraisal of free anxiety level, supplementing clinical
diagnosis and facilitating all kinds of research in the form of covert
and overt anxiety. The total anxiety score consisted of five
components of second-order anxiety factors as Factor Q3 (defective
integration; lack of self sentiment), Factor C (ego weakness; lack of
ego strength), Factor L (suspiciousness; paranoid insecurity), Factor
O (guilt proneness), Factor Q4 (frustrative tension; id pressure). The
1126
reliability and validity of the questionnaire have been found to be satis-
factory (Upmanyu & Singh, 1996; Hundal, Sudhakar, & Sidhu, 1972).
Family Environment Scale (Moos & Moss, 1994): Family
Environment Scale is a 90 true false items scale including 10
subscales referring to cohesion, expressiveness, conflict,
independence, achievement orientation, intellectual-cultural
orientation, active-recreational orientation, moral-religious
emphasis, organization and control. It measures the different family
interactions among the family members. The internal consistency
(Cronbach's alpha coefficient) ranges from .61 to .78 for ten
subscales.
Hopelessness Scale (Beck, Weissman, Lester, & Trexler, 1974): The
Beck Hopelessness Scale is a 20-item self-report measure which
assesses the feelings about the future, future expectations, loss of
motivation and overall hopelessness. Participants are asked to read a
statement and responds true or false based on how they currently
feel. In scoring the measure, each item receives a 0 or 1. Nine items
are keyed false and 11 items are keyed true, so that the total
hopelessness score is a sum of the scores on the individual items.
The BHS score indicates severity of pessimism about the future,
ranging from 0 to 20. Among psychiatric patients, the BHS has
yielded a reliability coefficient of .93 (Beck, Weissman, Lester, &
Trexler, 1974), and more recent data has supported comparable
findings (Dyce, 1996).
Torrance Test of Creative Thinking-Figural form (Torrance, 1966):
The TTCT was developed by Torrance in 1966. The TTCT-Figural
has two parallel forms, A and B, and consists of three activities:
picture construction, picture completion, and repeated figures of
lines or circles. Activity I requires the subject to construct a picture
using a pear or jellybean shape provided on the page as a stimulus.
The stimulus must be an integral part of the picture construction.
Activity II requires the subject to use 10 incomplete figures to make
an object or picture. The last activity, Activity III, is composed of
three pages of lines or circles that the subject is to use as a part of his
or her picture (Torrance & Ball, 1984). The TTCT is used to assess
originality, flexibility and fluency of cognition of an individual as an
index of creative thinking. According to the TTCT manuals of 1966
and 1974, the testretest reliability coefficients have ranged from .50
to .93 and found to have appropriate validity (Treffinger, 1985).
Scale for Suicide Ideation (Beck, Kovacs, & Weissman, 1979):
Beck's Scale for Suicide Ideation includes 21 items designed to
evaluate the presence and severity of suicidal thoughts. The first 19
items measure the severity of suicidal wishes, attitudes, and plans.
Patients rate each item on a scale of 0 to 2, with 2 being most severe.
The last two items address the number of previous suicide attempts
and the intention to die associated with the last attempt. The SSI has
been found useful in quantifying the degree of suicidal ideation a
person is experiencing and can serve as a key warning sign in
identifying suicide risk. The SSI has demonstrated strong internal
consistency with a coefficient alpha of .93 among psychiatric
outpatients. Among psychiatric inpatients, the SSI has demonstrated
coefficient alphas of .89 (Beck et al., 1979) and .96 (Beck, Steer, &
Ranieri, 1988). Studies on the psychometric properties of the SSI
have shown evidence of inter-rater reliability (Beck et al., 1979),
convergent validity (Holden & DeLisle, 2005), concurrent, and
construct validity (Beck et al., 1988).
Procedure
Prospective participants were given a verbal description of the study
1127 Indian Journal of Health and Wellbeing 2014, 5(10), 1124-1129

and those interested in participation were given different

questionnaires. The completion of the questionnaires was

orientation, ARO=active-recreational orientation, MRE=moral-religious emphasis, Org=organization, Ctrl=control

Note: SI=suicide ideation, Dep=depression, AD=affective dysregulation, C=cohesion, Exp=expressiveness, Con=conflicts, Ind=independence, AO= achievements orientation, ICO=intellectual-cultural
**p< .01
Ctrl
Org
MRE
ARO
ICO
AO
Ind
Con
Ex
C
TTCT
ASQ
AD
HS
ZSRDS
BSI
Variables
Table 1: Correlation matrix of different variables among male adolescents
voluntary and participants gave informed consent to
participate. All participants completed the questionnaire during
the school working hours. The participants were assisted as
needed. The general testing conditions were satisfactory.
Sincere efforts were made to establish rapport with the subjects
in order to elicit reliable and authentic information. Subjects

-
BSI
were told that the information was being collected purely for
research purpose. They were also assured that the information
to be collected would remain strictly confidential and would be

-
.178
ZSRDS
presented only in a form in which no person could be identified.

Results and discussion

-.004
HS
.017
In the present study, it was hypothesized that there would be
positive relationship of suicide ideation with depression,
hopelessness, anxiety, cognitive rigidity, and affective

-
.231**
.331**
.144
AD
dysregulation among male adolescents. Another hypothesis
was that suicide ideation would be differentially related to
different dimensions of perceived family functioning among
male adolescents. It was an attempt to collaborate cognitive,

-.043
ASQ
.146
.140
.214**
behavioral and familial variables together and to investigate the
potential predictors of suicide ideation among male
adolescents.

