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1) Element Discretisation: This is the process of modelling the geometry of the problem under
investigation by an assemblage of small regions, termed finite elements. These elements have
nodes defined on the element boundaries, or within the element.
2) Primary Variable Approximation: A primary variable must be selected (e.g. disp., stress, etc.)
and rules as to how it should vary over a finite element established. The variation is expressed
in terms of nodal values. Displacement is primary variable in geotechnical problems.
3) Element Equations: Use of an appropriate variational principle (e.g. Minimum potential energy)
to derive element equations.
[ K E ]{Δd E } = {ΔRE }
where [KE] is the element stiffness matrix, {ΔdE} is the vector of incremental element nodal
displacements and {Δ RE} is the vector of incremental element nodal forces.
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4.1 General concept of FEM: Procedure of FEM analysis
[ K G ]{ΔdG } = {ΔRG }
where [KG] is the global stiffness matrix, {ΔdG} is the vector of all incremental element nodal
displacements and {ΔRG} is the vector of all incremental element nodal forces.
5) Boundary condition: Formulate boundary conditions and modify global equations. Loadings (e.g.
line and point loads, pressures and body forces) effect {ΔRG} , while the displacements effect
{ΔdG}.
6) Solve the global equations: The global equations are in form of a large number of simultaneous
equations. These are solved to obtain the displacement {ΔdG} at all the nodes. From these
nodal displacements secondary quantities, such as stresses and strains, are evaluated.
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Lecture #4. Introduction to FEM
4.1 General concept of FEM: Procedure of FEM analysis
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Lecture #4. Introduction to FEM
4.1 General concept of FEM: Procedure of FEM analysis
Element discretisation
Element node
Typical 2D finite elements
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Lecture #4. Introduction to FEM
4.1 General concept of FEM: Procedure of FEM analysis
Element discretisation:
when constructing the FE mesh the following should be considered.
• The geometry of the boundary value problem must be approximated as accurately as possible
• If there are curved boundaries or curved material interfaces, the higher order elements, with
mid-side nodes should be used.
• In many cases geometric discontinuities suggest a natural form of subdivision. Discontinuities
in boundary gradient, such as re-entrant corners at the discontinuity points. Interfaces
between materials with different properties can be introduced by element sides.
• Mesh design may also be influenced by the applied boundary conditions. If there are
discontinuities in loading, or point loads, these can again be introduced by placing nodes at
the discontinuity points.
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Lecture #4. Introduction to FEM
4.1 General concept of FEM: Procedure of FEM analysis
Element discretisation:
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Lecture #4. Introduction to FEM
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u = [ N ]{ui }
where u is displacement field, [N] is shape function matrix, and {ui} is nodal displacement vector.
vm ⎛ ui ⎞
um ⎜ ⎟
⎜ uj ⎟
⎛u ⎞ ⎜ um ⎟ u : horizontal displacement
vi
vj ⎜ ⎟ = [ N ]6×2 ⎜ v ⎟
⎝v⎠ ⎜ i⎟ v : vertical displacement
uj ⎜ vj ⎟
ui ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ vm ⎠
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Lecture #4. Introduction to FEM
4.1 General concept of FEM: Procedure of FEM analysis
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Lecture #4. Introduction to FEM
4.1 General concept of FEM: Procedure of FEM analysis
Example:
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Lecture #4. Introduction to FEM
4.1 General concept of FEM: Procedure of FEM analysis
• The essential feature of the element-wise approximation is that the variation of the unknown displacements
within an element is expressed as a simple function of the displacements at the nodes.
• The problem of determining the displacement field throughout the finite element mesh is, therefore,
reduced to determining the displacement components at a finite number of nodes.
• These nodal displacements are referred to as the known degrees of freedom (DOF).
• For two dimensional plane strain problems there are two degree of freedom at each node: u and v
displacement.
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• The main advantage of the isoparametric formulation is the that the element equations need only be
evaluated in the parent element coordinate system. Thus, for each element in the mesh the stiffness
matrix integrals can be evaluated by a standard procedure.
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Lecture #4. Introduction to FEM
4.1 General concept of FEM: Procedure of FEM analysis
Element equations are those that govern the deformational behavior of each
element. Thy essentially combine the compatibility, equilibrium and constitutive
conditions.
