Chapter 2:

Pressure
Measurement
 Objectives
Student should be able to:

• Define the pressure

• Differentiate the types of pressure
• Understand the characteristic of liquid
pressure & factor that affected
• Understand the characteristic of gas
pressure
• Apply the different unit of pressure
measurement
• Understand the principle, operation,
advantages & disadvantages of pressure
measurement device
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 Pressure
• Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a
fluid per unit area. (for gas and liquid)
• Normal stress is the counterpart of pressure in solid.
• Units of pressure are N/m2, which is called a pascal
(Pa).
• Other units include bar, atm, kgf/cm2, lbf/in2=psi.

F ma
P 
A A
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 Pressure

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 Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures
Several common ways to measure pressure
• different – reference point
• 2 reference point
~ zero absolute pressure
~ standard atmospheric pressure
Refer atm pressure (14.7 psia) – gauge pressure
(psig)
Refer zero abs pressure (vacuum) – absolute
pressure (psia)
Refer atm pressure & measured in negative
direction – vacuum pressure (- 50 mmHg)
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• Most pressure-measuring devices are
calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere,
and therefore indicate gage pressure,
Pgage=Pabs - Patm
Pressure below atmospheric pressure are
called vacuum pressure, Pvac=Patm - Pabs.

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absolute pressure - The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute pressure,
and it is measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).

gage pressure - Gage pressure is the pressure relative to the atmospheric pressure. In other
words, how much above or below is the pressure with respect to the atmospheric pressure.

vacuum pressure - Pressures below atmospheric pressure are called vacuum pressures and
are measured by vacuum gages that indicate the difference between the atmospheric
pressure and the absolute pressure.

atmospheric pressure - The atmospheric pressure is the pressure that an area experiences
due to the force exerted by the atmosphere.

Absolute, gage, and

vacuum pressures
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 Absolute, gage, and
vacuum pressures
Pgage = Pabs − Patm gage pressure
Pvac = Patm − Pabs vacuum pressure
Pabs = Patm + Pgage absolute pressure

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 Example 1

• A cylinder contains a fluid at a gauge

pressure of 350 kN/m2 .What would be
the absolute pressure in the cylinder if
the atmospheric pressure is 101.3
kN/m2

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 Solution

• Gauge pressure = 350kN/m2

• Atmospheric pressure =101.3 kN/m2
• Absolute pressure =
Gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure
=451.3 kN/m2

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 Hydro-mechanics
Hydraulics is the science of
forces and movements
transmitted by means of
liquids. It belongs alongside
hydro-mechanics. A
distinction is made between

hydrostatics – dynamic
effect through pressure
times area

hydrodynamics – dynamic effect through mass times

acceleration.
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 Hydrostatic pressure
The pressure that a fluids exerts on an object
or container walls. Hydrostatic pressure can be
used to determine the LEVEL of liquid in tanks.

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 Example : Column

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 Example : Reservoir

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 Example : Elevated Tank

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 Variation of pressure with
depth
P in a fluid at a rest
does not change in
the horizontal
direction.
In the presence of a
gravitational field,
pressure increases
with depth
because more fluid
rests on deeper
layers.
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17
 ~ Not depend on the volume

• The same density and depth of liquid, the

pressure will be the same in the large vessel as in a
narrow column of liquid.

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18
 Factors Affecting Liquid
Pressure
Density Proportional to the Depth

Depth Proportional to ρ

Surface Any pressure acting on the

Pressure surface (P atm)

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 Gas Pressure Characteristic

Gas expand to fill entire area that contains them.

Factors that affect a gas

Volume of the vessel BOYLE‘S LAW - Boyle's law describes the

inversely proportional relationship between the
absolute PRESSURE and VOLUME of a gas, if the
temperature is kept constant.

Temperature of the gas CHARLES’ LAW - For a fixed mass of gas

at constant volume, the PRESSURE is directly
proportional to the TEMPERATURE.

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 BOYLE‘S LAW
The relationship between pressure and volume when
amount and temperature are held constant.

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 Unit of Measurement
- English unit - pound per square inch (psi)
(SI) unit - Newton per square meter (Pascal)
- Common units
0 Kilograms per square centimeter
(kg/cm2)
0 Kilopascals (kPa)
0 Bar ( 1 bar = 100,000 Pa)
-Referenced to column of fluid
0 inches of water (in H2O)
0 millimeter of mercury (mm Hg)
0 torr
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 Pressure Measurement Devices

Typical Pressure Transmitter consist

of two parts :

 Primary element
 Secondary element

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Primary element

- pressure sensor /
pressure element

- converts to:
physical motion that is
proportion to
applied pressure Secondary element
(mechanical /electrical
value) - pressure
- read by the measuring instrument
secondary element. - electronics
(transducer)
- convert output
(primary element) to
signal such as 4-
20mA.
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 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES

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• Mechanical pressure transducer Bourdon Tubes
– pressure to physical
movement
• The Bourdon tube is a device that
senses pressure
and converts the pressure to
displacement.
• Since the Bourdon-tube
displacement is a function of the
pressure applied, it may be
mechanically amplified and
indicated by a pointer. Thus, the
pointer position indirectly
indicates pressure.
• All Bourdon accuracy: 0.5 % to
1% of span
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 C-type Spiral Helical Tube

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 •The types are varied for specific uses and space
accommodations, for better linearity and larger
sensitivity.

