WINTER 2017

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 CONTENTS
Winter 2017 Volume 03 Number 04 ISSN 1468-9340

03 Comment 43 Level measurement: the basics

Adam Wishall, Varec Inc., USA, outlines key points to
05 World News consider when selecting the most suitable gauge for tank
12 MENA: unlocking potential level measurement.
Storage and terminal opportunities abound in MENA, 47 A moving target
thanks to both strife and increased production.
Adam Krolak, Honeywell Process Solutions, Poland,
Gordon Cope, Contributing Editor, explains.
discusses accurate level measurement in dynamic
16 Be prepared applications.
Preparatory site visits reduce project cost and risk when 51 Digitalisation: here to stay?
planning intelligent pigging operations for oil terminal
Juan Tapia, ABB, Spain, considers whether digitalisation is
wharf pipelines, claim Geert Bontekoe and Laurie Todd,
more than just a passing trend in downstream tank and
Quest Integrity.
terminal operations.
20 Keeping an eye on corrosion 56 A new era
Jake Davies, Emerson Automation Solutions, UK,
Digital automation is advancing the tanks and terminals
examines continuous corrosion monitoring methods for
sector. Buzz Hetrick, TechnipFMC, USA, explains how.
jetty pipelines in order to protect against an interrupted
supply to and from the refinery. 61 Solving valve instability
25 The blame game Dr Davies Michael, Dr Moncalvo Davide and
Thorsten Schaper, Braunschweiger Flammenfilter GmbH,
Peter Williams, Concord Tank, USA, outlines why floating
Germany, discuss how to overcome pilot valve instability
roof repairs should be approached differently to floor
on cryogenic storage tanks.
repairs.
29 Floating focus 64 Thinking outside the box
Vincent Lagarrigue, Trelleborg Oil and Marine, France,
Ewart Cox, Assentech, UK, considers why internal floating
calls for a rethink of transfer solutions to suit the rapidly
roofs are used for gasoline storage.
expanding LNG market.
34 A race against time 69 A new playing field
Julian Waumsley, Aquilar Ltd, UK, outlines the importance
Stuart Buchanan, GAC UK, explores how shifting market
of quickly detecting leaks in hydrocarbon storage
dynamics are creating opportunities in the tanks and
facilities.
terminals market.
39 Planning for prevention
Bill Sholette, Endress+Hauser, USA, considers the benefits
of effective overfill prevention and leak detection in
chemical storage vessels.

ON
THE
Operators know what it takes to manage the assets
inside their facilities. However, the pipelines that
transport their products are equally critical for efficient

FRONT operation. Starting on p. 16 of this issue, Quest Integrity

describes how proactive strategies lead to long-term

COVER
asset health.

JOIN THE Copyright© Palladian Publications Ltd 2017. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,

CONVERSATION
recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. All views expressed in this
follow connect like join journal are those of the respective contributors and are not necessarily the opinions of the publisher, neither
@HydrocarbonEng Hydrocarbon Hydrocarbon Hydrocarbon do the publishers endorse any of the claims made in the articles or the advertisements. Printed in the UK.
Engineering Engineering Engineering
Uncaptioned images courtesy of www.shutterstock.com.
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 COMMENT
CONTACT INFO CALLUM O'REILLY
EDITOR

S
MANAGING EDITOR James Little
james.little@tanksterminals.com
ince the last issue of Tanks & Terminals
EDITOR Callum O'Reilly
callum.oreilly@tanksterminals.com was published, the US oil and gas
EDITORIAL ASSISTANT Anna Nicklin
storage industry has had to contend
anna.nicklin@tanksterminals.com with a particularly powerful hurricane
ADVERTISEMENT DIRECTOR Rod Hardy season. While Hurricane Harvey
rod.hardy@tanksterminals.com caused widespread destruction across Texas
ADVERTISEMENT MANAGER Chris Atkin – IHS Markit estimates that the damage from
chris.atkin@tanksterminals.com
the Category 4 hurricane will total US$60 – 100 billion, making it the second
PRODUCTION Ben Munro most destructive storm on record1 – it is fair to say that the energy industry
ben.munro@tanksterminals.com
stood up well to the unprecedented challenges that the storm presented.
WEB MANAGER Tom Fullerton
tom.fullerton@tanksterminals.com As mentioned in the comment that I wrote for the October 2017 issue of
SUBSCRIPTIONS Laura White Hydrocarbon Engineering, most of the refineries affected by the hurricane
laura.white@tanksterminals.com quickly resumed operations, while the NYMEX RROB spot price essentially
ADMINISTRATION Nicola Fuller returned to pre-hurricane levels within a month of Harvey making landfall.
nicola.fuller@tanksterminals.com While a collective pat on the back is well deserved in the face of such
CONTRIBUTING EDITORS adversity, there are several valuable lessons that the storage industry must
Nancy Yamaguchi Gordon Cope
learn from this recent challenge. The storm resulted in a number of significant
tank failures, with floating roofs coming under the most intense spotlight.
The Houston Chronicle reported that there were more than 15 incidents of
floating roofs falling on top of oil storage tanks during the storm, impacting
the likes of Valero Energy, Shell, ExxonMobil, Kinder Morgan, Phillips 66 and
Magellan Midstream, amongst others.2 As torrential rainfall began to accumulate
on some of the floating roofs, drainage systems started to fail and the roofs
began to leak, sink or even collapse. Some are now calling for an inquiry into the
potential weaknesses of floating roofs, as part of a broader industry review of
tank failures. A key area of concern has been a lack of design standards and best
SUBSCRIPTION RATES practices pertaining directly to floating roof tanks.
Annual subscription £110 UK including postage
/£125 overseas (postage airmail). This concern is echoed in an article from Concord Tank that features in
Two year discounted rate £176 UK this issue of Tanks & Terminals. The article examines how common mistakes
including postage/£200 overseas (postage airmail).
can cause floating roofs to sink, presenting an example of problems that can
SUBSCRIPTION CLAIMS be associated with floating roof repair work. The article traces the troubles
Claims for non receipt of issues must be made within 3 months of
publication of the issue or they will not be honoured without charge. back to a lack of clear construction, inspection and repair guidelines for
APPLICABLE ONLY TO USA & CANADA floating roofs within the API’s standards. Concord Tank argues that the current
Hydrocarbon Engineering (ISSN No: 1468-9340, USPS No: 020-998) is
published monthly by Palladian Publications Ltd GBR and distributed
standards foster the perception that floating roof repairs are not as critical
in the USA by Asendia USA, 17B S Middlesex Ave, Monroe NJ 08831. as floor and shell repairs, while offering fewer constraints for inspectors,
Periodicals postage paid New Brunswick, NJ and additional mailing
offices. POSTMASTER: send address changes to HYDROCARBON engineers and repair contractors. The company suggests that there are three
ENGINEERING, 701C Ashland Ave, Folcroft PA 19032
core elements that need to change in floating roof repair projects (turn to
p. 25 to find out more).
Other topics covered in this issue of Tanks & Terminals include leak
detection, level measurement, corrosion protection, and cleaning and
15 South Street Farnham Surrey
GU97QU ENGLAND
inspection. Contributing Editor, Gordon Cope, also provides an overview of the
Tel: +44 (0) 1252 718 999 storage industry in the Middle East and North Africa (p. 12).
Fax: +44 (0) 1252 718 992 I hope you enjoy the issue and would like to take this opportunity to thank
our readers, contributors and advertisers for their support throughout 2017.

1. 'Harvey and Irma Recovery One Month Later: IHS Markit Assesses Supply Chain and Recovery
Dynamics', IHS Markit, (3 October 2017).
2. BLUM, J., ‘Failures of floating-roof oil tanks during Harvey raise concerns’, The Houston
Chronicle, (11 October 2017).
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 WORLD NEWS
USA | Peninsula signs storage agreement
P eninsula Petroleum Ltd has
signed a new storage agreement
with the Houston Fuel Oil Terminal
(HOFTI) to support the company’s
bunkering operations in Houston,
Texas, and surrounding ports.
This is the latest step in
Peninsula’s strategy of converting its
remaining light physical operations
(barging logistics) into a full physical
model (barging plus storage logistics)
in the Americas. The deal follows
recent agreements in New Orleans,
Los Angeles/Long Beach and
Cristobal, Panama.
Peninsula said that the deal
with HOFTI will enable the
company to source product
directly from the local Platts
Pakistan | LNG import terminal inaugurated
P akistan GasPort Ltd’s (PGPL) new
LNG floating storage and
regasification import terminal at
Port Qasim has been officially
inaugurated.
The terminal will more than
double Pakistan’s current LNG
regasification capacity.
Trafigura Group Pte Ltd has also
announced plans to develop a
second LNG import terminal project
USA | ExxonMobil acquires crude oil terminal
E xxon Mobil Corp. has acquired a
crude oil terminal from Genesis
Energy LP. The terminal is located
in the Delaware Basin, part of the
Permian Basin. It is strategically
positioned to handle Permian Basin
crude oil and condensate for
transport to Gulf Coast refineries
and marine export terminals.
The facility is interconnected
to the Plains Alpha Crude
Market on Close (MOC). The move
is also a starting point for storing
Peninsula-owned blending
components, which will eventually
enhance the group’s operations in
the region.
The agreement also includes the
capability to supply bunkers ex-pipe
for ships calling at the terminal.
Alex Lyra, Global Head of
Supply and Trading, said: “Growing
our global portfolio of storage
positions into HOFTI is not only an
important step towards further
consolidating our local bunkering
operation but also a key element
for the integration of the group’s
regional physical footprint, both
on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts.”
at Port Qasim. The company will
partner with PGPL in developing a
new merchant floating storage and
regasification unit (FSRU) project.
The joint venture will sell gas to
private sector end-users without
direct government involvement. The
project will include a new jetty,
berth and a second FSRU, benefiting
from cost synergies with the existing
facility.
Connector pipeline system, and is
permitted for 100 000 bpd of
throughput, with the ability to
expand. This acquisition marks
ExxonMobil’s first terminal in the
Permian Basin to be anchored by
the corporation’s newly-acquired
Delaware Basin acreage, previously
announced in January 2017.
Gerald Frey, President of
ExxonMobil Pipeline Co., said: “The
Valero Energy
USA |
Partners acquires
Port Arthur
terminal assets
V alero Energy Partners LP’s
acquisition of the Port Arthur
terminal assets and Parkway
Pipeline LLC from Valero Energy
Corp. has been approved. The deal
is for total consideration of
US$508 million.
The Port Arthur terminal assets
consist of 47 tanks with
8.5 million bbls of storage capacity
for crude oil, intermediates and
refined petroleum products, which
support Valero’s Port Arthur
refinery. Parkway Pipeline is a
141 mile, 16 in. refined petroleum
products pipeline linking Valero’s
St. Charles refinery with the
Plantation and Colonial pipeline
systems. The pipeline currently has
110 000 bpd of capacity, with the
ability to expand to more than
200 000 bpd.
Upon closing, Valero Energy
Partners plans to enter into
separate 10 year terminalling and
transportation agreements with
Valero. The agreements are each
expected to include minimum
volume commitments covering
approximately 85% of expected
throughput.
terminal provides crude producers
with a full range of logistical
options including truck, rail and
inbound and outbound pipeline
access, not only for ExxonMobil’s
production, but for all Permian
Basin producers.
“It also provides shippers with
efficient and cost-effective access
to market destinations in the Gulf
region.”
5 Winter 2017
 WORLD NEWS
IN BRIEF

With necessary retrofit work to handle
heavier grades of crude oil, USD Partners LP
has commenced operations at its
destination terminal in Stroud, Oklahoma.
The terminal provides a destination point
for rail-to-pipeline shipments of heavy
crude oil from the partnership’s Hardisty
terminal in Western Canada and provides
connectivity to one of the largest crude oil
storage hubs in North America.

Parkland Fuel Corp., has announced the
closing of its acquisition of Chevron
Canada R & M ULC, which operates
a downstream fuel business in British
Columbia (B.C.) and Alberta. The
acquisition includes 129 Chevron branded
retail service stations, principally located in
the Greater Vancouver area; 37 commercial
cardlock locations in B.C. and Alberta;
three terminals in B.C.; and a 55 000 bpd
light/sweet crude refinery in B.C.

IL&FS Group has issued a statement
denying recent press reports that it is
planning to sell its Fujairah (IPTF) Terminal.
IL&FS said that it remains positive about its
oil storage business in the region, despite
the current geo-political situation. It also
confirmed that it is going ahead with
the planned phase two expansion of the
terminal, which will provide enhanced
facilities and services to existing and
potential customers.
 
HES International B.V. has signed an
agreement with Valt B.V., a 50/50 joint
venture between Vitol and Sargeant,
to acquire Valt Asphalt Terminal B.V.,
a bitumen terminal located in Botlek,
Rotterdam. The terminal delivers storage,
handling and blending services to the
European and African bitumen market.
Winter 2017 6
TransMontaigne Partners inks deal with
USA |
Plains All American Pipeline
A wholly owned subsidiary of
TransMontaigne Partners LP has
agreed to acquire the Martinez Terminal
and Richmond Terminal from an affiliate
of Plains All American Pipeline LP, for a
total purchase price of US$275 million.
The acquisition expands the
partnership’s storage and terminalling
footprint into the San Francisco Bay
Area refining complex.
The closing of the acquisition is
expected to occur around 1 January 2018,
subject to customary closing conditions.
Mobil to restore Lyttelton
New Zealand |
terminal storage capacity
M
obil Oil New Zealand Ltd has
announced plans to improve
fuel supply capacity for the
South Island with the construction
of two tanks at its fuel terminal in
Lyttelton.
The tanks will be located
adjacent to Mobil’s existing terminal
at George Seymour Quay and will
store petrol and diesel. They will
replace those damaged by a 2014
landslide at Mobil’s Naval Point
facility. The company expects to
complete the work in early 2019.
Restoring the Lyttelton fuel
terminal’s storage capacity is the
INEOS acquires the North Sea Forties
UK |
Pipeline System and Kinneil Terminal
I
NEOS has acquired the Forties
Pipeline System (FPS) and
associated pipelines and facilities
from BP.
The 235 mile pipeline system links
85 North Sea oil and gas assets to the
UK mainland and the INEOS site in
Grangemouth, Scotland.
The West Coast facilities include
two waterborne refined product and
crude oil terminals, as well as
64 storage tanks (approximately
5.4 million bbls of storage capacity).
The facilities have extensive
connectivity to domestic and
international refined product and
crude oil markets through significant
marine, pipeline, truck and rail
capabilities. They are also supported
by multi-year, fee-based agreements
with contract terms of up to five years.
latest of several recent investments
by Mobil, including the launch of its
Synergy family of fuels and
associated service station
enhancements, and the upgrade of
its bulk fuels terminal at Mount
Manganui.
“Construction of new tanks will
restore fuel storage capacity at our
Lyttelton operation, which, along
with the Lyttelton-Woolston
pipeline and Woolston Terminal, is
an important part of the fuel supply
chain in the South Island,” said
Andrew McNaught, Country
Manager for Mobil.
Ownership and operation of FPS,
the Kinneil gas processing plant and
oil terminal, the Dalmeny storage and
export facility, sites at Aberdeen, the
Forties Unity Platform and associated
infrastructure has now transferred to
INEOS FPS, together with
approximately 300 personnel.
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 WORLD NEWS
IN BRIEF
 
Aramco Overseas Co. B.V. (AOC), a
subsidiary of Saudi Aramco, has entered
into an arrangement to buy Gunvor Group’s
stake in the Maasvlakte Olie Terminal
(MOT) in Rotterdam. AOC’s investment in
MOT will add to its current participation in
other facilities in the same area, allowing
for expanded offerings in the North West
Europe refining hub. This will complement
Saudi Aramco’s export activities in Europe,
strengthen its supply chain and enhance its
customer services in the region.

Summit LNG Terminal, a subsidiary of
Summit Power International, has signed
a US$100 million turnkey contract with
a marine work contractor consortium
comprising of Geocean SAS and MacGregor
for design, engineering, procurement,
fabrication, installation and testing of the
fixed infrastructure (FI) for its floating LNG
storage and regasification terminal (FSRT)
at Moheskhali, Cox’s Bazar. The company
expects the project to be completed
16 months from the time of signing.

In September 2017, Jurong Port Pte Ltd and
Oiltanking celebrated the official launch
of the joint venture, Jurong Port Tank
Terminals. Located on 16 ha. of existing
land in Jurong Port, with a total capacity of
480 000 m3, the new liquid bulk terminal
will cater to the storage and trading
Invex Infraestructura awards contract
Mexico |
to Jacobs
J acobs Engineering Group Inc. has
been awarded a contract by Invex
Infraestructura 4, S.A.P.I. de C.V. (INI4)
for a greenfield fuel storage and
distribution terminal in Tula Hidalgo.
Jacobs will perform engineering
services and support INI4 with
regulation compliance, and safe and
efficient execution.
The engineering phase will provide
the basis for the construction and
India | AG&P to develop LNG import terminal
A tlantic, Gulf and Pacific Co.
(AG&P) has signed an exclusivity
agreement with Karaikal Port Pvt Ltd
(KPPL) to develop an LNG import
terminal at the port, including LNG
sourcing and supply.
AG&P has also executed
exclusivity with PPN Power to supply
LNG.
The port has allocated an area
within its existing breakwater to
develop an LNG terminal to serve
power, industrial and other customers
in the region. The port received
Environmental Approval (EA) for this
LNG terminal development in
May 2017.
China | Engie renews contract with CNOOC
operation of the terminal.
Jacobs Petroleum and Chemicals
Senior Vice President and General
Manager Global Operations,
Mark Bello, said: “This project, which is
expected to help boost confidence in
fuel supply throughout the country, is
fully in line with Jacobs’ strategy and
continued focus on developing
storage terminal opportunities in
Mexico and Latin America.”
The development of the LNG
import terminal will complement
Indian Oil’s LNG terminal that is
currently under construction in
Ennore. It will also provide wider gas
accessibility to Puducherry and Tamil
Nadu. It will serve the Tamil Nadu
region, which has major
manufacturing clusters for the
fertilizer, cement, steel, textile,
leather, sugar and garment industries
located within its 300 km catchment
area. The LNG terminal will also serve
the gas-fired power industry as well
as multiple demand centres via
pipeline and/or city gas distribution
network.