Displacements:
⎛ Δu ⎞ ⎛ Δu ⎞
{Δd } = ⎜ ⎟ = [ N ] ⎜ ⎟ = [ N ]{Δd }n
⎝ Δv ⎠ ⎝ Δv ⎠ n
Strains:
∂ (Δu ) ∂ N
Δε x = − = u
∂x ∂x
∂ (Δv) ∂ N
Δε y = − = v
∂y ∂y
∂ (Δu ) ∂ (Δv) ∂ N ∂N
Δγ xy = − − = u+ v
∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y
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Lecture #4. Introduction to FEM
4.1 General concept of FEM: Procedure of FEM analysis
Element equation
∂ (Δu ) ∂ N i ⎡ ∂ Ni ⎤
Thus, Δε i = − = u {Δε } = [ B]{Δd }n when, [ B] = ⎢ ⎥
∂ xi ∂ xi ∂
⎣ i⎦x
where the matrix [B] contains only derivatives of the shape functions Ni, while {Δd}n contains
the list of nodal displacements for a single element.
If the isoparametric elements are being used, the shape functions are identical to the
interpolation functions, and Ni depend only on the natural coordinates S and T. Consequently,
the global derivates cannot be determined directly. Using the chain rule which relates the x, y
derivatives to the S, T derivatives gives:
⎡ ∂x ∂y ⎤
⎢ ∂S ∂S ⎥
T
⎧ ∂N i ∂N i ⎫ ⎧ ∂N i ∂N i ⎫
T
where the matrix [J] is
⎨ ⎬ = [J ]⎨ ⎬ the Jacobian matrix. [J ] = ⎢ ⎥
⎩ ∂S ∂T ⎭ ⎩ ∂x ∂y ⎭ ⎢ ∂x ∂y ⎥
The global derivatives of the interpolation functions are given by:
⎢⎣ ∂T ∂T ⎥⎦
⎧ ∂N i ⎫ ⎡ ∂y ∂y ⎤ ⎧ ∂N i ⎫ ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
⎪⎪ ∂x ⎪⎪ 1 ⎢ ∂T − | J |= −
∂S ⎥ ⎪⎪ ∂S ⎪⎪ where |J| is the Jacobian
⎨ ∂N ⎬ = ⎢ ⎥⎨ ⎬ determinant.
∂S ∂T ∂S ∂T
⎪ i ⎪ | J | ⎢ − ∂x ∂x ⎥ ⎪ ∂N i ⎪
⎩⎪ ∂y ⎭⎪ ⎣⎢ ∂T ∂S ⎦⎥ ⎩⎪ ∂T ⎭⎪
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⎡1 − μ μ μ 0 0 0 ⎤
⎢ μ 1− μ μ 0 0 0 ⎥⎥
⎢
E ⎢ μ μ 1− μ 0 0 0 ⎥
D= ⎢ ⎥
(1 + μ ) ⎢ 0 2 −μ
1
0 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 0 2 −μ
1
0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 2 − μ⎥
1
0 0 0 0 ⎦
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Lecture #4. Introduction to FEM
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Hooke’s Law
⎡1 − μ μ μ 0 0 0 ⎤
⎢ μ 1 − μ μ 0 0 0 ⎥⎥
⎢
E ⎢ μ μ 1− μ 0 0 0 ⎥
D= ⎢ ⎥
(1 + μ ) ⎢ 0 2 −μ
1
0 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 0 1
−μ 0 ⎥
⎢ 2
⎥
⎢⎣ 0 2 − μ⎥
1
0 0 0 0 ⎦
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Lecture #4. Introduction to FEM
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Hooke’s Law
E E(1− ν )
G= E oed =
2(1+ ν ) (1− 2ν )(1+ ν )
Bulk modulus
E
K=
3(1− 2ν )
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Lecture #4. Introduction to FEM
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Hooke’s Law
Meaning of parameters
∂σ1
E=
∂σ 2
in axial compression
∂ε3
ν =−
∂ε1
in axial compression
∂σ1
E oed =
∂ε1
in 1D compression
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Lecture #4. Introduction to FEM
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Hooke’s Law
Meaning of parameters
∂p
K=
∂εv
in volumetric compression
∂σ xy
G=
∂γ xy
in shearing
note: σ xy ≡ τ xy
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⎛ σ xx ⎞ ⎡1 − μ μ μ 0 0 0 ⎤ ⎛ ε xx ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎢ μ 1− μ μ ⎥ ⎜ ⎟
σ
⎜ yy ⎟ ⎢ 0 0 0 ⎥ ⎜ ε yy ⎟
⎜ σ zz ⎟ E ⎢ μ μ 1− μ 0 0 0 ⎥ ⎜ ε zz ⎟
⎜ ⎟= ⎢ ⎥⎜ ⎟
σ
⎜ xy ⎟ (1 + μ ) ⎢ 0 2 −μ 0 ⎥ ⎜ ε xy ⎟
1
0 0 0
⎜ σ yz ⎟ ⎢ 0 0 0 0 1
−μ 0 ⎥ ⎜ ε yz ⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎢ 2
⎥ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ σ zx ⎠ ⎢⎣ 0 2 − μ⎥
⎦ ⎝ ε zx ⎠
1
0 0 0 0
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Lecture #4. Introduction to FEM
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Inverse relationship
⎛ ε xx ⎞ ⎡1 −ν −ν 0 0 0 ⎤ ⎛ σ xx ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎢ −ν ⎥ ⎜ ⎟
ε
⎜ yy ⎟ ⎢ 1 −ν 0 0 0 ⎥ ⎜ σ yy ⎟
⎜ ε zz ⎟ 1 ⎢ −ν −ν 1 0 0 0 ⎥ ⎜ σ zz ⎟
⎜ ⎟= ⎢ ⎥⎜ ⎟
⎜ ε xy ⎟ E ⎢ 0 0 0 2 + 2ν 0 0 ⎥ ⎜ σ xy ⎟
⎜ ε yz ⎟ ⎢0 0 0 0 2 + 2ν 0 ⎥ ⎜ σ yz ⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎢ ⎥ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ ε zx ⎠ ⎣0 0 0 0 0 2 + 2ν ⎦ ⎝ σ zx ⎠
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Lecture #4. Introduction to FEM
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Total potential energy (E) = Strain energy (W) – Work done by the applied loads (L)
• The principle of minimum potential energy states that for equilibrium:
[ K E ]{Δd }n = {ΔRE }
where