•For thorough repeatability, the bourdon tubes

materials must have good
elastic or spring
characteristics.

•The surrounding in which the process is carried out is also

important as corrosive atmosphere or fluid would require a
material which is corrosion proof.

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 C- type

•PRINCIPLE

• simplest, most common

• oval tube, C-shape
• one tubes is open, other end is sealed and free to move
• pressure measured is applied through the open end
• The commonly used materials are phosphor-bronze, silicon-
bronze, beryllium-copper and other C-Cr-Ni-Mo
alloys, and so on.

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 • OPERATION

•C type bourdon
tube pressure
gauge is works on
the principle of
Elasticity

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• When pressure is applied, its cross section becomes more
circular, causing the tube to straighten out, until the force of
the fluid pressure is balanced by the elastic resistance of the tube
material.
• Since the open end of the tube is anchored in a fixed position,
changes in pressure move the closed end.
• A pointer is attached to the closed end of the tube through a
linkage arm and a gear and pinion assembly, which rotates the
pointer around a graduated scale.
•Movement pointer controlled by spring - reduces
hysterisis
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 Helical tube

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 •PRINCIPLE
•oval tube, wound a helix
•shape resembles a coil.
•same principles as C-tube.
•the tip moves in response to movement of
coil
•advantage: more tip movement than the C-
tube

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PRINCIPLE Spiral tube
•oval tube, wound in a
spiral.
• pressure applied, tends to
uncoil - long movement of
the tip end
• accuracies: ± 0.5 %
• advantage: tip produces
more motion than C-tube &
helical

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 Diaphragm

•Mechanical pressure transducer - detect slight

changes in pressure
•Process pressure exert on large area - more
sensitive small changes
•Advantage: Flexible, limited to
low pressure systems

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 • Single disk – that is exposed to a process

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 •When a force acts
against a thin stretched
diaphragm, it causes a
deflection of the
diaphragm with its
centre deflecting the
most.
•Pin, rod, bar -
connected to the
diaphragm – determine
amount pressure
exerted

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 Metal diaphragm -
made from phosphor,
bronze, beryllium,
copper, trumpet brass,
stainless steel or monel
– gauge & control
device
Non-metal diaphragms -
made of neoprene,
polyethylene, silk,
leather, teflon, koroseal
& silicone

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 Types of diaphragm
•slack diaphragms
• large, very flexible diaphragms; - control valve actuators

•diaphragm capsule
• most often used in pressure transducers
- 2 metal diaphragms connected at the edges
- area between the two diaphragms filled
fluid (low freezing point, high boiling point, low viscosity &
low coefficient of thermal expansion)
•Frequently used as isolation devices; commonly used in
control transmitters, pressure gauges and differential
pressure transmitter
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 •diaphragm capsule
• most often used in pressure transducers
- 2 metal diaphragms connected at the edges
- area between the two diaphragms filled
fluid (low freezing point, high boiling point, low viscosity & low coefficient of
thermal expansion)
•Frequently used as isolation devices; commonly used in control transmitters,
pressure gauges and differential pressure transmitter

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ADVANTAGES OF DIAPHRAGM GAUGE

• It is useful for measurement of

Absolute & differential pressure
measurement
• It consist of linearity.
• It is made from good corrosion
resistance material.

DISADVANTAGES OF DIAPHRAGM GAUGE

• It is use for limited pressure
measurement.
• Its vibration & shock resistance
are less.
• Its maintenance is difficult.
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 DIAPHRAGM + BOURDON TUBES

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Piezoelectric Pressure Transducer

•Produces electrical voltage when pressure is

applied

•To amplify the signal, amplifier must have very high

input impedance - > 100 mega ohms

•Better than a voltage amplifier –

•charge amplifier loses no accuracy.

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•Pressure transmitted to the piezoelectric crystal, Y1, by a
diaphragm.
•Signal is amplified by a charge amplifier
•Second piezoelectric crystal, Y2, - compensate for any acceleration
of the device during use. – is needed because rapid acceleration of the
transducer creates additional pressure on the piezoelectric crystal.
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 •Vibration - source rapidly acceleration
signals compensating - amplified by second charge
amplifier
•Differential amplifier subtracts amplified signal from
the amplified signal
•Indicates pressure alone; no effects of acceleration
•measure pressure: 0 to 5000 psi
•indicate pressure as short as 1 micro second; 1
millionth of a second
•cannot measure steady pressures - respond only to
changing pressures

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Advantages
1.Very high frequency response.
2.Self generating, so no need of external source.
3.Simple to use as they have small dimensions and large measuring
range.
4.Barium titanate and quartz can be made in any desired shape and form.
It also has a large dielectric constant. The crystal axis is selectable by
orienting the direction of orientation.