E
of clean petroleum products. It will be
ngie has renewed a regasification Cape Ann has previously provided
supported by four jetties with draft of up
and storage services contract with similar services to CNOOC, from
to 17.6 m capable of handling vessels up
China National Offshore Oil Corp. November 2013 to January 2017, as a
to 180 000 DWT. The terminal will also be
(CNOOC) for the coming winter contribution to both LNG and natural
connected via pipelines to the Jurong Island
season. gas supply needs, mainly during the
petroleum and petrochemical network,
The contract will be fulfilled by winter period associated with peak
thus providing significant efficiencies and
the FSRU GDF SUEZ Cape Ann in the demand.
benefits for its customers. The construction
port of Tianjin. Cape Ann will transfer LNG into
of Jurong Port Tank Terminals started in
The FSRU arrived in Tianjin fully smaller onshore tanks which are used
May 2017 and is on track to be completed
loaded with LNG and started by CNOOC for LNG trucking activity,
by 2019.
operations on 28 October. It will in addition to the usual FSRU
remain in the port until spring 2018. activities.

Winter 2017 8
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 WORLD NEWS
DIARY DATES Mexico | Savage expands operations

12 - 14 December 2017
Turbomachinery & Pump Symposia
A subsidiary of Savage Companies
will commence operations of its
new petroleum transload terminal in
Houston, Texas, USA central Mexico on 1 January 2018, with
tps.tamu.edu plans to significantly expand terminal
capabilities later next year.
11 - 13 March 2018 The terminal is served by the
AFPM Annual Meeting
Kansas City Southern de Mexico
New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
www.afpm.org/conferences
railroad and provides access to
strategic ports and US-based refinery
13 - 15 March 2018 centres.
Asia Turbomachinery & Pump Symposium Initially, the terminal will serve
Singapore manifest rail volumes, transferring
atps.tamu.edu products directly from railcars into
trucks. Following permitting
approvals, Savage plans to add tank
storage and fixed facilities for
high-speed rail unloading, product
blending and truck loading. At full
build out, the terminal will handle
unit train volumes.
“We’re excited to leverage our
team’s experience operating transload
facilities and rail operations to reduce
the logistics costs of moving and
managing refined petroleum products
in Mexico,” said Kirk Aubry, Savage
President and CEO.

20 - 22 March 2018
StocExpo Europe
Rotterdam, the Netherlands Europe | PRISMA expands storage services
www.stocexpoeurope.com

27 - 29 March 2018
NISTM 20th Annual International Aboveground
P RISMA has confirmed its
commitment to offering services
to storage operators, following a
the Energy Union (EU), we confirm
our strong commitment to promote
the integration of the energy markets.
Storage Tank Conference & Trade Show
Orlando, Florida, USA
successful 10 month market pilot this We are extending our services to
www.nistm.org
year and positive feedback from the facilitate an easy access to gas
market. The consultation, held by infrastructures for market
17 - 18 April 2018 PRISMA and its shareholders, showed participants, in the interest of EU final
StocExpo Middle East Africa strong support for the initiative from customers.”
Dubai, UAE both the market and storage Götz Lincke, Managing Director of
www.stocexpomiddleeastafrica.com operators. PRISMA, said: “We are convinced that
The company will now consider our existing and future services for
22 - 25 May 2018 increasing the scope of proposed storage operators will help to increase
AFPM Reliability & Maintenance Conference and services, based on requests of both efficiency and transparency in the
Exhibition storage operators and the market. market. I am excited that we are
San Antonio, Texas, USA Gaetano Mazzitelli, Chairman of already receiving great feedback that
www.afpm.org/conferences
PRISMA, said: “In the perspective of will help us extend the new services.”
11 - 13 June 2018
ILTA International Operating Conference & Trade
Show
Houston, Texas, USA CB&I and Saipem win Duqm Refinery
Oman |
www.ilta.org/AOCTS contract
17 - 20 September 2018
Gastech 2018
Barcelona, Spain D uqm Refinery and Petrochemicals
Industries Co. LLC (DRPIC) has
awarded a consortium between CB&I
Duqm Port, a crude tank farm at
Ras Markaz, as well as an 80 km
crude oil pipeline. CB&I will be
www.gastechevent.com
and Saipem S.p.A. a contract for EPC performing all of the EPC works for
26 - 27 September 2018 Package 3 for the Duqm Refinery storage tanks at the export terminal
Tank Storage Asia project. and crude tank farm. Meanwhile,
Singapore The consortium’s scope of work Saipem will perform the balance of
www.tankstorageasia.com encompasses the engineering, the works. CB&I’s portion of the
procurement and construction (EPC) contract is valued at approximately
of a product export terminal at US$140 million.

Winter 2017 10
VERSATILE.
Always a leading innovator, ROSEN not only supplies pipeline
customers with the latest diagnostic and system integrity
technologies but also offers flexible solutions and all-round
support for plants & terminals.

www.rosen-group.com
 Storage and terminal opportunities abound in MENA,
thanks to both strife and increased production.
Gordon Cope, Contributing Editor, explains.

Winter 2017 12
T
he Middle East and North Africa (MENA) are two of the largest
oil and gas producing regions in the world. They are also two
of the most contentious areas, with wars, internal conflict and
discord affecting both civil society and hydrocarbon output.
Despite this, the MENA region also holds tremendous potential,
which is being unlocked as rising production in North America obliges
governments to refocus their energy strategies. Those plans inevitably
create opportunities for storage and terminals in the region.

Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia is the elephant in the MENA menagerie. The kingdom has
261 billion bbls in proven reserves, produces 10.5 million bpd and exports
7.6 million bpd.
Over the last several decades, Saudi Arabia has acted as the swing
producer in OPEC, reducing production to increase prices and letting the
taps flow when it seeks greater market share. However, the country has
lost some of its clout. The 2014 OPEC gambit, flooding the international
market to put pressure on shale oil producers, is largely seen as a failure.
US operators proved more resilient to market forces and managed to
maintain record levels of production. Meanwhile, OPEC members have
seen cash reserves dwindle. The latest strategy, initiated in 2017, is to
reduce OPEC production by 1.8 million bpd in an attempt to stabilise
prices in the US$50 – 60 range. Saudi Arabia has taken the lead, cutting
almost 1 million bpd in exports.
It is diversifying its energy mix. The kingdom has approximately
298 trillion ft3 of proven gas reserves. Saudi Aramco (which produces
9 billion ft3/d in associated gas) is spending US$4 billion to increase
supplies to domestic industrial consumers. It has called for bids to build
new gas booster compressor stations at the Haradh and Hawiyah gas
plants. The two phase project, which will see gas output rise to
12.5 billion ft3/d, will also require a 40% increase in in-country storage
and transportation infrastructure to handle the increased volumes.
The kingdom has plans to almost double production to 23 billion ft3/d
by the end of next decade.
Kuwait skyline.

1
13 Winter 2017
 Kuwait and Oman
Kuwait has proven reserves of 104 billion bbls. It produced
over 2.7 million bpd in 2016, of which 2.2 million bpd were
exported as either crude or refined products. Meanwhile,
Oman has 5 billion bbls of proven reserves and produces
almost 1 million bpd, of which 80% is exported as crude.
Kuwait’s state-owned Kuwait Petroleum Corp. teamed up
with its counterpart Oman Oil Co. to create a joint venture
(JV), Duqm Refinery & Petrochemical Industries Co. (DRPIC).
DRPIC is building a 230 000 bpd refinery and petrochemical
complex in the Duqm Special Economic Zone (SEZAD),
located in Oman on the shore of the Arabian Sea.
The JV recently awarded several major EPC contracts that
cover the construction of an offsite export terminal at
Duqm port, as well as a crude oil pipeline and a tank farm to
a consortium led by Saipem S.p.A. The contract portion for
the terminal and tank farm is estimated at US$140 million
(the entire complex is expected to cost over US$3 billion).
DRPIC has not set a date for the commissioning of the
project.
Qatar
Qatar has 25 billion bbls of crude reserves and almost
800 trillion ft3 of gas reserves. It produces 1.5 million bpd of
crude and condensates, and exports over 90% as crude and
refined products.
Qatar is also the world’s largest producer of LNG. It
exported the equivalent of 9.3 billion ft3/d in 2015,
approximately one-third of global LNG shipments. After a
hiatus in new LNG construction, the country announced that
it would once again boost output by approximately 30% over
the next five to seven years. The expansion will require
extensive new storage and docking capacity at its main export
terminal, located in Ras Laffan port, the world’s largest
artificial harbour and LNG export terminal.
In mid-2017, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Egypt and the UAE cut
diplomatic ties with Qatar and severed transport links to the
peninsula. The dispute centres around Qatar’s backing of the
Muslim Brotherhood and the operation of its Al Jazeera TV
network. While the group has openly called for regime change
in Qatar, so far, little other than trade has been disrupted, and
there is no suggestion of interrupting hydrocarbon exports.
Libya
Libya has over 48 billion bbls in crude reserves. Prior to the
civil war that engulfed the country in 2011, Libya was a major
producer and exporter of oil. Production averaged
1.7 million bpd in 2010, with exports averaging approximately
1.4 million bpd.
After the overthrow of the Gaddafi regime, various
factions formed transitional governments in both the capital
of Tripoli and the major producing regions to the east of the
country. Oil and gas assets, including fields, terminals and tank
farms, became prime targets, and Libya’s production fell to
approximately 400 000 bpd in 2015.
Since then, production has recovered, with Libyan
authorities reporting production exceeding 1 million bpd in
mid-2017. Because the country’s oil and gas sector is subject
to disruptions and protests, exports can fluctuate wildly.
Es Sider, Libya’s biggest export terminal, had been shut due to
Winter 2017 14
a blockade by a military faction since 2014. It was extensively
damaged by attacks from Isil but was reopened in late 2016
following major repairs to tanks and other infrastructure that
were needed before tankers could load. Its capacity remains
far below its pre-conflict level of 350 000 bpd.
Algeria
Algeria has 144 trillion ft3 of proven gas reserves, and produced
7.2 billion ft3/d in 2015, roughly half of which was exported via
pipeline and LNG. It also has 12 billion bbls of oil reserves and
produced 1.37 million bpd in 2015.
However, the North African country has much greater
potential. A decade ago, gas production stood at
7.9 billon ft3/d, and oil production at 2 million bpd. Unlike
some of its neighbours, the drop has not been due to internal
strife, but due to relatively little international investment. The
government has been criticised for setting onerous contract
rights and delaying projects.
Observers are cautiously optimistic that, in light of falling
production and income (Algeria’s energy revenues fell from
US$60 billion in 2014 to US$27 billion in 2016), changes may
be in the offing. In late 2017, the newly-appointed Sonatrach
CEO, Abdelmoumen Ould Kaddour, announced that the
national oil company’s (NOC) board was in discussions with
the Algerian government to reform oil and gas legislation
and taxation policies in order to attract more foreign
investment. “I want a strategy for Sonatrach, it never had a
strategy before,” he noted. “I will publish shortly what I
called ‘Sonatrach 2030’, a plan that will show the way for the
next decade.”
Prior to Kaddour’s appointment, Sonatrach also announced
that it had signed a deal with Total. The NOC commissioned
the French oil company to complete a feasibility study
regarding the building of a major petrochemical facility in
Algeria. Should the JV go ahead, the project would require
significant storage and transportation infrastructure.
UAE
The UAE holds 98 billion bbls in crude reserves and
192 trillion ft3 of proven gas reserves. Since 2015, production
capacity has risen from 2.8 million bpd to 3 million bpd, and
the OPEC member has plans to achieve 3.5 million bpd
capacity in 2018.
Much of the increased capacity will not be through the
development of new fields. Rather, it will be through
enhanced oil recovery (EOR). The UAE produces over
5 billion ft3/d of gas (primarily associated), but re-injects the
majority in order to maintain oilfield pressure. Regardless, a
25% expansion in capacity will require commensurate export
storage and infrastructure expansions.
Iran
Iran contains a wealth of hydrocarbon riches. It has
158 billion bbls of proven crude reserves and 1000 trillion ft3
of gas. In 2010, it produced 4 million bpd. Led by the
United Nations (UN), a series of sanctions were imposed
upon Iran in order to curb its nuclear programme. As a result,
production had dropped to below 3 million bpd by 2015. In
2016, sanctions were eased, allowing production to rise back
up to approximately 4 million bpd.
 The surge in production coincided with a worldwide glut.
The National Iranian Oil Co. (NIOC), which has insufficient
in-country crude storage, was holding almost 30 million bbls
at sea in several dozen tankers. Starting in early January 2017,
when it was exempted from the OPEC output deal to cut
production, NIOC has managed to reduce this amount by
more than half through aggressive discounts and courting new
markets.
In 2017, Iran completed construction of a terminal near
Kharg Island in the Gulf in order to export a new grade,
West Kharoon, which is similar to Iraq’s Basra heavy crude, but
with higher sulfur content. The new facility has added
300 000 bpd in export capacity.
After participating in the original offshore South Pars gas
field development with Iran, Total has announced that it will
participate in phase two of the project (South Pars is the
Iranian portion of a giant gas deposit
known as the North Field in Qatar). Phase
two will cost Total up to US$5 billion. The
new production will be used for domestic
consumption, requiring extensive storage
and transportation infrastructure within
the country.
production and exports. The diplomatic isolation of Qatar by
its neighbours faces significant obstacles to resolution.
Long-term outlook
In the longer term, MENA must deal with the surge of exports
from North America. Thanks to the shale revolution, the US
now exports over 1.5 million bpd of crude, propane and
gasoline. The Sabine Pass LNG facility in Louisiana, US, which
came onstream in 2016, is looking to expand its export
capacity to 9.2 billion ft3/d by 2021. Canada is also seeking
tidewater terminals in order to market its ever-growing
oilsands production into Europe and Asia. After the last three
years of low commodity prices, many MENA countries are
scrambling to diversify their economies away from oil, but,
ultimately, their greatest concern may be hanging on to what
they have now.

Iraq
Iraq contains 143 billion bbls of proven
crude reserves and 100 trillion ft3 of
proven gas. The country has suffered a
tumultuous half-century in which oil
production has been derailed by wars
against Iran, the US and its allies, and,
most recently, against Isil. By 2017,
however, its output has returned to above
4.5 million bpd, and the country has plans
to reach 5 million bpd in 2018 through
further development of its Halfaya
oilfield in the Maysan province.
As part of its plan to increase exports,
Iraq has been busy increasing the capacity
of its southern offshore export terminal
at Khor al-Amaya. The terminal, which has
a capacity of 600 000 bpd, is undergoing
storage and infrastructure augmentation
to double capacity. Dredging will also
• Early Warning Oil
allow Suezmax vessels (tankers that can Detection
carry up to 1 million bbls of crude) to
dock. Thanks to additional capacity
increases in the Basra offshore terminal, • Non-Contact Sensor
Iraq has exceeded 3.5 million bpd in
exports in 2017. • Single Event Payback
The future • Real-time Monitoring
The MENA region faces several
challenges. While Isil’s armed uprising in for Dikes, Roof Drains,
Iraq, which saw the seizure of major oil
producing regions, has largely been Sumps, Separators &
resolved, the country still must address
the complications of Kurdish
Outfalls
independence. In Libya, militias and other
armed groups continue to disrupt oil

InterOcean Systems, LLC

+1 858 565 8400 • www.interoceansystems.com
 Preparatory site visits reduce project cost
and risk when planning intelligent pigging
operations for oil terminal wharf pipelines,
claim Geert Bontekoe and Laurie Todd,
Quest Integrity.