-
-.010
-.199
-.189
-.120
-.142
TTCT
A perusal of Table 1 reveals that dimensions of family
environment such as moral-religious emphasis (r = -0.261, p<
.01) and organization (r = -0.271, p< .01) are negatively

-.090
-.009
-.019
-.145
C
.083
.015
correlated with suicide ideation. These negative correlations
between variables suggest that lack of moral and religious
values and organization in the family leads to higher suicide -

-.020
-.172
-.016
-.114
Ex
.104
.060
.097
ideation. The correlations revealed that family environment
plays a significant role in transforming suicidal in upcoming
generations. Familial suicide behavior may be mediated by the
-
-.103

-.011
Con
.136
.049
.262**
.056
.163
.029
transmission of endopheno types, such as impulsivity inducing
disorganization in family functioning (Diaconu & Turecki,
2009; Brent & Melhem, 2008). So disorganization in
-
-.127

-.003

-.006
-.016
-.137

-.003
Ind
.017

.088

.018

combination with lack of moral-religious values in family

highly correlated with suicide ideation among male
adolescents.
-

-.155
-.018

-.096
-.074

-.104

AO
.211**

.176
.117

.037

.016

Table 2 reveals that organization (Org) in the family

environment was the first variable to be entered in the
regression equation. Organization correlated negatively with
-
-.169
-.056
-.112

-.061
-.034

-.114

-.051
ICO
.064
.035

.084

.002

suicide ideation (R = -.271, p< 0.01) for male adolescents. It

accounts for 7.4% (R2 = .074) of the variance in suicide
ideation.
-

-.125
-.076

-.126
-.196
-.033

-.167

-.076
ARO
.097

.002
.081

.073

.087

At the second step moral-religious emphasis (MRE) which

also correlated negatively with suicide ideation was entered in
the regression equation, resulting in R2 change of .057. In
-

-.010

-.138

-.002

-.045

-.261**
MRE
.076
.186

.019

.128
.060

.149
.000

.083

combination with organization, it accounts for 13% (R2 = .130)

of the variance in suicide ideation.
It indicates that lack of organization and moral-religious
-

-.120
-.073

-.112
-.019

-.020
-.050
-.080

-.271**
Org
.089

.154
.079

.099
.202

.073

emphasis in the family predict more chances of suicide to occur

among the male adolescents. Likewise, depression (Dep)
which correlated positively with suicide ideation was the third
-
-.120

-.053
-.155
-.113

-.276**

Ctrl
.177
.207
.141

.184
.102

.006
.129
.070
.100
.063

variable to be entered in the regression equation. It accounts for

17.8% (R2 = .178) of the variance in suicide ideation in
combination with organization and moral-religious emphasis
in the family.
 KHAN ET AL./ STUDY ON DEPRESSION, HOPELESSNESS, ANXIETY, COGNITIVE 1128

Table 2: Multiple R and R2 Change at Different Successive Steps (Male Adolescents: N = 150)
2 2
Variables Predictors Variables R R R change df1 df2 F
Suicide Ideation (criterion variable)
1. Organization -.271 .074 .074 1 148 7.79**
2. Moral-religious emphasis -.361 .130 .057 1 147 6.32**
3. Depression .422 .178 .047 1 146 5.52*
** p< .01, *p< .05

Table 3: Standard coefficients for different variables (Male
Adolescents)
Variable B SE t Significance
Suicide ideation (criterion variable)
1. Organization -.265 .337 2.842 .005
2. Moral-religious emphasis -.256 .368 2.746 .007
3. Depression .219 .080 2.351 .020
The results reported in Table 3 further revealed that for male
adolescents, the regression of suicide ideation as criterion variable
(dependent variable), on the foregoing stock of variables revealed
significant effects for the following variables:
(1) Organization (b = -.265, t = 2.842, p < .005)
(2) Moral-religious emphasis (b = -.256, t = 2.746, p < .007)
(3) Depression (b = -.219, t = 2.351, p < .02)
Earlier studies also found similar results. Clinical predictors of
suicide in people with major depressive disorder also include a
history of attempted suicide, high levels of hopelessness, and high
ratings of suicidal tendencies (Coryell & Young, 2005). Such family
environments contribute to stress, anger and fear, feelings of self
blame and lowered self-worth (Delfebbro, Winefield, & Winefield,
2013).
Such kind of results may have many psycho-social possible
reasons. Earlier researches conducted on suicidality suggested that
family history of suicide, life stress, neurotic tendencies etc. induce
suicide ideation among male adolescents (Gupta & Datta, 2013,
Brent & Mann, 2005). Familial transmission of suicidal behaviour
and negative coping strategies might also be a significant possible
reason for increased suicidality among the sample (Nakagawa et al.,
2009).
Results of the stepwise regression analysis demonstrated that the
linear combination of organization, moral-religious emphasis and
depression is the significant model to predict suicide ideation among
male adolescents. The present study has some limitations. Only male
participants were studied and social support is not included among
the sample. More comprehensive research can be done with
comparison to female adolescents and social variables can be
included for further exploration.
Conclusion
Suicidal thoughts and behaviour during adolescence present unique
challenges to both researchers and clinicians. The transition between
early adolescence and late adolescence is typically characterized by
high levels of stress associated with adjusting to a new social
environment and increased academic demands. This study identified
several potential targets for suicide prevention initiatives directed
towards adolescents. Many of the predictors of suicide ideation were
identified, especially depression and organization and moral-
religious emphasis as part of family environment for male
adolescents. A better understanding of the role of such variables can
lead to frame an appropriate prevention and treatment programs.
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