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 Disadvantages

1.It is not suitable for measurement in static condition.

2.Since the device operates with the small electric

charge, they need high impedance cable for electrical
interface.

3.The output may vary according to the temperature

variation of the crystal.

4.The relative humidity rises above 85% or falls below

35%, its output will be affected. If so, it has to be
coated with wax or polymer material

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 PIEZOELECTRIC PRESSURE TRANDUCER

PRESSURE

crystals

PRESSURE

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 Strain Gauge
PRINCIPLE

•Changes a mechanical motion to electrical signal  wire

stretch or strain; altering wire diameter – results in resistance
change
•Change in resistance measured by a Wheatstone bridge – in
terms of pressure
•Metal wire, very small diameter - attached surface of a device
being monitored
•Accuracy: ± 0.1 to ± 2 %of full scale
•Range: few inches of water to 200,000 psig.
•Can also measure torque and weight
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 Force applied , length , cross-sectional
area , resistance
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 Errors in Strain Gauge
Some of the main causes for errors and inaccuracy in the device reading are given
below.

•Temperature Variation – This can be one of the major causes of error in a strain gauge.
It can easily change the gauge resistance and cause differential expansion
between the gauge and the test piece, causing variation in the measurable strain.

•Humidity – Humidity can affect the accuracy by the breakdown of insulation between
the gauge and the ground point. It also causes electro-chemical corrosion of gauge
wire due to electrolysis.

•Small errors could be caused due to thermoelectric effect.

The gauge will be erroneous even due to small factors like zero drift, hysteresis
effect and so on.

•Magnetostrictive effect can also cause errors in strain gauges of ferromagnetic

materials. It produces a small voltage fluctuation of almost 2 mill volts.

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 STRAIN GAUGE (BRIDGE CIRCUITS)

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 Differential Pressure Transmitter
- capable measuring differential pressure
- provision – high pressure fluid one side & low pressure
fluid on the other
- mounted inside housing
- sealing mechanism acts as the
pivot point for the force bar

- Use to measure the gas

pressure (in gauge scale) inside a
vessel
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 OPERATION

•Any pressure difference -

capsule deflect & create motion

•Top end force bar connected to

detector - produce a 4 - 20 mA
signal

•Measure gas pressure (gauge

scale)

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Vena contracta is the point in a fluid stream where the diameter of the stream is the
least, and fluid velocity is at its maximum

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• LP side transmitter –
Vented to atmosphere & HP side - is
connected to the vessel

• Isolating valve - removal of the

transmitter

• The output of the DP transmitter is

proportional to the gauge pressure of
the gas.

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 Capacitance Manometer
PRINCIPLE
•Most applied to low pressures (abs, differential and
gauge)

•Made - two metal plates separated by an insulator

•Store electric charge when one plate is given

negative charge

•Connected ac circuit- changes output as the plates

are moved closer together or farther apart

•Movable (back & forth) metal diaphragm be used as

one
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 •operates by OPERATION
measuring the
change in
electrical
capacitance that
results from the
movement of a
sensing
diaphragm
relative to some fixed
capacitance
electrodes

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 •Motion - changes the spacing
between the diaphragm &
fixed metal plate

•Space - serves as an insulator

•Movement diaphragm
changes ac current (I) reading
on the ammeter

•Current reading indicates the

measured pressure

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• The great advantages of a capacitance gauge is its
ability to detect extremely small diaphragm movements.

•Accuracy is typically 0.25 to 0.5% of reading. Thin

diaphragms can measure down to 10-5 torr, while thicker
diaphragms can measure in the low vacuum to
atmospheric range.

•Widely used in the semiconductor industry, because its

Inconel body and diaphragm are suitable for the
corrosive services of this industry. They are also favored
because of their high accuracy and immunity to
contamination.

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 CAPACITANCE MANOMETER

Figure 7
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 Pressure Measurement Safety

Over Pressure

•designed to operate at a range

•over ranged - not return to its original shape;

indication greater than original

•diaphragms and bellows - fracture on over-

pressuring

•small fracture cause reading low & less responsive

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•linkages & internal movements become distorted &
be permanent offset
•Bourdon tubes: very robust & can handle extremely
high pressures; over-pressure, become distended &
read high, rupture

Faulty Sensing Lines

•create inaccurate readings

•partially blocked - dynamic response of sensor is

reduced & slow response to change in pressure

•cracked / punctured sensing line - low readings

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Loss of Loop Electrical Power

•instrument relies on AC power

•output of the D/P transmitters will drop to zero /

become irrational with a loss of power supply

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 Pressure Measurement
Maintenance

Visual Inspection

•examining & find existing leaks / damage

•uncovers impending failures as well
•be sure to operate the mechanism through its
entire range

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Blowdown and Venting

•clogging of lines - instrument failure, prevented by

periodic blowdown
• flushes dirt &foreign materials out of an instrument
•venting - avoid gas build-up
frequently depends on how fast dirt & gas enter the
instrument piping

Cleaning & Lubrication

•dirt may lodge in the linkages, causing the mechanism

to stick
•checking linkages periodically

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