Winter 2017 16
O
il terminal wharf pipelines are often considered
‘unpiggable’. This can be due to a range of factors,
including operating pressure limitations or due to
the fact that the pipeline was not designed for
intelligent pigging and may have features such as short radius
bends, a lack of a pig launcher or receiver, diameter changes
or various other challenges. While new technologies now
allow previously unpiggable wharf pipelines to be accurately
and quickly inspected, there are still many challenges that
arise due to operational constraints.
When preparing for the inspection of a wharf pipeline, it
is important to first understand all of the possible inspection
methods as well as all of the associated challenges. In simple
cases it may be possible to accomplish this by conducting
preliminary discussions and collecting vital information,
including drawings and historical pipeline data. More
complex projects, however, are typically characterised by a
lack of information and understanding of the inspection
methods available. In these situations, it is recommended
that an experienced project manager conducts a site visit in
the early stages of project planning.
Commonly available in-line inspection (ILI) tools are
often unsuitable for inspecting wharf pipelines, leaving a
much smaller field for consideration. The objective of a
pre-inspection site visit is to gather all of the available
information, including operational constraints and
preferences, so that a safe, efficient and cost-effective
cleaning and inspection procedure can be developed.
Experience has shown that the small upfront investment of
performing a preparatory site visit can achieve significant
cost savings through the reduction or elimination of pipeline
modifications, pipeline downtime and the equipment that is
necessary to support the inspection.
A variety of solutions are available to address problems
relating to pipeline modifications and equipment
requirements. Some examples include: using flexible hoses to
create looped pipeline systems, adjusting tool bypass to suit
flow conditions, or launching or receiving the ILI tool from a
spool piece between valves. In order to determine which
specific methods are appropriate, it is imperative that a site
visit is performed by an expert with specific knowledge of all
operating requirements and available technologies.
This article discusses the inspection planning and site
visit process for wharf pipelines, as well as the methods used
to mitigate unnecessary inspection project expenditures.
Case studies are presented to illustrate these methods.
1
17 Winter 2017

Figure 1. A pipeline modification used to inspect the pipeline
effectively.
Figure 2. A real world application of the pipeline
modification design in Figure 1, allowing for future
installation of an ILI receiver.
Traditionally, only ‘piggable’ pipelines have been inspected
with ILI tools. The majority of these tools have been based on
magnetic flux leakage (MFL) technology. Inspections performed
with these tools typically require:
„ A lengthy launcher and receiver.
„ Pipeline cleaning.
„ A gauging pig run with gauge plate at 90 or 95% of a
pipeline’s inside diameter.
„ A caliper tool run.
„ Lifting equipment for the ILI tool.
„ Flow parameters (minimum pressure and flow rate) that
may be difficult to manage in certain pipelines.
Many wharf pipelines, however, are not readily piggable
with traditional ILI tools for various reasons, including operating been constructed in 1985 and had not been pigged since it was
pressure limitations or that the system was not designed for ILI.
Most wharf lines have extra metal features, such as pipe
supports, clamps and sleeves. Damage to the coating is often
observed, especially at weld locations, which increases the
chance of external corrosion in the heat affected zone (HAZ).
Winter 2017 18
These features limit the accuracy of ILI tools
that are based on MFL technology.
Fortunately, the introduction of new
technologies is changing the playing field as
they can cope with challenging operating
conditions, such as the navigation of tight and
mitered bends in low pressure conditions, and
they often eliminate the need for pipeline
modification.
Concurrently, oil terminal operators are
now facing new rules, regulations, safety and
environmental concerns. For instance, a
notable amendment of AS/NZ 2885.3 for
Australia and New Zealand was implemented
in 2012. This revision recommended that as
part of any pipeline integrity management
plan, the pipeline operator should consider use
of ILI where practicable. This change has
encouraged pipeline operators to assess all
options, including modifications to perform an
ILI, thus causing them to rely on ECDA, ICDA and/or
hydrotesting as a last resort method.
In other regions, several well-publicised incidents have
forced operators to focus on the inspection of wharf pipelines
that have previously been neglected from an ILI perspective.
This combination of circumstances has made it both necessary
and possible to inspect the large number of wharf pipelines that
had previously been considered unpiggable.
For the oil terminal operator, this is both an opportunity
and a dilemma. When preparing for a wharf pipeline ILI, the ILI
tool selection process now involves supplying highly specific
information about the pipeline; comparing vendor qualifications
and data quality, and potentially making costly modifications to
the pipeline prior to inspection. The implication of this process
is also financially salient as the total cost of a project can vary
considerably from one inspection technology to the next.
The total cost of the project can include:
„ Permanent or temporary pipeline modifications.
„ Rental of equipment, such as pumps, compressors, lifting
equipment and frac tanks.
„ Providing and disposing of the inspection medium.
„ The manpower needed to support the project.
„ The cost of downtime.
These factors vary in their contribution, depending on the
method and supplier of the chosen ILI service. The selection
process has become significantly more difficult and
complicated. The complexities of selecting an inspection
technology for wharf pipelines are illustrated in the following
case studies.
Case study one
In this case, an inspection was performed on a 14 in., 1 mile long
wharf pipeline. The pipeline, used to transport white oil, had
commissioned. No traps were present, but a launch valve was
still in place. The pipeline ran from a wharf to a tank farm. The
launch location could be accessed through two manways. The
first launch location was for personnel access. The second
launch location was located directly above the launch valve and
could be used to lower a small launcher underneath the berth.
At the receiver side, there was no mainline valve present, only a
flange to connect to. The maximum pressure allowed was
150 psi. Due to an ever-changing shipping schedule, scheduling
flexibility from the ILI supplier was required. The pipeline was
normally operated by a third-party operator and the owner had
no pipeline pigging experience.
An initial site visit was performed prior to inspection. During
the visit, various inspection options were discussed with both
the owner and the third-party operator. A procedure was
developed, outlining the roles, responsibilities and materials for
each associated party. It was determined that receiver
modification was required to allow for future repeat inspection.
This modification would easily allow for the installation of any Figure 3. A three-way valve requiring logistical
suitable ILI receiver without a need to drain the pipeline. A consideration prior to inspection.
drawing for the modification was provided in the procedure
(Figure 1).
The week before the ILI inspection, the pipeline owner
modified the pipeline and installed the receiver (Figure 2). The
launcher was installed using a small crane that was mounted on
a truck. Five cleaning runs were completed across one afternoon
and the following morning. The pipeline contained a reasonable
amount of sediment, which had been brought in by the ships
when offloading diesel. The ILI run was completed successfully,
with all of the cleaning and ILI pig runs carried out using a
firewater supply for propulsion. The project was completed
within 2.5 days on-site, without any incidents or spills. Figure 4. Two 8 in. dock hoses that are used to loop
the pipelines together for inspection, providing
Analysis significant cost savings by avoiding the need to
The ILI vendor in this case was selected based on its cost and fabricate a spool.
project management capabilities. A standard ILI tool could have
been used, but would have required large pig traps. Installation
of large pig traps would have required a small barge, with a great During a site visit, all viable inspection options were
deal of scaffolding under the wharf. At the receiver side, the considered. The solution was to use a dock hose, which was
client had been contemplating excavating a small part of a hill normally used to offload ships and connect the two pipelines at
to make room for a large trap. However, these factors would the dock (Figure 4). This method would further reduce the total
increase the overall cost and would have also increased the risk work scope for the client.
of an accident or spill due to the increased amount of work in a Within 4 hrs, the two pipelines were cleaned, inspected and
confined space and the heavy lifting involved. handed back to the client.
During the site visit, the project manager was able to
identify several options for the client, which allowed the Analysis
operator to select the most convenient overall solution. One During the site visit, a method was devised to reduce the total
cost saving element was the use of a dock hose as the bypass work load for the client. The ILI was performed in a very short
line. The dock hose was readily available and could be used on time frame.
any trap, from either the current and/or future ILI supplier. The inspection allowed for minimal dock occupation time,
Utilising the capabilities of all involved parties and locally which made scheduling on a shared dock easier. Two pipelines
available resources, the inspection was executed on time and were inspected with minimal work at the shared dock. The
without incident. installation of pig traps could also be performed within the
client’s terminal, which simplified and minimised the work and
Case study two risk involved.
This inspection consisted of two parallel 8 in., 4000 ft loading
lines running from a dock to a tank terminal. One line included a Conclusion
three-way valve (Figure 3). These lines were used for the When inspecting wharf pipelines that historically would not
offloading of various fuel products to the tank farm. The owner have been inspected or considered piggable, it is imperative for
operated several tank farms, but had not previously inspected an ILI provider with wharf line inspection experience to perform
either of these loading lines. Its initial idea was to inspect each a site visit. Developers of new ILI tools are able to provide the
line individually, with a launcher and receiver at both ends and best knowledge on potential operational improvements for an
using water as the inspection medium. As this option would inspection. By utilising the ILI provider as a consultant and
require the use of frac tanks on the dock, a site visit was project manager in this way, it is possible to realise substantial
organised to explore better options for the client. overall cost savings and risk reduction.

19 Winter 2017
 Figure 1. Jetties allow tankers to load and unload crude
oil, feedstock and finished products close to a refinery.
The maze of pipes is subject to corrosion.

Jake Davies, Emerson Automation Solutions, UK,

examines continuous corrosion monitoring methods
for jetty pipelines in order to protect against an
interrupted supply to and from the refinery.

Winter 2017 20
M
any refineries and oil terminals are located
beside major stretches of water, either sea
or river, to provide a cost-effective
transportation route for incoming crude oil
and feedstock, and for outgoing finished products.
Ships and barges need a certain amount of water depth
to be able to safely load and unload product without
the danger of running aground, so most facilities use
jetties (Figure 1) to enable the vessel to moor in deeper
water away from the shore.

2
21 Winter 2017

Figure 2. Suspended pipelines are difficult to inspect
with manual ultrasonic methods, requiring access by
boat or a ladder.
Figure 3. Permasense ET210 wireless ultrasonic
wall thickness sensors provide continuous corrosion
monitoring of jetty pipelines.
Jetties can often be several hundred feet long, with
multiple berths and the capability to handle many
different products simultaneously. To accommodate
the various oil products and feedstocks, multiple
product lines are run from shore in pipelines above and
below the jetty.
In most instances, it is not cost-effective to
construct these jetty pipelines from stainless or alloy
steel, so carbon steel is used instead. The use of carbon
steel, however, creates a risk of internal corrosion,
particularly where higher sulfur content oils (such as
fuel oils) are concerned, or when fuels contain
potentially corrosive additives. The presence and
build-up of water allows for the accumulation of
bacteria that cause microbial-induced corrosion. This
issue is especially likely to occur in jetty lines since
they have intermittent or slow flow rates, allowing
water to settle in low points.
Winter 2017 22
If undetected, a hydrocarbon leak resulting from
corrosion in a jetty line will go straight into the water
course, interrupt jetty operations while the leak is
sealed, and necessitate complex oil spill response
procedures to clean up the water. Many jetties suspend
pipes underneath to allow vehicle traffic above, making
regular manual inspection and maintenance difficult.
To reduce the risk of leaks from corrosion, and to
avoid the associated costs and regulatory issues, most
jetty owners will regularly inspect suspended pipelines
from a boat or by a suspended scaffold, mainly using
manual methods such as ultrasound wall thickness
inspection (Figure 2).
In many jurisdictions, this regular inspection activity
is mandated by the local environmental regulator.
Access to the pipelines by boat is not always possible
– for example, during bad weather – and incurs a
regular cost that, in today’s tight margin environment,
operators would rather avoid.
Continuous corrosion monitoring
systems
Continuous corrosion monitoring with ultrasonic wall
thickness measurements provide an effective and
continuous check of pipeline integrity (Figure 3).
Elevated corrosion rates and wall loss are detected,
eliminating the need for manual inspection. Corrosion
inside jetty lines is normally uniform in nature or
restricted to specific well-known areas, such as
microbial-induced corrosion in low points of the lines.
Therefore, corrosion sensors can be spread uniformly at
strategic points to enable continuous sampling, and
targeted at specific high risk locations with additional
sensors.
Data from the ultrasonic sensors is transmitted
wirelessly from the sensors to a gateway, which can be
mounted at a control system onshore, or locally in the
jetty control room. The gateway feeds the data in
relevant time to a computer or server, where it is
stored in a database accessible from anywhere on the
company’s network – enabling data visualisation and
analysis at the engineers’ desks.
This technology makes it feasible for integrity data
across multiple locations to be monitored by experts
at a central location, such as at company headquarters
or a technical centre. Specialised data visualisation and
analytics software, such as data manager from Emerson
(Figure 4), provides corrosion rate calculations and flags
variations as they arise, enabling end-users to focus on
issues at specific locations. Corrosion rate data can be
used to forecast when lines need to be replaced with a
high degree of accuracy.
Installing ultrasonic sensors
Low-powered ultrasonic corrosion sensors, such as the
Permasense ET210, can be permanently deployed in
areas of hydrocarbon processing facilities zoned
hazardous (Zone 0, ATEX, IECEx, etc.). Based on
electromagnetic acoustic transduction principles, the
sensor is wireless and battery operated, so there is no
CONCEPT TO COMPLETION.
IT ALL BEGINS WITH MATRIX.

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Figure 4. Data manager software monitors data from ultrasonic sensors, calculates
corrosion rates, detects problems, and predicts when pipelines need to be repaired or
replaced.
Figure 5. Installing Permasense ultrasonic corrosion
sensors is a simple matter. Approximately 25 sensors
can be installed in one day per installation technician.
requirement to lay cables for power supply or
communications. Therefore, installation avoids the need
for expensive conduit or cable trays.
The sensor uses the WirelessHART® communications
protocol to form a wireless mesh network with other
corrosion sensors installed on the jetty’s pipelines, and
other devices such as temperature, pressure, flow or
level sensors used to monitor and control flow to and
from the tankers and onshore tanks. Typically, only a
single gateway is needed to acquire data from all the
sensors on the jetty, and send it to a control or
monitoring system. Mounting of the ultrasonic sensor is
a simple and quick task.
The sensor is fixed to the pipe surface by integral
magnets, with a restraining strap used to prevent
dislocation (Figure 5). External corrosion protection
coatings, often used to protect the outside of the
piping from external atmospheric corrosion, do not
need to be removed as the sensor will measure through
the coating.
Winter 2017 24
The installation and
commissioning procedure can
be completed in just a few
minutes, without the need for
multiple installation trade
specialists (mechanical,
instrument/electrical, welding,
etc.). A complete monitoring
system for a jetty with 25 or
more sensors can be installed,
commissioned and
transmitting data within one
day. This simple installation
procedure provides
advantages, particularly when
working in the inaccessible
locations or outside in
extreme ambient conditions
often found near jetties.
Benefits of continuous corrosion
monitoring
Performing manual inspections for pipeline corrosion
requires the services of a trained ultrasonic technician,
and access by boat or scaffolding for suspended
pipelines. Typical access and manpower costs are
US$1000 per measurement location for suspended
pipelines, and manual inspections are typically carried
out every two months at a cost of US$25 000 per
inspection. This results in an annual inspection cost for a
jetty with 25 monitoring locations and inspections of
US$150 000.
Environmental clean-up costs following an oil leak
can run upwards of US$250 000, depending on the size of
the spill, and are likely to incur significant fines,
regulatory pressure, reputation damage, and losses due to
operational outages, which are often far more than
clean-up costs.
At a cost of approximately US$125 000 for a
monitoring system at 25 locations, gateway and corrosion
monitoring software is a continuous corrosion system
that could quickly pay for itself and greatly reduce the
risk of unplanned outages and leaks.
Conclusion
Jetty pipelines often experience internal corrosion and
hydrocarbon leaks, which can result in feedstock or
products discharging directly into the water. The cost of
a leak includes ceasing jetty operations while the leak is
repaired, and the cost of spill response and clean-up, as
well as closer scrutiny from environmental regulators and
potential reputation damage. Therefore, most jetty
owners carry out routine inspections from boat or
suspended scaffolding using labour-intensive methods
such as manual ultrasound inspection.
In many jurisdictions, environmental regulations force
an enhanced inspection and reporting regime in order to
minimise the probability of a leak. Continuous corrosion
monitoring systems provide a means to measure and
report corrosion rates.
 Peter Williams, Concord Tank, USA,
outlines why floating roof repairs should
be approached differently to floor repairs.

A
fter a series of issues in 2015, Concord Tank realised
that it had been making some poor approaches to its
floating roof repair work, and needed to adapt. After
digging deeper into the problem, the company
determined that it needed to change its perspective on floating
roof repair projects. This article will examine how common
mistakes can lead to sinking floating roofs.
Most of the issues uncovered are not specific to Concord
Tank, but are common practices across the tank storage
industry. As the average floating roof age continues to
increase, the problems encountered are likely to become
more common. This article aims to present experiences that
can be learned from in order to avoid facing the same issues in
future projects.
A case study
A 100 ft dia. tank with a steel perimeter pontoon external
floating roof had been covered with a geodesic dome decades
ago. During the conversion, the floating roof drain and sump
had been removed. After years of service, the geodesic dome
was now allowing water to get inside the tank and sit on the
deck of the floating roof. The roof had not been recoated

2
25 Winter 2017

Figure 1. External floating roof with rolling ladder.
during the last out of service repairs and had widespread areas
of coating failure.
The job scope given to Concord Tank by the customer
mentioned that there were areas of corrosion on the roof that
should be patched. The company expressed concern that the
size and location of the repairs had not been marked by the
inspection company. Meanwhile, the inspection company said
that it would need to have the roof sandblasted in order to
conduct a more detailed inspection.
Concord Tank cleaned up both the roof and some of the
areas with paint failure. Following this, the client’s engineer
inspected the roof, marked out areas to repair and decided that
further inspection would not be needed if they sandblasted and
applied a liner on the top side of the roof to protect from
future corrosion.
After the weld repairs were completed, the owner had the
roof blasted and coated. The facility scheduled receipts to fill
the tank and pin legs after the tank had been returned to
service. When setting up, the leg pinning crew observed that the
coating appeared to have an issue on the centre deck. Upon
closer observation, it was determined that product was coming
up through a hole in the floating roof deck. When the tank was
pulled out of service, the leak path was not easily identifiable.
Therefore, the tank had to be removed from service and
re-cleaned, adding tens of thousands of dollars of extra cost to
the project. Additionally, the customer still had a roof that
needed to be inspected and repaired. This was a clear project
failure.
Whose fault was it?
This example illustrates many of the problems associated with
floating roof repair work. The most dangerous issue is that it was
easy for each party involved to place the blame elsewhere.
From Concord Tank’s perspective, it expressed concern
about the poor work scope multiple times during the project.
When it heard about the failure, the first response from both
the company’s foreman and project manager was to point out
the concerns they had.
The inspection company explained that it could not
properly inspect a dirty floating roof with widespread coating
failure, while the blasting and coating contractor had expressed
concern about the possibility of creating additional issues when
blasting a roof like this.
The tank owner was frustrated as project costs were
skyrocketing and the tank was still out of service.
Winter 2017 26
The engineer felt that the inspection crew should have
given clearer guidance on the required repairs. The repair crew
should have more clearly identified and communicated
concerns about the condition of the roof. The blasting
contractor should have identified the areas and welds with
serious concerns after blasting, and the on-site inspector
should have seen these issues as well. The above constraints
made managing the project extremely difficult.
Patterns emerge
Upon reviewing both this project and past projects that had
faced issues, the following patterns were noticed:
„ Floating roof repair scopes are often significantly less
detailed than the work scopes of floor and shell repair
projects.
„ Engineers and project coordinators often could not provide
more detailed work scopes due to the low quality of
information provided to them by inspection companies.
„ Testing floating roofs has a unique combination of
challenges that make it easy for repair crews and inspectors
to miss problems.
„ Whether consciously or subconsciously, all parties involved
often treat floating roofs with less respect than other areas
of the tank.
„ Often engineers and tank inspectors do not have clear
guidelines to follow when trying to identify potential issues
with floating roofs.
„ Each engineer and co-ordinator approaches floating roofs
differently. There appears to be few clear standard
practices in the industry.
„ The budget and time constraints, combined with the
factors above, often lead to potentially substandard
repairs.
The core reason
The patterns above can be traced back to how the American
Petroleum Institute (API) standards are written and structured.
The standards try to avoid being overly prescriptive. If a roof
fails, the product does not spill into the environment like it
would with a floor or shell failure, so appropriately it has fewer
guidelines on floating roofs. This means that in place of the
clear construction, inspection and repair guidelines, the
standards have limited guidelines for floating roofs.
For example, in API 653, the ‘suitability for service’ section
has four and a half pages of guidelines on tank floors, while only
one-quarter of a page of guidelines is dedicated to floating
roofs. In the repairs section of the standard, there are five pages
of guidelines for floors and, again, only one-quarter of a page of
guidelines for floating roofs.
Concord Tank believes that API standard committees are
correct in being careful about being overly prescriptive.
However, its current standards do seem to create two situations
that are leading to problems in the field. Firstly, inspectors,
engineers and repair contractors have fewer constraints, which
means that they have greater responsibility and liability when
determining what needs to be repaired on the floating roof.
Secondly, the reduced requirements reinforce the idea that
floating roof repairs are not as critical as floor and shell repairs.
These two issues create a situation where everyone tries to
pass on the liability. This dynamic often leaves companies in a
bad situation.
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 company, a red flag area is one where the field foreman or
project manager is expected to hold their ground until
100% comfortable that all issues have been clearly
communicated and addressed.
„ Better floating roof repair practices are needed. Visual
inspections need to be treated with more respect and care.
Standards should recognise when diesel tests should be
held longer or were ineffective. Vacuum box welds should
be used more often, and the industry should avoid relying
too heavily on one inspection method.
„ Companies should communicate red flag issues. Helping
Figure 2. Floating roof patch plate repair. the engineer to see the underlying issue can help bring
about problem solving. Without acknowledging these
issues, blame shifting to the engineer or inspector occurs,
which is not a constructive perspective when trying to find
an adequate solution.

