Assignment # 1 DOPING

Subject Inorganic Chemistry

Submitted To: Madam Dr. Qudsia

Submitted By Group 1

Submission date: 15-April-2017

MSc. Chemistry (Weekend)

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Table of Contents
1 DOPING ................................................................................................................................................... 3
2 HISTORY .................................................................................................................................................. 3
3 DOPING IN SEMICONDUCTORS............................................................................................................... 4
4 N-DOPING (DONOR)................................................................................................................................ 4
5 P-DOPING (ACCEPTOR) ........................................................................................................................... 6
6 ELECTRONIC BAND STRUCTURE IN DOPED SEMICONDUCTORS ............................................................. 7
7 BENEFITS OF DOPING / APPLICATIONS ................................................................................................... 7
7.1 DIODES: ........................................................................................................................................... 8
7.2 SEMICONDUCTOR FUSES: ............................................................................................................... 8
7.3 TRANSISTORS: ................................................................................................................................. 9
7.4 THYRISTOR: ..................................................................................................................................... 9
7.5 PHOTO RESISTOR: ........................................................................................................................... 9
7.6 RESISTOR ......................................................................................................................................... 9
7.7 CAPACITOR ...................................................................................................................................... 9
7.8 INDUCTOR ....................................................................................................................................... 9
7.9 TRANSISTOR .................................................................................................................................... 9

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1 DOPING
Yet Alan J. Heeger, Alan G. MacDiarmid and Hideki Shirakawa have changed this view with their discovery
that a polymer, polyacetylene, can be made conductive almost like a metal.

2 HISTORY
The earliest recorded history of semiconductors is traced back to Alessandro Volta in 1782 and the first
documented observation of the semiconductor effect was by Michael Faraday (1833). In 1929, the
presence of the barrier in the metal semiconductor junction was found by Walter Schottky.

Semiconductors were studied by Bernhard Gudden in 1930 that chemical pure substances did not exhibit
semiconductivity. This behavior was dependent on the type and quantity of the impurities present in the
given substance.

Between 1930 to 1938 a lot of work was done in this field to enhance our understanding with Rudolf
Peierls presenting the concept of forbidden gaps, followed by Alan Wilson developing the empty and
filled energy bands for solids and Hisenberg developed the concept of the hole. In 1938 Boris Davydov
presented with his theory of the p-n diode, excess carriers and recombination on a copper oxide rectifier.

Russel Ohl truly isolated the p-n impurities and the p-n junction accidently when he melted the cat’s
whisker detectors as he felt that these were of bad quality.

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The other important names are:
1) John Bardeen and Walter Brattain
2) John Shive
3) Gordon K. Teal and John B. Little
4) William G. Pfann
5) Jean Hoerni
6) Herbert Kroemer
7) Jack Kilby
8) Leo Esaki
9) Julius Lilienfeld
10) Oskar Heil
11) M. M. Atalla
12) Willard Boyle and George Smith
13) Paul Weimer and Torkel Wallmark

3 DOPING IN SEMICONDUCTORS
In semiconductor production, doping is the intentional introduction of impurities into an intrinsic
semiconductor for the purpose of modulating its electrical properties. The doped material is referred to
as extrinsic semiconductors. A semiconductor doped to such high levels that it acts more like
a conductor than a semiconductor is referred to as a degenerate semiconductor.

Two of the most important materials silicon can be doped with, are boron (3 valence electrons = 3-valent)
and phosphorus (5 valence electrons = 5-valent). Other materials are aluminum, indium (3-valent) and
arsenic, antimony (5-valent).

The dopant is integrated into the lattice structure of the semiconductor crystal, the number of outer
electrons define the type of doping. Elements with 3 valence electrons are used for p-type doping, 5-
valued elements for n-doping. The conductivity of a deliberately contaminated silicon crystal can be
increased by a factor of 106.

4 N-DOPING (DONOR)
The 5-valent dopant has an outer electron more than the silicon atoms. Four outer electrons combine
with ever one silicon atom, while the fifth electron is free to move and serves as charge carrier. This free
electron requires much less energy to be lifted from the valence band into the conduction band, than the

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electrons which cause the intrinsic conductivity of silicon. The dopant, which emits an electron, is known
as an electron donor (donare, lat. = to give).

The dopants are positively charged by the loss of negative charge carriers and are built into the lattice,
only the negative electrons can move. Doped semimetals whose conductivity is based on free (negative)
electrons are n-type or n-doped. Due to the higher number of free electrons those are also named as
majority charge carriers, while free mobile holes are named as the minority charge carriers.

n-doping with phosphorus

Arsenic is used as an alternative to phosphorus, because its diffusion coefficient is lower. This means that
the dopant diffusion during subsequent processes is less than that of phosphorus and thus the arsenic
remains at the position where it was introduced into the lattice originally.