[ K E ] = ∫ [ B ]T [ D ][ B ]dVol = Element stiffness matrix
vol
{ΔRE } = ∫ [ N ]T {ΔF }dVol + ∫ [ N ]T {ΔT }dSrf = Right hand side load vector
vol Srf
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Lecture #4. Introduction to FEM
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dVol = t dx dy = t | J | dS dT
where for plane strain problems the thickness t is unity and the element stiffness matrix, [KE], becomes:
1 1
[KE ] = ∫ ∫ [ D][ B] | J | dSdT
T
t [ B ]
−1 −1
where |J| represent the determinant of the Jacobian matrix arising from the mapping between global and
parent element.
• The explicit evaluation of [KE] cannot usually be performed, except for very simple and special element
shapes. It is therefore convenient to use a numerical integration procedure.
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Lecture #4. Introduction to FEM
4.1 General concept of FEM: Procedure of FEM analysis
Numerical integration
• To evaluate the element stiffness matrix and right hand side vector, integrations must be performed. The
explicit evaluation of these element integrals cannot usually be performed. Therefore, a numerical
integration scheme is employed.
• The integral of a function is replaced by a weighted sum of the function evaluated at a number of
integration points.
• Consider a one dimensional integral with three integration points,
1 3
∫ f ( x)dx = ∑W f ( x ) =W f ( x ) + W
−1 i =1
i i 1 1 2 f ( x2 ) + W3 f ( x3 )
where Wi are weight, f(xi) are the values of the function at the three integration points.
• The number of integration points determines the integration order. The higher order of integration
gives the more accurate integration process.
• The most common numerical integration scheme is Gaussian integration and the integration points are
often referred to as Gauss points.
• For Gaussian integration the optimum integration order depends on the type of element being used
and on its shape. 8 noded isoparametric element either 2x2 or a 3x3 order should be used.
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Lecture #4. Introduction to FEM
4.1 General concept of FEM: Procedure of FEM analysis
Global equations
• The assembly of the separate element equilibrium equations into a set of global equations
{Δd }nG = a vector containing the unknown degrees of freedom (nodal displacements) for the
entire finite element mesh
{ΔRG } = the global right hand side load vector
• Each element stiffness matrix is assembled into the overall global stiffness matrix called Direct stiffness method.
• The terms of the global stiffness matrix are obtained by summing the individual element contributions whilst
taking into account the degrees of freedom which are common between elements.
• The terms of right hand side load vector are obtained in a similar manner by summing the individual loads
acting at each node.
• If the constitutive matrix [D] is symmetric, the element stiffness matrices and hence the global stiffness matrix
will also be symmetric.
• This situation occurs for a wide range of material behavior, including linear elastic material behavior
• The assembly, storage and solution schemes used for a global stiffness matrix take into account its symmetric
and bended structure.
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Global equations
⎡# # 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢# # # 0 0 0 0 0 0 0⎥
⎢0 # # # 0 0 0 0 0 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢0 0 # # # 0 0 0 0 0⎥
⎢0 0 0 # # # 0 0 0 0⎥ (# are non-zero’s)
⎢ ⎥
⎢0 0 0 0 # # # 0 0 0⎥
⎢0 0 0 0 0 # # # 0 0⎥
⎢0 0 0 0 0 0 # # # 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢0 0 0 0 0 0 0 # # #⎥
⎢0 #⎥⎦
⎣ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 #
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Lecture #4. Introduction to FEM
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Global equations: from element stiffness matrix [KE] to global stiffness matrix [KG]
• To illustrate the stages of the assembly process it is convenient to consider a mesh of 4 noded elements
with only one degree of freedom at each node. (Note: for 2D analyses there are usually two degrees of
freedom at each node).