The core idea of the company’s new approach is that all

parties need to treat floating roof repairs with more respect and
care.

Figure 3. Floating roof drain sump.
A new approach
Based on the above, Concord Tank has identified three core
elements that needed to change in floating roof repair projects:
„ Acknowledge that floating roofs are currently a problem
area. In the past, the repair company tended to avoid
friction and take on additional responsibility. For the
Conclusion
The industry’s tank inspection and repair standards provide
relatively few guidelines on the inspection and repair of floating
roofs. This decision by code committees to be less prescriptive
on floating roofs puts more responsibility on the owners,
inspectors and repair contractors. These parties often look to
shift this additional responsibility to each other. When no one
takes full ownership of the problem, substandard repairs can
occur, which can, in turn, lead to floating roof failures and costly
unexpected tank outages. Concord Tank’s solution in this
scenario has been to red flag floating roof repairs and treat
them with additional respect and care.

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 Ewart Cox,
Assentech, UK,
considers why internal
floating roofs are used
for gasoline storage.

A
n increased focus on the environment and pressure
on profitability has encouraged the use of internal
floating roofs (IFRs) in fixed roof tanks in the terminals
industry.
Highly volatile products, such as gasoline or gas condensate,
have vapour pressures greater than the design pressure of most
atmospheric storage tanks (ASTs) at ambient temperatures.
Therefore, the use of pressure/vacuum vents set to the
maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP) of the tank will
not stop the majority of the vapours escaping the tank. This
results in large quantities of hazardous volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) leaking into the atmosphere.
These vapour clouds affect profitability and the impact on
the health of people, animals, birds and plant life in the vicinity
of the tank farm. They also present a significant fire hazard, as
has been demonstrated by numerous high profile tank farm
incidents around the world.
The most volatile elements in flammable liquids are the
ones that are most likely to evaporate first. Loss of these light
ends, such as butanes, result in reduced product quality. This
could lead to rejected deliveries, damaged reputations and legal
action.
IFRs are specified in preference to normal venting because
they significantly reduce vapour loss and protect profitability,
the environment and assets.
History
IFR technology dates back to the 1950s and has evolved in line
with the demands of customers and to keep abreast of
legislation. Tank inspections are now routinely performed in

2
29 Winter 2017

Figure 1. Pontoon IFR floating position.
Figure 2. Weak ring-beam design. Note how the
shoe-seal is bending the frame.
15 – 20 year intervals. Therefore, it is important that the IFR
performs effectively throughout this period, without the need
for intervention and maintenance. Pressure on profit margins
can drive cost cutting on capital equipment purchases and
concurrent pressure to prevent production outages, so
inspection schedules are likely to be pushed out even further. It
is, therefore, important that any IFR technology meets those
demands and performs robustly at optimum level for longer
periods of time than ever before.
The technology has evolved incrementally over time with
the occasional key step change. Two of the largest recent
developments have been the introduction of full contact IFRs
and stainless steel shoe seals.
Skin and pontoon vs full contact design
The most common IFR construction method is the skin and
pontoon type. However, full contact IFRs have increased in
popularity over the last decade.
Skin and pontoon IFR
The skin and pontoon IFR design, most often made from
aluminium, is the lowest cost option. It consists of a deep
section annular ring, space frame, skin, pontoons and rim seal.
Winter 2017 30
It is worth noting that the integrity of construction of these
components must be to a very high level to prevent the leakage
of vapours and damage from turbulence in the tank.
This design relies entirely on flotation of the pontoons,
leaving a small gap between the surface of the liquid and deck
skin. Where the full vapour pressure cannot be contained by a
normal AST, the IFR structure can, leaving the ullage space
unpressurised and freely ventilated.
The small vapour space between liquid surface and IFR skin
equalises in pressure, which can leak through the deck seam and
appurtenances such as the rim seal, stilling well seals, dip
funnels and manways, etc.
Preventing leak paths
It is important for the operator to look closely at the design
features of an IFR when purchasing it.
With regards to the rim seal, API 650 states that a gap of
100 mm should exist between the tank wall and rim channel to
allow for variations in the tank wall. Low cost wiper seals wear
quickly with a service life of three to five years before gapping
occurs. Stainless steel shoe seals offer the best long-term wear
resistance over time. The choice of the vapour fabric must also
be compatible with the stored media and must retain flexibility
throughout the life of the IFR. Assentech finds that PTFE fabric
works best in most applications. The target service life for the
IFR structure, including the seals and fabric, should be the same
as the tank inspection periods, i.e. 15 – 20 years at a minimum.
Stilling well seals have to be flexible to accommodate the
path of the tube(s) through the deck. A persistent issue with low
cost IFRs is the use of low quality rubber that breaks down. The
best designs tend to use stainless steel ‘stiffeners’ that support
the seal in the space around the stilling well tube.
The integrity of the seal in the dip funnel seal is very
important. It represents a major leak source if the void opens up
through seal failure. Assentech believes that a glass fibre sheet
with two layers of pie-cut laminated fibreglass sheets is the best
material for this service.
The aluminium sheeting that forms the IFR deck skin is
joined along the deck channels. This is potentially a large leak
path as it needs to be clamped down with bolts. Tech screws
into blind extruded channel recesses work effectively. Extensive
testing on deck seal loss has been conducted on this method
and it has been found to be 100% leak tight.
Deck drains, pressure vacuum vents, vacuum breaker,
manway and anti-rotation guides should be individually
designed for seal tightness and are an area of focus for any
potential buyer.
Frame rigidity
Fitting stainless steel shoe seals puts additional torsional load
on the IFR rim channel. The increasing adoption of stainless
steel shoe seals by manufacturers has been widespread.
Additional torsional load on the rim channel imposed by the
pantograph hinges of a stainless steel shoe seal requires
additional support at the rim of the IFR. An extra deep extruded
channel works best for this and transfers minimal torsional load
to the IFR frame.
Some lower cost IFR manufacturers adopting this
technology have retained a folded, rather than extruded, narrow
section rim channel that was originally used in wiper seal type
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Figure 3. Pontoon end cracking due to flexing during
operation. This is caused by landing on uneven tank
floors or tank turbulence caused by filling or mixers.
Note that the leg is twisted away from a normal
vertical position.
Figure 4. A cross-section of a full contact IFR,
showing stainless steel shoe seal assembly.
decks, but with added stiffening ribs triangulating load back to
the deck frame. This method can distort the inner support
brackets, causing the rim channel to fold under, which can be a
very costly repair to fix.
A heavy duty pontoon IFR design has many advantages over
a lightweight design. The use of a heavy duty design has no
negative aspects over a lightweight version but the heavy duty
IFR frame has many advantages, such as supporting at least two
people. This is particularly important when conducting internal
tank inspections. Some light duty IFRs are too weak to support
the weight of people walking around on top and, therefore,
need to be supported by scaffolding, which is an additional cost
that negates the saving of a cheaper IFR.
Winter 2017 32
The rigidity of the frame, legs and pontoons is critical to the
long-term integrity of the structure. High flow rates into the
tank and mixers will cause turbulence, creating shear forces on
the pontoons and legs. It is vital that these side loads are
transferred directly to the framework through rigid support
brackets. Legs connected to the pontoons on some lower
specification IFRs have caused stress fracturing. This results in
the rupture of the pontoon and can lead to sinking of the IFR.
Again, an avoidable issue if a robust specification and selection
is completed.
Full contact design
The increasingly popular full contact IFR is chosen because it
has no vapour space between the liquid surface and deck. This
reduces the build up of vapour pressure in this space and the
subsequent leak pressure on tank penetration points.
The deck is made from air tight honeycomb panels that bolt
together using a vapour-tight joint. This design retains the rim
channel and stainless steel shoe seal. It is generally faster to
assemble due to the large size of the panels. However, it will
likely require a section of tank being removed to fit the panels.
This opening can be made to use a replaceable ‘door’, which can
be re-opened in future for removal of the IFR if required.
The cost of manufacturing a full contact IFR is higher than
skin and pontoon types because the peripheral panels need to
be manufactured specifically to match the tank wall radius. This
leaves less flexibility to adapt the structure on-site during
installation. However, a payback will be achieved through lower
vapour losses.
Construction materials are predominantly aluminium but
there are some composite material designs available for
chemical compatibility.
Good IFR design practice
Essential IFR design considerations include:
„ Stainless steel shoe seals last longer than wiper seals and
need to be factored into any long-term cost benefit
analysis.
„ Heavier construction is always a benefit in resisting
turbulence and supporting personnel during inspections.
„ Avoiding legs that are connected to the IFR’s pontoon will
ensure that fatigue cracking is mitigated against.
„ Extruded deep section rims allow a shoe seal to be fitted
without rim reinforcement, which provides a stronger
structure overall.
„ Choose the thickest deck sheeting possible – 0.6 mm thick
main deck sheeting is more durable than 0.54 mm.
„ Stainless steel fasteners are essential.
„ A 1000 lb/ft2 load capability is important to general life
expectancy and sealing capability.
Desirable considerations include:
„ Coil type anti-static/earth connection eliminates fouling
problems.
„ Sheeting is fastened from the top, which is easier to
maintain.
Cost benefit analysis
The common theme in this article is that companies should
look at the important features that save money in the long-term
and save on ongoing maintenance.
 Many IFRs are bought purely on price to replace old units or listed above. Potential bidders should provide a detailed
buyers have been asked to follow company guidelines on proposal, listing every aspect of the IFR, including a method
new build projects that have no defined specification for IFRs. It statement on the installation.
is also a fact that cheap IFRs exist in the market place and high
leak rates do not get detected until the tank is opened for Conclusion
inspection after approximately 10 – 15 years. The unlucky ones Most tank farm operators earn their living from utilisation of
suffer an IFR failure and have to deal with the consequences of tank storage capacity, so serious attention to risk assessment of
unplanned outages and the subsequent loss of revenue. the purchase and installation of IFRs is a worthy exercise.
Detection of vapour loss is becoming easier for the Assentech hopes that this article will help purchasers to make
following reasons: clear and informed choices on these important items of
„ COMAH sites get monitored more frequently for emissions equipment, with peace of mind for now and the long-term
violations. future.
„ Increased levels of
work-related injury claims
could relate to long-term
exposure to dangerous
substances such as benzene.
„ General pressure on
profitability forces operators
to analyse product losses.
„ Increasing product sampling
prior to delivery could cause
rejected loads if the product is
off-specification.

It is now possible to estimate

the cost of vapour losses from
tanks using one of a number of
software packages on the market.

EXPANDING
Such programs can estimate
vapour losses with a range of tank
options from free vented through

HORIZONS
skin and pontoon type to full
contact type IFRs. Some
manufacturers have adjusted
source database in some
applications to reflect their own
variations on IFR technology. This is
a useful tool as it gives a closer
estimate of emission losses for a
specific technology, such as
stainless steel shoe seal vs
polyurethane (PU) wiper seal over
After completing the NACE CP course,
I have a better understanding of cathodic
SURWHFWLRQV\VWHPVRQRƬVKRUHSODWIRUPV,oYH
used this information to assist me in deciding on
inspection frequency during a mini-project as
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me as the coating focal point at Sarawak Asset
in determining and specifying required surface
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choices.

Installation
Buying an IFR is only part of the
story; it also has to be installed.
The team that performs the
installation will impact the
effectiveness and life span of the NACE Career Development, your experts
LQWUDLQLQJDQGFHUWLƮFDWLRQ
IFR, so it is wise to obtain

Developed by Industry,
references.
Each IFR is a bespoke design
relating to a particular tank size.
Assentech strongly recommends Globally Recognized.
that operators have a site
specification for IFRs that
incorporates all of the features

nace.org/career-development
 Julian Waumsley, Aquilar Ltd, UK, outlines
the importance of quickly detecting leaks
in hydrocarbon storage facilities.

Winter 2017 34
S
pillages and leaks of hydrocarbon fuels within a
storage facility can, at best, involve costly
clean-up operations and, at worst, result in large
scale environmental damage, highly dangerous
combustion risks and legal liability, all of which have
additional repercussions in terms of the facility’s
reputation. Whether it be jet fuel, gasoline, diesel,
crude oil or contaminated water, even a small leak can
cause significant damage if allowed to continue over a
prolonged period of time. A good example of this can
be found within ageing tanks, where leaks from the
floor plate allow product to slowly seep through a
corroded plate of a fractured weld, sometimes going
undetected for months or even years. However, the
risks associated with undetected leaks are not limited
to storage facilities. They are also of significant
concern when transporting or processing hydrocarbon
fuels. In all of these scenarios, detecting and addressing
the issue quickly is paramount to preventing
unnecessary damage and ensuring that repair/clean-up
costs and downtime are kept to an absolute minimum.
Installing an efficient liquid hydrocarbon leak
detection system is an important and necessary
precaution that can help limit potential safety hazards,
damage and the costs associated with leaks and spills.
Although these detection systems do not prevent leaks
themselves, they alert staff to a leak almost as soon as
it occurs and can accurately pin-point its location so
that corrective action can be taken as quickly as
possible.
Case study
In a previous hydrocarbon leak detection project for a
small oil port, Aquilar found that the existing
supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) based
leak detection system was ineffective. This was due to
the fact that this system relies on predictable, constant
flow rates, but the unloading operation in this scenario
was intermittent and across relatively short pipelines.
Consequently, even large leaks would have been able to
go completely undetected. This was of particular
concern to the client as the pipe system encroached
3
35 Winter 2017
 on ecologically sensitive areas, meaning that even a
small leak would compromise the company’s
environmental responsibility.
Ordinarily, when dealing with hydrocarbon leak
detection in a storage facility environment, Aquilar
would advise the use of a sensing probe such as the
Figure 1. The TT-FFS detects liquid hydrocarbons in a
few seconds.
Figure 2. Low resistance in normal conditions.
Figure 3. High resistance in contact with liquid
hydrocarbons.
Winter 2017 36
TraceTek Fast Fuel Sensor (TT-FFS), shown in Figure 1.
Figures 2 and 3 illustrate how TraceTek technology
works. Carbon particles are deposited in a thin film
using a polymer base, represented by green lines in
Figure 2. Rather than using the carbon particles to
create an electrical switch, this technology uses them
in this configuration to monitor the polymer status
through its electrical resistance.
Leaking liquid hydrocarbon molecules, represented
by the red lines in Figure 3, cause the polymer chains
to elongate (or swell) and carbon particles to pull
apart. After sufficient fuel (less than 1 ml) has been
absorbed into the polymer, micro-swelling occurs in
the polymer film at the point of contact. Resistance
through carbon particles increases dramatically. The
monitoring instrument detects the sudden increase in
polymer resistance and reports that a leak has been
detected.
The sensors are primarily attached to support
brackets or a float assembly within the low points of
tank bunds, bund sumps, within pump bays or adjacent
vapour recovery unit. The TT-FFS is a fast-acting
probe, designed to detect hydrocarbon fuel floating
on water, spreading on a flat surface or collecting in a
dry or wet sump. The probe ignores water, but detects
a thin film of fuel floating on the surface. Reaction
time is typically a few seconds for light or middle
weight fuels, such as gasoline, jet fuel and diesel. It is
also responsive to crude oil, as well as some heavier
weight fuels and heating oils, but becomes
progressively slower as the fuel volatility decreases.
After detection, the sensor is easily reset and can be
re-used even after multiple detections of hydrocarbon
fuel leaks.
In this particular project, both above and below
ground piping applications needed to be taken into
consideration. TraceTek can be used for a single tank
or buried valve, or across entire terminals and storage
facilities that require many kilometres of buried and
aboveground pipes.
In aboveground storage tanks, for example, the
main consideration within the bund is detection of
any hydrocarbon liquid above ground from a breach in
the tank wall or failure around one of the side
connections (import/export pipes), access hatches or
flanged joint. Leakage from the elbow of an internal
rainwater pipe could allow product to flow directly
into the bund and cause an overfill. For this
application, the TraceTek TT5000 fuel sensor cable is
used to monitor the soil under and around fuel
carrying pipes and tanks (Figure 4). The sensing cable
can be attached to an aboveground pipe, buried in the
ground below a tank, or placed alongside a pipeline
with a perforated slotted conduit to detect
hydrocarbon fuels whilst ignoring water.
Therefore, having assessed the requirements of the
small oil port client, Aquilar suggested using this
sensing cable for its ability to report the leak and its
location, typically to +/- 1 m, via the sensor’s
monitoring electronics. Tests have proven that it takes