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5 P-DOPING (ACCEPTOR)
In contrast to the free electron due to doping with phosphorus, the 3-valent dopant effect is exactly the
opposite. The 3-valent dopants can catch an additional outer electron, thus leaving a hole in the valence
band of silicon atoms. Therefore the electrons in the valence band become mobile. The holes move in the
opposite direction to the movement of the electrons. The necessary energy to lift an electron into the
energy level of indium as a dopant, is only 1 % of the energy which is needed to raise a valence electron
of silicon into the conduction band.

With the inclusion of an electron, the dopant is negatively charged, such dopants are called acceptors
(acceptare, lat. = to add). Again, the dopant is fixed in the crystal lattice, only the positive charges can
move. Due to positive holes these semiconductors are called p-conductive or p-doped. Analog to n-doped
semiconductors, the holes are the majority charge carriers, free electrons are the minority charge
carriers.

p-doping with boron

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Doped semiconductors are electrically neutral. The terms n- and p-type doped do only refer to the
majority charge carriers. Each positive or negative charge carrier belongs to a fixed negative or positive
charged dopant.

N- and p-doped semiconductors behave approximately equal in relation to the current flow. With
increasing amount of dopants, the number of charge carriers increases in the semiconductor crystal. Here
it requires only a very small amount of dopants. Weakly doped silicon crystals contain only 1 impurity per
1,000,000,000 silicon atoms, high doped semiconductors for example contain 1 foreign atom per 1,000
silicon atoms.

6 ELECTRONIC BAND STRUCTURE IN DOPED SEMICONDUCTORS

By the introduction of a dopant with five outer electrons, in n-doped semiconductors there is an electron
in the crystal which is not bound and therefore can be moved with relatively little energy into the
conduction band. Thus in n-doped semiconductors the donator energy level is close to the conduction
band edge, the band gap to overcome is very small.

Analog, through introduction of a 3-valent dopant in a semiconductor, a hole is available, which may be
already occupied at low-energy by an electron from the valence band of the silicon. For p-doped
semiconductors the acceptor energy level is close the valence band.

Band model of doped semiconductors

7 BENEFITS OF DOPING / APPLICATIONS

Semiconductors bring the revolution in the field electronic devices. Today it is difficult to find any electric
device without involvement of semiconductors material. From a cell phone to satellite and from
aerospace to defense devices and medical diagnostic devices, all are full of such technology
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Few semiconductors devices are
 Diodes
 Semi-Conductor Fuses
 Transistors
 Thyristor
 Photo Resistor
 Solar cell
 Thin film transistors (TFT)
 Light sensors
 Optical memory devices
 Electro photographic application
 X-ray image sensors
 Eu-doped optical fiber
 DVD (digital video/versatile disc)

7.1 DIODES:
Diodes are electric components which force current to flow in only one direction. They are formed by
connecting two types of semiconductors namely (p-type and n-type semiconductors). A semiconductor
diode is formed with pieces of N and P-type material is joined.
 The P material is called the anode.
 The N material is called the cathode.
 The resulting structure is called a PN junction.
A PN junction (or diode) is a switch or component through which electrons will flow easily in one
direction but not in the opposite direction.

7.2 SEMICONDUCTOR FUSES:

Semiconductor fuses Semiconductor fuses are used to protect against over-current conditions in
semiconductor devices. Because of their fast action, semiconductor fuses help to limit short circuit
current significantly.

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7.3 TRANSISTORS:
Transistors A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and
electrical power. Transistor can be found in all electronic devices and systems. It is the primary active
element that acts as a switch, logic element or amplifier.

7.4 THYRISTOR:
A thyristor is a solid-state semiconductor device. Thyristors can control a relatively large amount of
power and voltage. They find wide application in light dimmers and electric motor speed control.

7.5 PHOTO RESISTOR:

Photo Resistor Photo resistors are basically photocells when light strikes the photo cell, it allows current
to flow more freely. When dark, its resistance increases dramatically.

7.6 RESISTOR
A resistor is made with a piece of N or P-type semiconductor material doped to the appropriate
resistance level.

7.7 CAPACITOR
A capacitor is made with two plates of a highly conductive semiconductor material separated by a pure
semiconductor material or another insulator like glass silicon dioxide (SiO2).

7.8 INDUCTOR
An inductor is made by making a spiral of highly conductive semiconductor material.

7.9 TRANSISTOR
Dr. John Bardeen, Dr. Walter Brattain, and Dr. William Shockley
discovered the transistor effect and developed the first device in
December, 1947, while the three were members of the technical
staff at Bell Laboratories in Murray Hill, NJ. They were awarded
the Nobel Prize in physics in 1956.

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 Original paper work carried out during the invention of transistor along with first transistor of the world

A transistor is a 3-terminal semiconductor device that is used to amplify or switch.

By applying an external DC voltage, current will flow from terminal 1 through the device to terminal 3. A
resistor is used to set the current level. A voltage or current applied to terminal 2 is used to control how
much current flow from terminals 1 to 3.

A very small voltage or current variation at terminal 2 can produce a very large current variation between
terminals 1 and 3.

Most electronic equipment is made up of a collection

of ICs and a small selection of discrete passive
components like resistors and capacitors connected
together on a printed circuit board (PCB).
Figure shows a typical board.

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