• With only one degree of freedom at each node the stiffness matrices are much simpler and the assembly
process is easier to describe.
• In such a situation ‘Degree of freedom’ may be associated with ‘node number’.
• The numbering of the degrees of freedom and the form of the stiffness matrix for a single 4 noded
element is illustrated in following figure. It is assumed that all the stiffness matrices are symmetric and
therefore only the diagonal and upper triangle of terms are indicated.
• Single element becomes part of a mesh of elements. Stiffness matrix will take the form of global degree
of freedom numbering.
• The important thing to note is that each row and column of the element stiffness matrix corresponds to
each degree of freedom of the element.
Stiffness matrix for a single element Element stiffness matrix in terms of global DOF
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4.1 General concept of FEM: Procedure of FEM analysis
Global equations: from element stiffness matrix [KE] to global stiffness matrix [KG]
• The assembly process can now be demonstrated using the stiffness matrices expressed in terms of the
global degree of freedom.
• Figure shows a simple mesh containing two elements and the degree of freedom numbers.
• The terms in the global stiffness matrix corresponding to the degrees of freedom which are common to
more than one element arise from summing the contributions from the respective elements.
• The structure of the global stiffness matrix becomes particularly important if efficient use is to be made
of the computer storage.
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Lecture #4. Introduction to FEM
4.1 General concept of FEM: Procedure of FEM analysis
Boundary conditions
• The final stage in setting up the global system of equations is the application of the boundary conditions.
• These are the load and displacement conditions which fully define the boundary value problem being
analyzed.
• Loading conditions, line loads and surcharge pressures, affect the right hand side of the global system of
equations.
• As with the assembly process for the stiffness matrix, the assembly of the right hand side vector is
performed with respect to the global degree of freedom numbering system.
• Displacement boundary conditions affect {Δd}nG.
• The equation corresponding to the prescribed degree of freedom (displacement component) must be
effectively eliminated during the solution process.
• In all cases sufficient displacement conditions must be prescribed in order to retain any rigid body modes
of deformation, such as rotations or translations of the whole finite element mesh.
• For 2D plane strain problems at least two nodes must have a prescribed displacement in the x direction
and one node a prescribed displacement in the y direction, or, opposite.
• For 3D tunnel problems, common boundary condition is following.
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Boundary conditions
50m
24m
82m
72m
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4.1 General concept of FEM: Procedure of FEM analysis
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4.2 Nonlinear analysis
Incremental procedure
• For linear elastic model, components of stiffness matrix [K]e of element is constant.
• For Non-linear model, stiffness matrix varies depending on the stress and strain.
• When [K]e is function of {d} or {R},
[ K ]e = [ K (d , R)]e
• Iterative method and incremental procedure are frequently used for solving of the nonlinear problems.
Incremental
solution [K ]e {d } = {R}
Linear elastic
{R} {ΔR} Exact solution
{d }
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4.2 Nonlinear analysis
Incremental procedure
• {R} should be separated into n forces to solve nonlinear problem with incremental procedure.
n
{R} = {R0 } + ∑ {ΔRi } {R0 } is initial force
i =1
• Step 1.
1) [K t ]e {Δd1} = {ΔR1} [K t ]e = [K 0 ]e Initial stiffness matrix is used
{Δd1} = [K t ]e−1{ΔR1}
2) {Δd1} → {Δε1} → {Δσ 1} Incremental of displ., strain, and stress
3)
{d1} = {d 0 } + {Δd1}
{R1} = {R0 } + {ΔR1}
{ε1} = {ε 0 } + {Δε1}
{σ 1} = {σ 0 } + {Δσ 1}
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4.2 Nonlinear analysis
Incremental procedure
Step 2. Step n.
1) [K t ]e {Δd 2 } = {ΔR 2 } [K t ]e = [K1 ]e 1) [K ] {Δd n } = {ΔR n }
t e [K t ]e = [K n −1 ]e
i =1 i =1
n
{Rn } = {R0 } + ∑ {ΔRi }
2
{R2 } = {R1} + {R2 } = {R0 } + ∑ {ΔRi }
i =1 i =1
2 n
{ε 2 } = {ε1} + {ε 2 } = {ε 0 } + ∑ {Δε i } {ε n } = {ε 0 } + ∑ {Δε i }
i =1 i =1
2 n
{σ 2 } = {σ 1} + {σ 2 } = {σ 0 } + ∑ {Δσ i } {σ n } = {σ 0 } + ∑ {Δσ i }
i =1 i =1
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