Figure 4. TraceTek TT5000 fuel sensing cable for
above and below ground applications.
approximately one hour for the detection cable to
initiate leak detection and trigger a leak alarm.
For the aboveground piping, Aquilar supplied the
TT5000 sensing cable with an external black polyester
rope layer, which provides an effective ultraviolet (UV)
shield protection for the sensor cable within. The
sensing cable was secured to the bottom side of the
aboveground pipelines.
Strategically located petroleum bulk storage facility.
The only deep water platform (64’ operating draft)
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• 20 storage tanks 80 miles East of New York Harbor
• The only deep-water loading/unloading platform on
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For the buried portion of the pipeline, the TT5000
was used again but was installed in a different way; a
slotted PVC conduit was placed in the pipe trench on
the same layer of sand that the single wall fuel
pipeline rests upon. After the heavy pipeline work was
completed, the sensor cable, with an over braid of
polyethylene rope, was drawn into the conduit system
whilst it was being assembled, prior to burial. The
slotted conduit provides mechanical protection to the
sensing cable whilst the slots allow any leaking liquid
hydrocarbon fuels to contact the sensing cable. The
conduit also allows the sensor to be pulled out after
an alarm has been triggered.
Conclusion
Various instrumentation options are available to
monitor leak detection cables. These range from
simple battery-powered, high-intensity flashing LED
leak indicators (ATEX certified), to SIL-2 controllers and
standalone alarm panels with digital display and fully
integrated solutions for an existing SCADA system.
Web-enabled solutions are also available for remote
viewing of status and alarms. In this case, all of the
sensing cables were monitored by a single TTDM-128
alarm panel, which is capable of detecting multiple or
spreading leaks, digitally locating them within 1 m. It
provides capacity for up to 127 circuits and 1500 m of
sensing cable per circuit, far exceeding any plans the
client had for the future pipeline expansion.
• Total Storage Capacity of 5 Million Barrels
• Easy reloading for distribution of product to U.S.,
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 PLANNING
FOR
PREVENTION
Bill Sholette, Endress+Hauser, USA,
considers the benefits of effective
overfill prevention and leak detection
in chemical storage vessels.
I
n most industries that manufacture, use or store
chemicals and other hazardous liquids, a spill
prevention, control, and counter measure (SPCC)
plan is required as part of the normal operation for
storage vessels (Figure 1). For industries where SPCC
plans are not mandated or required, it is best practice
to incorporate them into the standard procedures of
the facility to prevent possible injury to personnel,
damage to facilities and contamination of the
environment.
As the name implies, an SPCC plan is designed to
first prevent a spill from happening, control a spill if
one happens, and employ counter measures to mitigate
the damage and extent of the spill. All of this usually
requires the installation of new or upgrading existing
level instrumentation.
Overfill prevention
The best solution for mitigating the damage and extent
of spills is preventing them from happening in the first
place. Instrumentation exists to monitor the contents
3
39 Winter 2017

Figure 1. Spill prevention in chemical storage tanks
usually requires improved level instrumentation.
Figure 2. A FTL81 high-high level switch mounted
above the level switch detects the normal maximum
fill point.
Figure 3. Testing a Model FTL81 level switch in-situ
from the control room validates the functionality of
a high-high switch, while reducing maintenance and
downtime.
Winter 2017 40
of the vessel and provide an alarm in the event of an
overfill event or leak. These products have been
used for years, and are well-established and reliable.
High level overfill prevention switches, such as
vibrating tuning forks (Figure 2), provide an alarm
when the material in the vessel reaches a
dangerously high condition. This switch is often
called a high-high level switch as it is mounted
above the high level switch that is used to indicate
the normal stop fill point of the tank. If the high
level switch fails, the high-high level switch prevents
the tank from overfilling. High-high level switches
should include a function test feature to ensure
integrity.
Because high-high level switches are mounted
above the normal maximum fill point, they can be in
service for years without activation from a high
level. Therefore, having an ability to test the switch
and verify functionality is critical. Testing these
switches on a regular basis to ensure their integrity
should be part of the SPCC plan. However, raising
the process to an unsafe level to test the switch is
not a good idea. It is also specifically disallowed
according to American Petroleum Institute (API) 2350
recommended practices for aboveground storage
tanks. Instead, this standard states that high-high
level switches must be tested on a regular basis
without raising the level to a dangerously high
condition.
Depending on the type of point level switch
being used, the only accepted method to ensure the
performance of the switch may be to remove it from
the vessel for testing. This is typically conducted in a
bucket test, where the switch is immersed in process
liquid to ensure that it works. Removing a switch for
testing incurs costs due to downtime and lost
production, and personnel must be available to
remove the switch, perform the test and reinstall the
switch.
The switch could be damaged during
reinstallation, and it may not work correctly once
reinstalled, negating the test. For these reasons, it is
better to use a point level switch that can be tested
in-situ (Figure 3).
Some plants rely on continuous level
technologies, such as free space radar, guided wave
radar or ultrasonic transmitters, for overfill
prevention. Their reasoning for this is that with a
continuous level measurement they would know if
something was wrong with the level instrument.
However, upset conditions in the process (such as
foam, condensation and build-up) can cause false
readings. For this and other reasons, recommended
best practices dictate that instruments used to
prevent accidental overfilling and spills should be
separate from the instruments used for gauging the
vessel level.
There are a number of level switch technologies
for high-high overfill prevention applications,
including vibrating tuning forks, capacitance,
ultrasonic gap switches, floats, etc. It is important to
be certain that the technology selected for the
high-high switch is appropriate for the application
and, as previously indicated, can provide a functional
in-situ integrity check to ensure it will operate in an
actual emergency.
Even the best overfill prevention plan can
sometimes go wrong, resulting in a spill. Vessels,
pumps, pipes, valves and fittings can also leak. It is
important to be able to detect a spill or leak as
quickly as possible to mitigate the extent of the
release and potential damage.
Leak detection
The first line of defence in vessel leak detection is a
continuous level instrument. The level instrument
must be very accurate to provide an indication if the
level decreases when the liquid in the tank is not
actively being lowered. If the level starts to decrease
during inactivity, it would indicate a leak in the tank,
and the monitoring system could then provide an
alarm.
For example, in a 10 m dia. storage tank, an
unexpected drop in level of just 3 mm represents
approximately 235 l of fluid that has leaked out.
Because of this, accuracy needs to be measured in
fractions of millimeters. Radar level gauges can
provide accuracy of 0.5 mm (Figure 4). For many
hydrocarbons and chemicals, it is important to
include temperature compensation as part of the
tank gauging instrumentation. This is required
because the volume of many hydrocarbons and
chemicals expands or contracts with changes in
temperature. Without compensation, these changes
in volume will look like changes in level when, in
fact, the actual contents of the tank have not
changed. Accuracy of the temperature measurement
is important for providing proper compensation.
Temperature sensors with multiple measurement
points and accuracy of 0.1˚C are required for this
application.
Using a software program to monitor the level
instrument measurement is the best way to detect
these small changes and determine when the level is
dropping when it should not, alerting operators of a
possible leak or spill. Modern PC-based tank
monitoring software, such as Endress+Hauser’s
Tankvision, has this capability.
Watching the dike
The second line of leak detection is to provide a
level switch inside the retention dike. Even rain water
accumulating after a storm should be detected as it
is necessary to remove this water in order to maintain
the volume of the dike at an appropriate amount in
the event of an actual spill or leak.

Figure 4. An accurate level instrument, such as
Endress+Hauser's radar level transmitter, can
detect when the level is dropping during inactivity,
indicating a leak or spill.
Figure 5. The Endress+Hauser Model NAR300 leak
detection switch combines vibration and conductivity
detection to provide indication of conductive and
non-conductive liquids.
Essentially, any accumulation of liquid within the
dike, be it water or a chemical, requires a response.
As such, switches to reliably indicate any liquid, such
as tuning forks, are best suited for this application.
There are also specialty instruments that can not
only indicate the presence of the liquid within the
retention dike, but can indicate if the liquid is
conductive or non-conductive. This helps determine
if the liquid is accumulated rain water or a spill of a
hydrocarbon or non-conductive chemical. An
example of this type of instrument incorporates two
level switch technologies mounted on a float
(Figure 5). By combining a vibrating tuning fork and a
conductivity switch, it is possible to indicate what
liquid is present.
When the dike is empty of all liquid, both the
tuning fork and the conductivity switch report an
absence of liquid. If the dike is full of water, both the
tuning fork and the conductivity switch indicate
Winter 2017 42
liquid presence. This assumes the water is
conductive, as is typically the case in retention dikes
due to the accumulation of rain water.
When the dike is filled with a non-conductive
liquid, the tuning fork shows presence of a liquid but
the conductivity switch does not, indicating a spill or
leak of a hydrocarbon or a non-conductive chemical.
If there is an accumulation of rain water and a spill of
a non-conductive liquid occurs and floats on the
surface of the water, the floating design of the
sensor assembly still indicates the non-conductive
liquid.
Control and counter measure
The quicker a spill or leak can be identified, the
faster the facility can control the incident and
respond appropriately. The level instruments
reviewed above can provide this early indication.
Once an incident occurs, a well-defined response to
mitigate potential damage is required.
To ensure that an appropriate response is taken,
planning and training prior to an incident is required.
A risk assessment of each storage vessel’s contents
and the potential damage that a spill or leak could
produce needs to be considered, and the plan needs
to react to each type of hazard. Personnel need to
know how to respond, and know what equipment is
at their disposal to mitigate the incident.
Equipment would include spill clean-up products,
floating dikes, absorption material, pumps to move
vessel contents to a safe storage vessel, etc. Along
with the facility’s personnel, notification of regional
emergency groups and authorities should also be
included. A well-planned and well-practiced
response plan will limit the damage and reduce the
hazard.
Tank inventory management software can help in
this regard. For example, the software can detect the
leak or spill, and direct emergency procedures such
as shutting off pumps, alerting personnel and
documenting the spill.
Summary
The primary goal of an SPCC plan should be to
prevent spills from happening. Proper selection of
instruments for overfill prevention provides the best
solution to avoid spills. A procedure for testing these
high-high level instruments is imperative to ensure
the switch will operate when needed.
Using tank gauging instruments to monitor vessel
contents for level changes is the next objective, as
this will detect leaks and minor spills. Prompt
notification of a leak or spill will allow for a rapid
response and limit the damage. Monitoring liquids
accumulating in the retention dike will provide a
timely indication that an incident has occurred so a
response plan can be quickly executed. Finally, a
comprehensive response plan and training will
reduce the severity of the incident damage to a
minimum.
 Adam Wishall, Varec Inc., USA, outlines key points to consider
when selecting the most suitable gauge for tank level measurement.

L
evel measurement, as it relates to oil and gas,
petrochemicals and hydrocarbons, includes point
and continuous level methods. With point level,
instruments are used to detect whether a fluid is
below or above a specific point. Typically, this method is
used to prevent overfilling of the tank or dropping the level
below a minimum threshold. Continuous level is designed
to understand the amount of liquid within the tank to
support general inventory or process control.
Tank gauging is often synonymous with the term ‘level
measurement’ as these devices enable the level
measurement process to take place. There are many tank
gauging systems available, but no particular instrument or
system should be chosen based on data specifications
alone. Nor should the accuracy of a level-based system be
the only specification when making business decisions. The
investment of the system itself, and the associated costs of
materials, labour and maintenance should be considered.
The type of liquid in the tank, the measurement conditions
and the tank itself are other factors to consider.
Tank gauges fall into the following categories: manual,
float and tape, servo, and radar. Each of these will be
discussed within this article.
Manual
Manual tank gauging is still commonplace today as a way of
measuring level and to verify performance calibration. This
technique uses graduated dip sticks or dip tapes.

4
43 Winter 2017

Figure 1. A gauge board on a tank.
Benefits of this level measurement method include:
extremely low instrumentation costs, no need for power,
and ease of use.
However, skilled personnel are required to perform
checks, and accuracy is not as high due to the potential for
human errors. The gauge must also be on the top of the
tank to take measurements, which results in potential
exposure to product or fumes.
Float and tape
Also known as ‘automatic tank gauges’, float and tape
gauges have been in the marketplace for nearly 90 years.
This method works by using a large float inside the tank,
attached to a negator spring via a perforated tape. The
negator spring provides constant tension, which balances
the float on the liquid. The perforated tape engages pins on
a sprocket wheel that, in turn, drives the counter assembly.
Alternatively, when a gauge board is used to display the
level, the negator spring is replaced by a counterweight
system. The liquid level in the tank is displayed on the
gauge counter or indicated on the gauge board.
The cost of the device is moderate and its accuracy
levels are high enough for most operations that do not need
custody transfer accuracy. It is also extremely reliable and
simple to use, and no power is required. The main drawback
of this method is that occasional maintenance is necessary.
Float and tape transmitters vary in their capabilities and
application, from simple indication of alarms, to level
encoding and temperature measurement integration.
Transmitters convert the measurement parameter to an
Winter 2017 44
electrical signal for transmission over an instrumentation
field bus or communications loop. Most transmitters use an
incremental or absolute encoder with brush, optical,
magnetic, or capacitive sensors.
When connected to standalone float and tape gauges,
transmitters do the following:
„ Help visualise gauge data via the control room system.
„ Integrate temperature to have multivariable
measurement.
„ Use standard net volume or mass calculations for
accounting.
„ Integrate gauge data into a programmable logic
controller (PLC) or distributed control system (DCS).
„ Integrate with multiple protocols, i.e. MODBUS,
Biphase Mark, Mark/Space.
When used in combination with advanced gauging
technologies, transmitters can:
„ Provide redundancy and back-up level measurement,
with a local mechanical level indication that does not
require power.
„ Add temperature in addition to the level measurement
from both float and tape and radar gauges.
„ Integrate with multiple protocols, i.e. MODBUS,
Biphase Mark, Mark/Space.
Servo
Servo gauges are electromechanical gauges that use a small
displacer instead of a float. The displacer has buoyancy, but
it does not float on the liquid. It must be suspended by a
thin wire that is connected to the servo gauge on top of
the tank. The weight of the displacer is balanced against a
magnetic coupling and the wire drum of the servo unit. The
signal, an indication of the position of the displacer, is sent
to the motor’s control circuit. As the liquid level rises and
falls, the position of the displacer is automatically adjusted
by the drive motor. An electronic transmitter sends the
level information over a field bus to the control room.
Benefits of this level measurement method include: a
high level of accuracy; it can provide other variables in
addition to level (i.e. spot density or multi-spot density
profile, up to three liquid interfaces, water level and the
tank bottom); and only occasional maintenance should be
necessary. This method is a preferred solution for clean,
refined liquids, such as gasoline, jet fuel, kerosene,
chemicals, LNG, etc.
Drawbacks of this level measurement method include:
it is the most expensive type of gauge on the market; it
requires power; communications must be at the top of the
tank; and it typically requires a stilling well. Also,
maintenance and calibration activities must be on the top
of the tank where there is potential exposure to the
product or fumes.
Radar
Radar tank gauges have become very popular in the
marketplace. They are a ‘downward-looking’ measuring
system that must be installed on the roof of a tank. The
gauges measure the distance from the reference point to
the liquid surface. Radar impulses are emitted by an
antenna, reflected off the product’s surface and received
again by the radar system. The distance to the liquid
surface is proportional to the travel time of the impulse or
frequency shift of the transmitted signal. Due to the nature
of the microwave, radar tank gauges need to be equipped
with functions to suppress interference echoes (such as
from edges and weld seams) in the tank so they are not
interpreted as level measurement.
Benefits of this level measurement method include: it
provides a high level of accuracy; no maintenance is
needed aside from occasional cleaning; there is no direct
contact with the liquid; and it is complementary for a wide
variety of liquids, including heavy asphalt and crude oil.
Drawbacks include: high costs in high accuracy
applications; the method only provides level measurement;
power is required; communication must be at the top of
the tank; performance is impacted by
placement (i.e. it must be installed
Floating roof tanks
Some storage tanks need a floating roof in addition to, or
in lieu of, the fixed roof. A sealing device is installed on
the peripheral space between the roof and shell plate,
which acts as a safety and pollution prevention device by
trapping the vapour from low flashpoint products.
Floating roof tanks are broadly divided into internal
floating roof (IFR) and external floating roof (EFR) tanks.
IFR tanks are used for liquids with low flashpoints (such as
gasoline, ethanol, etc.), while EFR tanks are suitable for
medium flash point liquids (such as naphtha, kerosene,
diesel, crude oil, etc.).
Float and tape gauges commonly use a pan/well inside
the floating roof. Servo and radar gauges require a gauging
platform to mount the gauge over the product. Many

Your EHS Issues are Our Issues

perfectly level and not be too close
to the tank wall); maintenance and
calibration activities must be on the
top of the tank; and there is potential
exposure to product or fumes when
We support your operations from every angle to ensure
on top of the tank. This method is
not recommended for all products, effective EHS strategy and streamlined EHS data management
such as those with a low dielectric
constant. > Environmental
EEn
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The importance of tank > Specialized
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type and emissions management
There are several common storage
tanks for bulk liquids and, depending > Air quality permitting and compliance management
on the tank type or mounting
options, a particular tank gauge or > Environmental and explosion modeling software
measurement solution may be more > EHS
E information management
manage
g ment solutions
suitable. Tanks are chosen according
to the flash point of liquid stored. > Extensive
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Generally speaking, in refineries, tank
farms and terminals, aboveground
fixed roof tanks or floating roof tanks Contact us for a complimentary consultation at +1 (972) 661-8100.
are predominant.

Fixed roof tanks

Fixed (cone, dome or umbrella) roof
tanks are the most common and
identifiable bulk storage tanks. They
range in sizes up to 98 ft (30 m) tall x
328 ft (100 m) wide and are used to
store liquids with very high flash
points, such as fuel oil, heavy oil,
kerosene, diesel oil, water, bitumen,
etc. The addition of a fixed roof
reduces environmental emissions and
provides additional strength to allow
slightly higher storage pressures than
that of atmosphere.
Float and tape gauges can be
installed on the tank side or on the
roof of this kind of tank. Servo and
radar gauges must be installed on the
tank roof.

USJOJUZDPOTVMUBOUTDPN
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North America | Europe | Middle East | Asia

Figure 2. A petrochemical tank farm.
platforms provide a stilling well as a stable and calm
surface to enable accurate measurements.
Sphere and bullet tanks
Flat-bottomed, cylindrical or spherical storage tanks are used
to store liquefied gases with very low flash points (LNG, LPG,
ethylene, butane and ammonia) under pressure or at
temperatures under -148°F (-100°C). Bullet tanks are long,
cylindrical tanks with round or flat ends that are prefabricated
and installed horizontally or vertically. Most often, they store
products that support facility operations, such as additives for
injection, fuels to run refinery processes or byproducts, such
as transmix from terminal product receipts. Bullet tanks can
also store liquefied gases under pressure.
Radar, servo or magnetostrictive technologies are ideal
for these tanks due to their size and the products stored.
Underground storage tanks
Underground storage tanks are commonly used to store
petroleum-based products. They are regulated to prevent
the release of petroleum and contamination of
groundwater. In the US, they are primarily used at
automobile filling stations, but can also be found at military
bases, airports and tank farms.
Gauge sticks, tank level sensors or magnetostrictive
probes are commonly used with these tanks.
Going beyond level measurement
Requirements for the management of bulk liquids are
unique for each organisation that operates a storage
facility. Level measurement is likely only one factor in the
equation. There are four key areas that should be
considered to understand operational needs.
Inventory or custody transfer
Inventory control describes the management of liquid
inventories that generally do not change ownership when
moved or used. Custody transfer implies that two or more
parties have an agreed system for accurately measuring the
amount of product transferred. Tank gauging systems may
be selected based on accuracy, repeatability or the ability
to perform multiple measurements, and can vary
significantly in cost. It is important to understand what
type of level measurement is actually required.
Winter 2017 46
Product movements and operations
Facility operators use logistics processes to plan daily
activities. As such, instrument viability and repeatability is
often more important than absolute accuracy. It may be
necessary to have complete integration and functionality to
view and track all product movement totals and
discrepancies, as well as the ability to have supervisory
control of pumps and valves. Ideally, the data collected
through the tank gauges should feed into a centralised
inventory management system. These systems tend to be
out-of-the-box and are, therefore, more cost-effective.
However, with custom programming, a PLC or DCS can also
be used.
With an inventory management system, facilities can
also establish alarm limits based on their reaction time to
track data – in real time, while notifications happen at the
control panel. This process enables operations to increase
the maximum flow rate and increase the amount of
inventory to sell by effectively gaining more storage space
in the tank while still ensuring safety.
Accounting and reconciliation
It is critical for facilities to have timely and accurate level
measurement, and accounting of the products stored in
tanks. This means that facility operators must correctly
report the volume stored, received, issued, transferred and
moved. Some tank farms require management of
commingled inventory and reporting by the product owner.
Managing gains or losses within industry standard
percentages on a daily, weekly and monthly basis is also
extremely important. Accounting and reconciliation
solutions, including inventory ledgers by product and
owner, meter reconciliation, physical inventory
reconciliation, and reporting tools, are highly
recommended. The ideal solution should also allow users
to review trends and take appropriate actions.
Environmental compliance
Programmes and regulations relating to overfills, leaks and
emissions of environmentally damaging products are now
in place and must be adhered to by facilities. Bulk storage
facilities typically desire a solution that can integrate with
instruments that are already installed to provide and
manage alarms that help detect leaks. This can be
accomplished using an inventory management system or
custom PLC programming.
Conclusion
Whether a company is looking for a better way to track
and measure bulk liquid assets, enhance automated
processes, increase process control, streamline inventory
accounting and reconciliation, or improve safety
regulations within a tank farm, level measurement is the
place to start. An accurate level measurement system is at
the core for building more efficient operational processes
in tank farms and terminals.
This article is not intended to answer every question,
but rather provide an overview on level measurement and
the impact on managing bulk liquids. Organisations are
encouraged to complete their own due diligence.
A
MOVING
TARGET
Adam Krolak, Honeywell Process
Solutions, Poland, discusses
accurate level measurement in
dynamic applications.
I
t is impossible to manage what cannot be measured, and
across hydrocarbon processing, managing levels is critical.
From monitoring inventories and supply chains to preventing
overfills, detecting leaks and avoiding dry-runs that damage
pumps, accurate level measurement is essential to safety,
efficiency and reliability.
Most obviously, level measurement is key to the monitoring
and control of terminals. It is ubiquitous across tank farms,
offsites, storage areas, and loading and unloading sites. In many
of these cases, measurement is critical but not complex, and
operators can choose from a wide range of available
technologies, each of which has its own strengths and
weaknesses.
Even in these circumstances, challenges can arise. Tanks and
tank farms may be in extreme or widely varying climates,
resulting in changing or challenging ambient temperatures. For
example, measured liquids may be sticky and coating, with heavy
fractions and impurities at the bottom of the tank, and the
properties of the liquids in some tanks may vary by batch or
product specification.
Such cases make consistent and reliable measurement more
difficult to achieve. More widely, though, level measurements are
required not just for the main, large storage tanks for crude
4
47 Winter 2017
 or gasoline. Accurate measures are critical at almost every
stage of hydrocarbon processing.
Measurements are crucial across crude processing: at
the well stream separator, for crude storage, dewatering,
dehydration, desalting and degassing, as well as during
chemical injection and vapour recovery. They are also
essential during refining: for input storage, at the
preflash, flare knockout and compressor drums, and at
the distillation column, reflux accumulator, separators
and so on.
In many of these applications, measurements are not
taking place in large tanks with relatively static product.
It is smaller tanks where crude or product is being
heated, put under pressure, moved, mixed, blended and
having chemicals added. Hydrocarbon production is a
dynamic, turbulent process with foaming, condensation,
expansion and constant changes in the liquids’
properties.
Figure 1. Guided wave radar (GWR) operating
principle.
Figure 2. A tightly focused propagation path.
Winter 2017 48
Accurate level measurements are just as crucial in
these applications, but in many cases significantly more
challenging to achieve.
Crude processing applications
Right at the outset with initial separation of gas, crude oil
and water, conditions are turbulent:
„ The headspace of a separator contains pressurised,
wet gas with the possibility of condensation.
„ The liquid surface in high pressure separators may be
bubbling and foaming.
„ A degree of emulsion is present in both high pressure
and low pressure separators.
„ Residue and contamination gathers on the bottom of
a separator, leading to build-up and fouling.
Many of these issues are present across other
processes. The need to provide accurate measurements
despite foaming and fouling is, to a greater or lesser
extent, present across crude storage, chemical injection,
dehydration and degassing, for example. Interface
measurement is particularly key, not just during
separation, but also across many of these same processes.
Meanwhile, at the vapour recovery stage, operators
need accurate measurement of liquefied hydrocarbon
vapours in a flash drum or output tank. The challenges are
again significant:
„ The low dielectric constant of liquefied hydrocarbons
results in a small reflection signal for measurement
technologies relying on one.
„ Small tank dimensions require measurement close to
the top and bottom of the tank.
„ There are cold temperatures and the presence of
vapours above the surface of the measured liquid.
There are countless other examples. Each stage of the
process has its own issues.
Refining measurement
The challenges during refining are no less significant.
Smooth operation of the preflash drum, for example, is
critical for efficient performance of the main distillation
unit, and continuous operation means long periods
between maintenance during which operators need reliable
measurements. These measures must account for densities
of the measured liquids that change at startup – creating
difficulties for measurements based on pressure or
displacement – and foaming, again, on the surface of the
liquid.
Meanwhile, in the distillation columns, level
measurement at the bottom of a distillation tower controls
the ‘bottoms’ product, which is hot, and can contain
impurities and be sticky (coating), while lighter products in
the upper part of the column have low dielectric constant.
The fluid can also be volatile and may be at bubble point,
giving noisy measurements with some level technologies.
And so it goes on. Changes in temperature, pressure,
density, dielectric constant or the measured material
abound throughout the process. Agitation, foaming,
corrosive properties, dust and construction of the tank
should also be factored in when choosing a measurement
technology.
The choice of technology The electromagnetic pulses used by the GWR and
To some extent, the choice of technology has already waveguide also give it much greater immunity to the
narrowed. The drive towards automation and influence of the mechanical properties of the
uninterrupted production, as well as safety, has moved atmosphere in the tank (vapours, dust, changes in
many away from manual and mechanical level temperature and pressure, or foaming). These can
measurement. Electronic methods, with no moving parts particularly affect technologies relying on mechanical
and built-in diagnostics, also offer lower lifecycle costs. wages, such as ultrasonic measurement. It also copes
However, a range of options remain, including bubbler, well with changes in the specific gravity. Meanwhile,
hydrostatic and differential-pressure instruments. But when measuring interfaces (such as oil on water), the
these are all sensitive to changes in the density of the waveguide allows the measuring signal to penetrate the
measured product, while capacitance level measurement upper product and provide measurement of the lower
can, in some applications, be affected by changes in the product.
dielectric constant of the measured product. Finally, with no need for an antenna, GWR is simple to
Ultrasonic measurement is perhaps a stronger install. The waveguide fits easily through narrow mounting
contender. Nevertheless, it requires a path for the holes or nozzles.
ultrasonic signal clear of obstacles and
foams, dust or heavy vapours, as well as
an application falling within a limited
operating pressure and temperature
range.
In fact, the checklist of requirements
for a measurement technology that is
suitable across hydrocarbon processes
is significant, and includes the following:
„ Maintenance-free level
measurement.
„ Ability to cope with a wide range of
pressures and temperatures.
„ Insensitive to changes in density or
dielectric constant.
„ Immunity to heavy vapours, dust or
foaming.
„ Accurate, even with turbulent
surfaces of the measured product.
Unlike mechanical or other
electronic methods, guided wave radar
(GWR) can meet these demands.

A good aim
GWR instruments send electromagnetic
pulses to the product and use the time
of travel of the reflected signal to
calculate the level in the tank. The
signal travels along a waveguide that
can be made of a stiff metallic rod,
flexible wire or a coaxial construction
(Figure 1).
Compared to ultrasonic meters or
even non-contact radar (another the complete tank floor and external corrosion control package
alternative), the measurement signal for - assessment, engineering, installation and maintenance -
the GWR is concentrated around the we are the single source solutions provider for terminal operators
waveguide (or inside it in the case of a
coaxial waveguide). This narrow signal
propagation path (Figure 2) minimises the
potential impact of stray signals caused
by construction elements or obstacles in
the tank. The waveguide can be mounted
on an angle or even formed to follow
the contours of an irregularly shaped Tim Whited Max Moll Mark Cadle Jay Keldsen
VpCI® and CorroLogic™ Tanks and Terminals Director Director
tank. Subject Matter Expert Corrosion Control Expert Corrosion Solutions Business Development
Phone: 303.589.1166 Phone: 918.998.3355 Phone: 419.204.0791 Phone: 330-283-0453
tim.whited@mesaproducts.com max.moll@mesaproducts.com mark.cadle@mesaproducts.com jay.keldsen@mesaproducts.com

mesaproducts.com 1.888.800.MESA (6372)


Figure 3. Echo curve and model compared to confirm the true signal.
Figure 4. Hydrocarbon processing site.
Theory and practice
Despite the inherent advantages of GWR, its performance
is heavily dependent on the ability to discern the correct
signal (reflection) from interference. Thin interfaces, probe
ends, in-tank obstacles, build-up, and other issues can all
still cause challenges.
Usually this distinction between the reflection from
the surface and other factors is done through a simple
peak-finding algorithm, which attempts to separate the
strongest signal from the (hopefully weaker) interference.
This is not always entirely possible in more challenging
applications, however.
To address this, Honeywell has developed a unique
algorithm that compares the signal with an internal
model of the expected reflection (stored in the
instrument). This model can be adjusted with parameters
such as gain, width and attenuation, and is based on the
type of liquid, process connection, probe and tank
properties, combined with the company’s internal
experience gathered through experimentation and
laboratory work.
By overlaying the actual echo curve of the signal
captured by the GWR on the model (Figure 3), the true
signal reflected from the liquid surface (and therefore
Winter 2017 50
the level) can be
distinguished from
echoes caused by
obstacles near the probe
or secondary reflections
originating from multiple
reflections of the radar
signal in the tank. The
correlation method also
allows users to filter out
and selectively follow
small reflections from
the surface of liquids
with small dielectric
constants (including
liquefied gases, such as
LPG and other light
hydrocarbons).
Fine tuning
To set the model, the sensor is pre-programmed with
default values for parameters determined by the
dielectric constants of the liquids being measured. These
can be easily adjusted at any stage.
Where the attenuation of the material measured
changes during the process in the tank, Honeywell’s GWR
uses an auto-amplitude tracking feature. This supplements
the pulse model determined by the user-defined
parameters with historic measurement data. In these
cases, once the sensor has locked onto the correct level,
it will track the level signal, even when the amplitude of it
changes.
This feature enables the instrument to track signals
with amplitudes up to 35% different to those expected
from the pre-programed parameters. Thus, it can adapt to
changes resulting from varying conditions in the tank,
whether due to temperature, vapour density, turbulence
or build-up of films on the probe.
Conclusion
The choice of level measurement method in
hydrocarbon processing is critical because the
applications are both varied and demanding. There are
few viable alternatives that can meet the requirements
of the many challenging applications across the process.
GWR can meet most, if not all, of the requirements.
It has strong immunity to the common foaming, fouling,
build-up, turbulence, temperature, pressure, and tank
characteristic issues – and many other challenges to
accurate level measurement. It is a measurement
principal with many significant inherent advantages.
In practice, however, some applications can challenge
even GWR to deliver consistently reliable measurements.
For this reason, the choice of not just the measurement
method, but the precise technology employed is also
critical. The level algorithm used in Honeywell’s Smartline
transmitter builds on the inherent advantages of GWR
with a unique model-based comparison for more accurate
level measurements – whatever challenges the dynamic,
turbulent, complex processes involved present.
 Juan Tapia, ABB, Spain,
considers whether
digitalisation is more
than just a passing
trend in downstream
tank and terminal
operations.

D
igital business transformations are about doing
things differently – creating new business
designs using digital solutions to deliver more
value to businesses, people and processes.
While it seems that everyone is talking about these
digital solutions, one key question is whether this is a
passing trend or a truly transformative opportunity.
Sluggish global growth and the highly
commoditised market for petroleum products mean
that downstream companies, such as tank and terminal
operators, need to explore new areas of process
optimisation. Integrating automation, safety and other
systems, such as telecommunications, can save
companies 20 – 30% in capital and operating
expenditures.
For example, one way to minimise downtime is to
take full advantage of today’s availability of inexpensive,
non-intrusive sensors and real time asset monitoring
systems. These devices make it possible for companies
to shift away from time-based maintenance strategies,
which can repair equipment too often or too little, to

5
51 Winter 2017

Figure 1. CLH loading bays. Trucks are filled
automatically with the product matching the order
they have come to pick up (source: CLH).
Figure 2. Operators monitor terminal activity from a
distance (source: CLH).
ones that are more heavily based on actual equipment
needs. Avoiding unnecessary repairs is not only cheaper
due to reduced frequency, but this also minimises the
opportunities for things to go wrong. For example, it is
not uncommon for equipment that has been maintained
not to be put back to the correct parameters once
maintenance procedures have been performed.
Additionally, if a company’s equipment indicates that it
is likely to break down soon, the company has the
opportunity to take proactive action before it fails.
In addition to improved maintenance strategies,
another way that technology can help downstream
players generate competitive advantages is by
improving visibility beyond an individual plant, tank or
terminal to an enterprise level, or even along the
hydrocarbon supply and demand chain. Doing so can
yield benefits from both a cost-saving and
revenue-generating perspective.
This article will explore how terminals can use
digital advances to extract significant financial value
through optimising resources, reducing risk and
increasing throughput.
Digitalisation in terminals
Traditionally, terminals have been primarily operated
manually. However, with the new technology available
Winter 2017 52
today, it is possible to increase terminal efficiency by
reducing or better balancing inventory needs. This
delivers more flexible operations and minimises
downtime. Digitalisation can also reduce the risk of
loading incorrect quantities of product by ensuring real
time control of product delivery, which reduces the
scope for manual mistakes and improves communication
between local terminals and headquarters.
While digitalisation can add value in a number of
areas within a terminal, the most visible of these is in its
potential to automate processes such that revenues are
increased through faster loading and costs are cut
through error minimisation and personnel reductions.
Five general areas tend to benefit most from automation:
Order management
Instead of receiving orders via fax or email, which
requires costly and time-consuming manual
intervention with scope for mistakes, orders can be
processed automatically with the relevant information
being quickly fed into the company’s enterprise
resource planning (ERP) system for faster processing
and reconciliation.
Site access
Trucks, rail wagons and barges no longer need to wait
as long for manual verification and permission to enter
for loading or unloading purposes. Instead, automated
access control technology can allow trucks to enter
and exit terminals quickly, while maintaining high levels
of security. Valid access is granted through card
readers, such as radio frequency identification (RFID),
iris scanners, etc.
Product receipt and dispatch
Digitalisation can speed up the tasks that are needed
to perform the loading and unloading of products, such
as verifying orders, generating transaction
documentation and monitoring volume changes. The
generation and printing of bills of lading can also be
automated for even greater efficiency.
Inventory balancing
Product inflows and outflows are dynamic. Digitalisation
helps operators to calculate the difference between
expected yields and actual values more accurately. This
is achieved through maintaining a real time record of all
terminal operations, calculating the theoretical product
quantities and conducting timely product reconciliations
to calculate product gains and losses.
Loading
Product and additive recipe calculations can be
automated to improve speed and avoid manual errors,
ensuring enhanced profitability and safety.
Case studies
Two large industry players have already used a range of
ABB AbilityTM digital solutions to improve their
financial performance.
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Figure 3. OMV Petrom has experienced significant
reductions in loading time through automation
(source: OMV Petrom).
Case study one
Compañía Logística de Hidrocarburos (CLH) stores,
transports and distributes petroleum products in Spain.
Its main business involves receiving oil products at its
facilities – mainly gasolines, diesels, fuel oils, aviation
fuels and biofuels – and transporting and storing these
products. The company then delivers these materials to
its customers through its tank truck loading facilities.
CLH owns an oil pipeline network of 4020 km, which
enables it to transport refinery output to different
storage and distribution centres, before sending the
product on to a range of end users.
CLH is in the process of making all 40 of its
terminals entirely unmanned using ABB’s terminal
management system. The company already has 24 of its
installations remotely supervised and controlled. Site
access is controlled via truck RFID verification and
driver magnetic card scanning. This speeds up a process
that formerly took up to 60 min., such that it can now
be completed in less than half the time. Trucks proceed
to their designated loading area to be filled
automatically with the product matching the order
they have come to pick up. Bill of lading generation,
and communication with the relevant tax authorities to
authorise the product movement, is also automated.
This accelerates the process by approximately 10 min.
A handful of operators at an offsite location use
integrated CCTV to monitor terminal activity from a
distance and interact with the driver, if necessary, via
voice over internet protocol (VoIP). This is also
facilitated by its integration of ABB’s System 800xA.
Through total automation of its terminals, CLH has
been able to increase its revenues significantly as more
trucks can enter the terminal each day. The company
has also reduced its labour bill, minimising its potential
Winter 2017 54
for error and maintaining a tighter grip on product
inflows and outflows.
Case study two
OMV Petrom is an integrated oil and gas group in
Southeastern Europe, with an annual oil and gas
production of approximately 64 million boe in 2016.
The group has a refining capacity of 4.5 million tpy and
operates an 860 MW high efficiency power plant. It is
present on the oil products retail markets in Romania
and neighbouring countries through 784 filling stations,
as of end March 2017, under two brands – Petrom and
OMV.
ABB has been assisting OMV Petrom with the large
scale modernisation of its storage and distribution
infrastructure. The programme began with the
construction of two new ‘standard’ terminals in
Bucharest and the Petrobrazi refinery. Over time, the
project will evolve to upgrade existing terminals with
an automation solution. The plan is to eventually
automate rail, pipeline and barge/ship distribution
processes at the company’s Petrobrazi refinery and the
rest of its network, which consists of seven terminals in
total.
The company currently uses ABB’s terminal
management system and System 800xA, including truck
and driver authorisation, ADR* inspection, loading
disposition, loading control, sealing, automatic
inventory reconciliation, reporting, shipping document
creation, integration with ERP, bay allocation, truck and
rail tank car unloading, and automatic tank gauging.
This system allows real time visibility and feedback to
drivers and operators, as well as a comprehensive audit
trail at every stage of terminal operations. Additionally,
the substantive ERP integration enables the quick
retrieval and updating of order information and
operational results.
As with CLH, OMV Petrom has experienced
significant reductions in loading time and, while its
facilities are not entirely unmanned, they operate with
significantly fewer operators than before. As a result,
both companies enjoy improved revenues and reduced
costs than experienced previously under their manually
intensive setup.
Conclusion
Digitalisation offers real and substantive benefits to
downstream tank and terminal operators, so much so
that, in the case studies presented in this article, each
company is working to increase its level of automation.
Digitalisation pays by streamlining procedures to
provide greater scope for revenue growth.
Concurrently, making each unit of product more
profitable to deliver significant cost savings through
more efficient personnel deployment, improved order
accuracy and enhanced system-wide visibility of
operations.
Note
*A European agreement concerning the International Carriage of
Dangerous Goods by Road.
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Winter 2017 56
Digital automation is advancing
the tanks and terminals sector.
Buzz Hetrick, TechnipFMC,
USA, explains how.

D
igital technology is gaining a strong foothold in the energy
industry, including the storage tank sector, as more
companies embrace the benefits of automation in
measurement solutions and other capabilities. Those benefits
can be far-reaching, ranging from saving clients time and money, to
boosting efficiency and safety. Digital technology can be a vital tool in
improving productivity, reducing costs and providing more useful
analytics to enable companies to make faster, more effective
decisions.
Digital transformation in the energy industry could unlock as much
as US$1.6 trillion of value for the industry, its customers and society,
according to some estimates. New digital technologies combined with
data-driven insights can transform operations, boosting agility and
strategic decision making, and resulting in new business models.
In fact, research by management consultancy, Accenture, shows
that digital technology is now dominating every sector of the
economy.1 The global digital economy accounted for 22% of the
world’s economy in 2015 and it is rapidly growing, as those numbers
are expected to increase to 25% by 2020, up from 15% in 2005.
Digital technology is bringing unprecedented amounts of change
with it, including new technologies and solutions, more data, an
upsurge in collaboration, new alliances and new startups.

A digital industry
Accenture’s survey found that despite the current industry downturn,
80% of respondents intend to spend the same amount, if not
significantly more, on digital technology in the next three to five years.

5
57 Winter 2017

Figure 1. A user-defined dashboard to help analyse flow rate
information from the Fuel-FACS+ terminal automation system.
Figure 2. A user-defined dashboard showing the
average wait and load times for terminal truck drivers.
Companies that successfully employ digital automation
can transform operations and significantly improve their
bottom line. Many in the industry anticipate that an
increased emphasis on efficiency, reliability and safety will
drive a new wave of demand for digital automation
software, services and components.
A firm and robust commitment to digital automation
will result in reduced costs, higher levels of productivity
and increased performance for companies throughout the
energy industry. But there are pitfalls. According to a recent
Forbes article, without an integrated, multiyear plan, energy
companies risk investing billions of dollars in digital
technologies while capturing few benefits.2 For instance,
generating large amounts of data has no discernible value if
a satellite uplink is too slow to transfer the data to
operations teams.
Valuable information can also become lost if
companies neglect to connect information flows. For
example, a company in the tanks and terminals sector
might invest in a visual scheduling system with
sophisticated routing capabilities. However, if it fails to
connect it to line management’s scheduling systems, the
data winds up stranded.
As in many other industries, energy companies are
mostly unprepared to take full advantage of the potential
in digital technologies. Most will need to invest in the
capabilities of their teams, requiring a combination of
recruiting fresh talent and teaching new skills to current
Winter 2017 58
staff. It is also important for companies to monitor
key industry and technology trends, and decide
whether to lead the industry as an innovator or act
as a follower by quickly implementing tested
technologies and processes, Forbes said.
TechnipFMC recently completed two projects
that involved providing automated measurement
solutions to clients in the tanks and terminals
sector.
Case study one: biofuel and
ethanol loading skid
At the Soymet biofuels terminal in Rome, Georgia,
US, company officials were looking to replace an
existing biofuel and ethanol loading skid at their
manual loading rack with third-party preset controls. The
original project scope was to install a new loading skid.
TechnipFMC’s Measurement Solutions business offered
equipment recommendations to help automate the loading
skid.
Its initial recommendations included an AccuLoad®
electronic preset control system, Smith Meter® positive
displacement meter and digital control valves. Citing
budget constraints, Soymet rejected all but the preset
control system.
Sensing disappointment from Soymet regarding its lack
of an automated system, TechnipFMC recommended its,
FUEL-FACS+ digital terminal automation control system.
Following a walk-through of the application, forms, reports,
displays, tank gauging, search and security functions,
Soymet placed its order for a total digital automation
solution.
The company was impressed with the flexibility,
scalability and functionality of the digital system and the
potential for reducing its operating costs. As the company
expands, it is considering installing additional digital
systems at its other terminals.
Case study two: expansion and
automation of asphalt terminal
Another digital technology solution was provided by
TechnipFMC at the Wolf Paving Asphalt Terminal in
Oconomowoc, Wisconsin, US. Company officials wanted to
expand and automate an asphalt terminal with two tanks
and a manual loading rack with no preset controls. The
expansion included adding a larger storage tank and
automating the manual loading and offloading racks.
Initially, Wolf Paving was going to have a
programmable logic controller (PLC) integrator perform
the automation duties, including rack automation, tank
gauging, pump start and valve control. PLCs are digital
computers used for automation of processes in industrial
settings.
Recognising the cost-saving benefits of a more robust
digital automation structure, the company agreed to install
the AccuLoad® electronic preset control system and the
FUEL-FACS+ terminal automation system. It was impressed
with the tank gauging graphics and functionality, as well as
a demonstration of a truck loading operation shown from
both the driver’s view and the inside operator’s view.
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The comprehensive digital solution successfully met
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Conclusions
These two projects represent just a small segment of what
energy companies are accomplishing as part of an industry
embracing digital transformation. The industry will
continue to become more reliant on digital systems and
automation to promote a faster, safer and more reliable
delivery of products and services. As that reliance grows,
industry leaders must recognise that culture changes within
companies are needed to realise digital technology’s full
potential.
To turn data into value, companies need to figure out
As new digital solutions are deployed, the industry must
ensure that it has the personnel to fully exploit the
advancements. One way to do this is through collaboration
with partners. A high level of collaboration within the
energy industry will help ensure that personnel have the
expertise and forward-looking mindset to effectively
employ digital advancements. A culture of sharing
processes clearly has its benefits and will help advance
digital innovations and expansion.3
As the industry moves forward and discovers new and
more creative ways to adapt digital automations, it will
realise an ever-increasing array of benefits, including greater
efficiencies impacting operations and saving more time and
money.
With digital tools and real time analytics driving
automation, companies, clients and other stakeholders are
coming out on the winning side. The digital transformation
era is ushering in a new age of productivity and profits that
can be shared by all.
References
1. 'People First: The Primacy of People in a Digital Age', Accenture
Technology Vision 2016.
2. 'How Digital Technology Will Change Oil and Gas Companies',
Forbes, (24 June 2016).
3. 'Culture change key to digital's success in the oil and gas industry',
Offshore Energy Today, (9 March 2017).
Dr Davies Michael, Dr Moncalvo Davide
and Thorsten Schaper, Braunschweiger
Flammenfilter GmbH, Germany, discuss
how to overcome pilot valve instability
on cryogenic storage tanks.
P
ilot-operated pressure relief valves installed on
cryogenic storage tanks are expected to be as
stable as their high-pressure counterparts,
pilot-operated safety valves, during operation.
Operators deciding to install a pilot-operated pressure
relief valve tend to use stability to explain their
preference for this class of devices over spring-loaded
devices. The major drawback of pilot-operated relief
devices is price, since the manufacture of the pilot
valve requires the machining of capillary ducts and
small annular lateral regions. Gaseous flow through
pilot-operated relief valves should ideally be
particulate, soot and droplet-free, in order to avoid
blockages.
Although good engineering practice on the correct
application of pilot-operated devices are available (for
instance API-520)1, this article will describe the working
principle of pilot-operated valves and analyse several
types of instability associated with poor design. It will
also present dampeners as an effective solution to
avoid instability in plant operations.
Pilot-operated valve technology
Pilot-operated relief valves are commonly installed on
top of cryogenic storage tanks as a last line of defence.
Figure 1 shows a pilot-operated relief device, which
6
61 Winter 2017

Figure 1. A pilot-operated pressure relief device
mounted on a cryogenic tank.
Figure 2. Axial cut of a low pressure membrane
pilot-operated valve with sensing line.
consists of a main valve and an external pilot. The pilot
is typically a smaller scale spring loaded device
connected with the main valve (Figure 2). The role of
the different membranes in understanding the opening
and reclosing of the pilot-operated device is crucial.
When the pressure in the tank exceeds the set pressure
of the valve, the pilot opens and the vapours flowing
out of the dome volume above the membrane do not
exert enough pressure to keep the piston on the seat,
causing the valve to open.
For tank pressures above 15 psig or 1.034 barg, where
API-520 applies, the advantages and limitations of
pilot-operated safety valves are described in detail.
Pilot-operated safety and relief valves find wide usage
Winter 2017 62
in cryogenic applications, though non-metallic parts
such as gaskets, which may break or deform at low
temperatures, may deserve proper specification with
reference to the application.
From a general analysis, it seems that pilot-operated
safety relief valves are expected to be stable. In reality,
the pop action pilot-operated relief valve in Figure 1 is
installed on a cryogenic plant with some outlet piping
that included a flame arrester on the discharge side
when it was instead planned to be sized for
atmospheric release through a short discharge pipe. In
other cases, pilot-operated valves may be located far
from the cryogenic tank that they protect and where
they were supposed to sit. Given that the relieving
pressure of the valve is closely adjusted with the tank
design pressure, neglecting in-line pressure losses may
have a dramatic effect on tank safety when inlet
pressure losses are neglected or not determined
correctly. Keeping in mind that LNG storage tanks can
have quite long inlet piping, failing to consider inlet
losses can lead to valve instability.
Below is a detailed analysis of relief valve
instability, along with suggestions on how to minimise
the risks involved during start-up and operation.
Safety and relief valve instability and
solutions
A safety and a relief valve is always subject to some
vibration of its moving parts due to flow induced
fluctuations in the pressure level upstream and
downstream, especially if spring loaded. The least
dangerous level of instability is the so-called ‘cycling’.
This is typically shown when the required flow rate is a
fraction of the capacity of the fully-opened device.
When the pressure in the protected item reaches the
set pressure of the valve, the device begins to open.
However, relief flow does not suffice to maintain the
open valve and it tends to reclose. In a pilot-operated
valve that is subjected to cycling, the moving parts
fluctuate between partially opened positions: if
pressure transmitters or mass flow rate sensors are
installed, the signals would be inconstant but not zero.
If the disc occasionally recloses, pressure in the
protected item increases again until the valve reopens.
As for all oscillatory phenomena, safety and relief valve
cycling has a low frequency of the order of magnitude
of one cycle per second.
A second level of instability is so-called ‘fluttering’.
In a fluttering valve, the moving parts oscillate
abnormally rapidly with a frequency of the order of
magnitude of their natural frequency, without touching
the seat. Rapid wear of the moving parts and the
eventuality of a non-reclosing valve when the moving
parts get stuck are common failures for fluttering
valves. In the worst case scenario of a fluttering valve,
where the moving parts hit the seat, the valve is said to
chatter. The primary concern for chattering is loss of
product due to scenarios such as the loosening of a
flange, seat damage or adhesive wear, and bellows
rupture. In API-520, spring loaded safety and relief
valves and pop action pilot valves are more likely to
experience chatter than modulating pilot-operated.
Safety valve instability is a result of the wave
dynamics in the pipeline both upstream and
downstream of the valve. For the inlet pipe, API-520
requires that the irreversible pressure loss between
the protected equipment and the valve should not
exceed 3% of the set pressure of the valve. For
pilot-operated pressure relief valves, if the irreversible
pressure loss exceeds the 3% threshold, there is the
possibility of a remote pressure sensing, which means
connecting the sensing line direct to the pressurised
item. According to this standard, remote sensing may
help to eliminate or minimise uncontrolled valve
chattering in a pop action pilot-operated pressure
relief valve and will permit a modulating
pilot-operated pressure relief valve to achieve full lift
at the required overpressure.
While the concept of the 3% in-line pressure drop
as necessary and sufficient to avoid valve instability
has been analysed and criticised, no clear direction
can be found to improve it.2 For instance, Smith,
Burgess and Powers concluded on the base of an
investigation of a sample refinery that some safety
relief valves may operate stable even if the 3% rule is
violated.3 On the other hand, Hös, Champneys, Paul
and McNeely4 concluded that the 3% criterion is not
always conservative, and others, including Kastor,5
criticised that chatter was observed at installations
with pressure losses less than 3%, while on other
configurations with larger pressure losses it could not
be observed. Several authors seem to convene that
the 3% pressure loss criterion may be an
oversimplified view of the complex valve behaviour
and that high frequency acoustically induced
vibrations (AIV) between the safety valve at high
relieving pressures and the downstream pipeline at a
far lower pressure level lead to safety valve instability
and piping damage.6 A study of the British Health and
Safety Executive (HSE) refers to AIV as the source for
at least 20% of the hydrocarbon releases in the
North Sea.7
As mentioned previously, LNG storage tanks can
have long inlet piping. In its research and experience
of solving such issues during start-up, PROTEGO®
recommends to increase the blow down if the valves
starts to chatter due to high inlet pressure losses.
Another cause for chatter in pilot-operated valves
is excessive oversizing of the device. Although a slight
oversize of the relief devices is desired for safety
reasons, in a largely oversized device the released
mass flow rate does not suffice to reach full lift and
maintain the valve permanently open.
A typical scenario for an extremely oversized device
is given by rollover in a stratified tank. In a stratified
LNG tank there are fractions of different LNG
compositions, for instance, due to different sources of
origin and the lighter (molar weight) fractions do not
mix with the heavier ones. When the tank base is not
correctly insulated, the heavier fractions warm up until
their density sinks below that of the lighter fractions
and they roll over them. Vapours from more volatile
components in heavier LNG fractions remain entrapped
between the stratified layers and the pressure in the
tank increases. Only the gases in the upper
stratification can escape in the vapour space. The
lighter fractions are now at the tank bottom and warm
up, which causes the rolling to continue. The vapour
flow rate generated by roll over is conservatively
estimated in EN-1473 to be 100 times the pump-in flow
rate.8 Indeed, roll over can be easily avoided by storing
LNG of different compositions in different tanks,
promoting the mixing and monitoring of pressure and
temperature changes in the tank.9
If an LNG tank’s relief system has been designed for
the roll over case and the pilot valves that will handle
roll over are only exposed to very low relief rates
during start-up, a dampening system installed inside of
the valve can prevent instability of the relief valve.10
Conclusion
Even when a customer is convinced about the validity
of a safety review, an additional stability level in the
pilot-operated valve encounters broader acceptance
among users. Davies and Heidermann showed that the
insertion of a dampening system on the spindle
smoothens the oscillations of the moving parts,
turning highly dangerous chattering into more
innocuous cycling.10 For systems that experience
instability due to design error, rather than due to inlet
pressure losses, increasing blow down may be an
effective measure to solve the problem.
References
1. 'Sizing, selection and installation of pressure-relieving
devices', API-520, Washington, US, (2013).
2. DANNENMAIER, T., SCHMIDT, J., DENECKE, J. and
ODENWALD,O., 'European Program on Evaluation of Safety
Valve Instability', Chemical Engineering Transactions,
pp. 625 – 630, (2016).
3. SMITH, D., BURGESS, J. and POWERS, C., 'Relief device inlet
piping: Beyond the 3 percent rule', Hydrocarbon Processing,
pp. 59 – 66, (2011).
4. HÖS, C., CHAMPNEYS, A., PAUL, K. and MCNEELY, M., 'Dynamic
behavior of direct spring loaded pressure relief valves in gas
service', Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries,
pp. 70 – 81, (2014).
5. KASTOR, K., 'A dynamic stability model for predicting chatter
in safety relief valve installations', DuPont Eng Dept Rep
Accession Nr 17131, (1986).
6. CARUCCI, V. and MUELLER, R., 'Acoustically induced piping
vibration in high capacity pressure reducing systems',
ASME82-VA/ PVP-8, (1982).
7. 'Offshore hydrocarbon release statistics and analysis', British
Health and Safety Executive (HSE), London, UK, (2003).
8. 'EN 1473: Installation and equipment for liquified natural
gas - Design of onshore installations', EN-1473, Brussels,
Belgium, (2016).
9. MOKHATAB, S., MAK, J., VALAPPIL, J. and WOOD, D., 'Handbook
of Liquified Natural Gas', Oxford: Elsevier, (2014).
10. DAVIES, M. and HEIDERMANN, T., 'Lessons learned solving
pilot valve instability issues on LNG storage tanks',
Flachbodentanktagung München, Munich: TÜV Süd, (2016).
Acknowledgement
This article has been published with the authorisation of the
International Institute of Refrigeration (IIR). The conference
proceedings from the 14 th Cryogenics 2017 IIR International
Conference are available in the Fridoc database on the IIR
website at www.iifiir.org.
63 Winter 2017
Winter 2017 64
Vincent Lagarrigue, Trelleborg Oil and Marine,
France, calls for a rethink of transfer solutions
to suit the rapidly expanding LNG market.

THINKING
O U T S I D E

T
his year is likely to go down as a critical year in the evolution of
the global LNG market. Mega projects such as Predule FLNG,
Wheatstone LNG and Gorgon LNG underline continued
impressive demand growth for LNG across the globe. Supplies
of LNG, according to recent research published in the Financial Times,
are on course to increase by 50% between 2014 and 2021 – overtaking
coal by 2030.1 According to the Financial Times, energy consultancy
Wood Mackenzie says gas now outweighs oil by a factor of two to one
among pre-development resources awaiting investment decisions.1
As the market grows, important new dynamics are developing that
will drastically reshape how LNG is transported and transferred. Several
new LNG importers, including Poland, Jordan, Malta, and Pakistan, have
also emerged in the last two years, adding to continued growing demand
from traditional hubs such as China and India. The Middle East and
North Africa regions are also becoming strong importers of LNG,
evolving from being export-dominated LNG markets.
This has a profound knock-on effect for those transporting and
storing LNG. This year is due to be the busiest year on record in terms of
growth of the LNG carrying fleet and it is on course to set a record for
LNG carrier deliveries, with 55 possible ship completions. As the fleet
grows, however, it is gradually diversifying. As new market dynamics
necessitate the splitting of LNG into smaller packages, the current live
LNG fleet includes 26 floating storage regasification units (FSRUs) and
33 small scale ships of 30 000 m³ or smaller.

6
65 Winter 2017
 This reflects the need for LNG supplies to reach a
broader range of locations and facilities – moving away
from solely being the domain of large terminals and
import/export hubs. Developing countries, many with
frontier locations, benefit from the flexibility in power
infrastructure development offered by the relatively quick
deployment capacity of small and mini-scale projects,
most of which utilise FLNG platforms for storage. The
traditional model of vast, land-built terminals and
long-term supply contracts (up to 25 years), is gradually
being replaced with a much more agile and scalable model.
Using floating assets, such as FSRUs and FLNG vessels, many
countries are now able to realise the distribution of reliable
energy to locations where access to power has, until now,
been far from guaranteed.
In addition, many major ports are investing heavily in
LNG transfer infrastructure to maintain their leading status,
both for LNG bunkering and trading. The cruise sector is
rapidly adopting LNG as a bunker fuel, as well as other
specialised sectors, such as ferries, tugs, and short-sea
cargo. Collectively, these factors have seen the continuing
development of transportation, storage and transference
assets across the supply chain.
These trends place an urgent demand on suppliers in
multiple sectors to advance fresh thinking around
innovative means to transfer LNG; finding solutions that
strike the balance between new means to improve
operability whilst maintaining the highest safety standards.
Rethinking LNG transfer
A certain degree of ‘unlearning’ is required in developing
transfer methods that suit the new range of challenging
transfer scenarios. Traditional thinking has been that LNG
vessels would moor at the dockside and use a jetty
platform for ship-to-shore transfers, or use bridging arms
for ship-to-ship transfers. However, ship-to-shore gas
transfer must now take place in environments where this
type of infrastructure would be prohibitively expensive,
either due to harsh conditions or because waters are too
deep or shallow to allow a jetty to be constructed. In
addition, many existing terminals set up for larger carriers
may not be equipped to handle transfer to and from
smaller vessels. Similarly, offshore, side-by-side transfer
using bridging arms faces limitations in harsh conditions.
Major breakthroughs have come from rethinking how the
hoses themselves function in the transfer process. Because
LNG must be transported at a temperature of -163°C, LNG
transfer solutions require specialised cryogenic hosing to
safely transfer LNG to regasification plants, and as such,
considerable research has gone into the development of
these. Flexible, durable and easily adaptable to multiple
configurations, composite floating cryogenic hoses form the
bases of a range of new options for transfer.
Composite, ‘hose-in-hose’ LNG hoses typically consist
of multiple, unbonded, polymeric film and woven fabric
layers encapsulated between two stainless steel wire
helices – one internal and one external. Essentially, the film
layers provide a fluid-tight barrier to the conveyed product,
with the mechanical strength of the hose coming from the
woven fabric layers. The number and arrangement of
Winter 2017 66
multiple polymeric film and woven fabric layers is specific
to the hose size and application. The polymeric film and
fabric materials are selected to be compatible with the
conveyed product and the operating temperatures likely to
be encountered.
Another benefit of these insulated hoses – such as
Trelleborg’s Cryoline range – is that they can reduce
boil-off by as much as 60%, equating to a saving of
10 billion Btu of energy over the course of 500 transfers.
The outer protective hose draws on flexible rubber-bonded
hose technology, which is known for its high resistance to
fatigue and its ability to withstand harsh environmental
conditions.
Transfer – ship-to-shore
The flexibility and high flow rates achievable by cryogenic
hose technology increase the economic feasibility of
power generation, terminal, and marine bunkering projects
that are located away from existing infrastructure,
particularly in areas where jetty-based transfer would be
unfeasible because of harsh conditions or environmental
concerns. A major advantage of hose-in-hose technology is
that it can negate the need for large-scale fixed onshore
infrastructures; a simple concrete platform onshore
combined with hose transfer solutions offers an alternative
in locations where heavier fixed onshore infrastructure
costs would be prohibitive.
During the development of Cryoline technology,
several full-scale hose prototypes were successfully tested
in both static and dynamic conditions, with most tests
taking place in cryogenic conditions at -196°C,
demonstrating their ability to withstand fatigue resistance
in hazardous conditions.
By cutting down on the need for expensive
infrastructure, using cryogenic floating hoses for
ship-to-shore transfer can deliver crucial breakthroughs in
cost-effectiveness that increase feasibility for power
generation and terminal projects – particularly those in
remote, off-grid areas where these facilities are essential
for the development of electrical and transport grids.
Transfer – ship-to-ship
These hoses also expand options for offshore ship-to-ship
transfers in a broader range of locations. Floating receiving
and distribution terminals and coastal gas carriers are now
an integral part of LNG activities, and a crucial cog in the
LNG supply chain. They offer more flexibility for storage
and transfer outside of increasingly congested ports, and
minimise voyage time. Transfer to and from these facilities
presents a range of challenges; the highest levels of safety
must still be maintained amid the effects of winds, waves,
and currents in the open seas.
Trelleborg’s technology offers a safe and robust means
of safely loading and unloading LNG in these conditions.
Two factors are essential here: the distance between the
vessels involved, and the duration of the transfer. Risk is
reduced the further apart the vessels are, and the shorter
the duration of the transfer.
By using floating cryogenic hoses in tandem
configuration, as opposed to side-by-side, vessels can be
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 moored as much as 300 – 500 m away from a storage unit,
allowing for ship-to-ship transfer in deeper waters in even
the most challenging conditions, the increased separation
distance mitigating the risk of collision and ensuring the
safety of the vessels and crew.
Similarly, by achieving a flowrate of up to 10 000 m3/hr,
the length of the transfer operation can be reduced
significantly. Moreover, the heavy-duty hose design reduces
risk of damage to the hose during handling.
Floating transfer terminals
The cryogenic hose opens up a range of new transfer
opportunities. One area of particular interest is the
development of floating transfer terminals or barges,
connected to the shore using Cryoline hoses. These can
easily connect with a vessel, floating out to meet them
offshore, rather than requiring the vessel to moor alongside a
facility. Collaborations with partners such as Houlder,
Wärtsilä, Connect LNG, 7Seas and Atlantic, Gulf and
Pacific Co. (AG&P) are currently underway, and the vessels
can be built, outfitted and commissioned off-site, in parallel
with relatively light civil engineering activity, reducing the
overall timescale from contract award to first gas.
As a self-contained mobile unit, a floating barge or
transfer unit can be readily adapted for future and
alternative deployment in the event of local changes or a
desire to move location entirely. Individual components
can be up or downscaled depending on requirements.
A complete LNG barge system can be built
cost-effectively and towed as a single unit to site with
For each application the right Floating Roof Seal
➤ From primary to multiseal,
➤ for ‘white’ storage products or crude oil,
➤ for external or internal floating roofs,
with floating roof seals supplied by IMHOF you always solve your sealing problems
in the best possible way.
• Storage tanks for ‘white’ products (semi-finished and finished products) will not suffer from
rainwater contamination.
• Storage tanks for crude oil will not get soiled by parafin wax deposits.
• Your emissions are drastically reduced, without the application of vapour balancing and
vapour recovery systems.
• You will avoid additional emissions, utility costs and operational risks of plant.
limited integration requirements. A floating solution also
allows for refuge to be sought in safe harbour during
storms or hurricanes, deep maintenance to be undertaken
at a shipyard, integration with a variety of LNG carrier
mooring configurations, and the flexibility to support
future, alternative applications. In addition, the barge is
only used when transfer is underway, minimising impact on
the environment.
This kind of system can be used in many configurations.
It could accommodate small LNG carriers at larger
terminals, supply LNG to remote power generation plants
or distribution plants, or function as a bunkering solution
itself.
Conclusion
Almost every week, it seems that new milestones for LNG
are emerging – from new vessels, vessel types, new
initiatives for LNG shipping from governments such as
Germany, and even the development of FLNG power plants
from companies like Chiyoda. All of this reflects the fact
that LNG is a uniquely flexible fuel that will have an
important part to play in the world’s future energy mix.
Those who transport and handle this fuel must create the
options that can keep pace – allowing safe and reliable gas
transfer to succeed in even the most challenging
environments.
Reference
1. WARD, A., 'Big Oil bets on a dash for gas', Financial Times,
(7 September 2017), https://www.ft.com/content/f23e35e0-92b5-
11e7-bdfa-eda243196c2c?mhq5j=e7
Phone: 0049 6108 – 60999
Fax: 0049 6108 – 78455
E-Mail: info@imhof-tanktechnik.de
Homepage: www.imhof-tanktechnik.de
Ing.-Büro Imhof GmbH
Otto-Hahn-Str. 12
63165 Mühlheim/M. - Germany
Advanced Floating Roof Sealing
Technologies to the Benefit
of your Environment,
Plant Safety and Economy.
Stuart Buchanan, GAC UK, explores
how shifting market dynamics are
creating opportunities in the tanks
and terminals market.

T
he past 20 years have been a real rollercoaster
ride for the oil and gas market. Dramatic
changes in the sector mean that oil companies
can no longer own every link in the
hydrocarbon production chain – from upstream
exploration and extraction equipment, through
midstream pipelines and transportation infrastructure,
to downstream terminals and storage facilities.
In response to market pressures, there has been a
rush of outsourcing over the last few years. Oil
companies that are keen to focus on their core
business have signed contracts, sold equipment and
even off-handed terminals to companies that are
willing to offer these services.
The changing market has also driven a shift in
priorities for refineries themselves. Conversion to
storage facilities (or away from refining altogether) has
become commonplace, particularly for North Sea

6
69 Winter 2017

Figure 1. The Braefoot Bay terminal.
Figure 2. GAC UK’s Wave Spirit performing mooring
operations at Braefoot Bay.
terminals. This trend is becoming increasingly
widespread as the industry seeks ways to cut costs
while still delivering value for money.
Race to the bottom
Such upheaval has created a market that is ripe for
hungry new players to make their mark. However,
caution must be exercised to maintain standards and
avoid a ‘race to the bottom’ in terms of pricing, at the
cost of quality service.
This ‘race’ puts additional pressure on operators
when considering long-term contracts that can run for
10 years or more. Choosing a cheaper supplier in year
one could cause unnecessary stress in year five, when
complacency and dissatisfaction at the service quality
levels come to the forefront.
Instead, the onus must be on the supplier to
develop a bespoke service package that is tailored to
the specific needs of terminals and storage facilities
well into the foreseeable future. Customers now
demand more for less, with expectations of
round-the-clock coverage, a dedicated team of
qualified personnel and fast, efficient and
cost-effective support the norm.
The GAC Group recently signed a deal with Shell to
manage the Braefoot Bay terminal in Scotland. It has
also formed a wide-ranging partnership with a major
petroleum refiner to provide key shore-side services.
Winter 2017 70
Case study one
Located between St David’s and Aberdour on the Firth
of Forth in Scotland, the Braefoot Bay tanker terminal is
a key export base for LPG and condensate. The gas is
piped to the St Fergus inland site direct from the North
Sea, broken down to form ethane, and then converted
into ethylene, propane, butane and condensate. Loading
takes place over two exposed, deepwater berths
24 hr/d, seven days a week, all year round.
By taking on the role of mooring service provider at
the Braefoot Bay terminal, GAC made a commitment to
providing Shell with a modern, state-of-the-art fleet
that focused on traditional line handling whilst
remaining manoueverable, safe and well-equipped.
Particular attention was paid to crew welfare and the
procurement of new vessels with welfare facilities to
keep morale high.
GAC invested considerable time and expertise into
researching the procurement of versatile, modern
vessels that went beyond the extensive demands of
the terminal, and met the strict new legislation laid
out by the UK’s Maritime and Coastguard Authority
(MCA).
A vessel was quickly procured from Australia and
two more were ordered from a UK-based boat builder.
In line with Transfer of Undertakings (Protection of
Employment) [TUPE] regulations, 15 personnel who
were already stationed at the terminal became GAC
employees. A rotational working structure was
introduced to improve the work-life balance for staff,
personnel was increased to accommodate the new
rota, and the company committed to a programme of
retraining and certification through both external
partners and its own corporate academy.
With a new fleet, fuel costs and response times
were reduced, thus improving efficiencies at the
terminal. The efforts at Braefoot Bay demonstrate how
a positive attitude to quality can foster long-term
business arrangements and improve operational and
crew welfare standards.
Case study two
As part of a recently signed deal with a major
petroleum refiner, GAC provides key shore-side
services including personnel (and their training) at a
range of storage and terminal locations across the UK.
With a key focus placed on hydrocarbon transfer,
terminal staff are required to walk lines to check for
leaks and take samples of cargoes to ensure that
deliveries are strictly to specification.
Cargo sampling is particularly important in a market
that is keen to avoid disputes over ‘off specification’
cargoes. Samples showing that the condition of the
cargo is unchanged between loading and unloading are
vital in avoiding such potentially costly claims for both
terminal operators and vessel owners. Despite the fact
that there is still limited understanding of the
importance of cargo sampling in the wider downstream
hydrocarbon industry, it is a key area of focus for some
terminal operators.
Keep Updated

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 Accurate cargo sampling was an integral part of the
tendering process for the refiner at a range of its
terminals. GAC was the first ship agent to perform this
service, which is usually the role of cargo surveyors. By
taking an extra step in its service offering and proving
both its expertise and rigorous approach to compliance,
the company eliminated delays due to non-compliant
product deliveries.
Excellence paying dividends
All of this comes at a time when the UK’s downstream
infrastructure is being constantly reshaped and
streamlined. Like the oil and gas industry more generally,
conversion and rationalisation in the oil and gas storage
markets has emerged as a defining factor to consider in
order to cut costs and deliver value in a period of
dramatic industry change.
Often, though, changes in the oil and gas storage
market are driven by geography rather than wider market
pressures. Companies are now keen to have a stronger
focus on specific geographic areas such as Braefoot Bay,
because this approach provides a cost advantage in
terms of logistics, allows for easier management of
supply chains, and can reduce capital expenditure. These
measures have allowed the industry to remain resilient
– and industry players have a part to play in ensuring
that this resilience continues.
Page Number | Advertiser
53 | ADROC Tech Ltd
37 | ATEC Steel LLC
27 | Brodie International
IBC | Gauging Systems Inc.
OBC | Hexagon PPM
68 | IMHOF Tank-Technik
15 | InterOcean Systems LLC
02 | John Zink Hamworthy
09 | Kanon Loading Equipment B.V.
60 | Lightning Eliminators
IFC | Matrix Applied Technologies
23 | Matrix Service Company
Winter 2017 72
One way of mitigating further consolidation within
the UK’s remaining oil and gas storage terminals is
through a demonstrable adherence to highly efficient
and safe working practices. Ensuring safety and
compliance with all relevant guidelines and regulations
is paramount in the sensitive oil and gas sector. In
addition to industry-wide requirements, compliance
varies from terminal to terminal, with different
procedures required for each site. These range from the
creation of risk assessments and new operating policies
through to more wide-ranging training programmes.
Long-term contracts, as in the case of Braefoot Bay,
will also be key to combatting the change that is occuring
within the industry. Service suppliers who gain the trust
of producers and operators by consistently delivering
quality and added value can serve as important stabilising
factors, providing peace of mind in uncertain times.
Conclusion
The tanks and terminals market remains in constant
flux, particularly on the periphery of oilfields where
prospects are continually being reshaped by
macro-economic forces. A calm hand on the rudder,
providing assurances of consistent timeliness, quality
and compliance over long periods, forms part of the
firm foundation on which the industry can stand as it
tackles the challenges to come.
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28 | Port of Amsterdam
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41 | Tank Connection
45 | Trinity Consultants
38 | United Riverhead Terminal Inc.
Why Limit Your
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