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CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 57 (2008) 716–735
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Processes of severe plastic deformation (SPD) are defined as metal forming processes in which a very
Forming large plastic strain is imposed on a bulk process in order to make an ultra-fine grained metal. The
Metal objective of the SPD processes for creating ultra-fine grained metal is to produce lightweight parts by
Strain
using high strength metal for the safety and reliability of micro-parts and for environmental harmony. In
this keynote paper, the fabrication process of equal channel angular pressing (ECAP), accumulative roll-
bonding (ARB), high pressure torsion (HPT), and others are introduced, and the properties of metals
processed by the SPD processes are shown. Moreover, the combined processes developed recently are
also explained. Finally, the applications of the ultra-fine grained (UFG) metals are discussed.
ß 2008 CIRP.
1. Introduction fine grained metals. It is known that the metals produced by these
processes have very small average grain sizes of less than 1 mm,
Processes with severe plastic deformation (SPD) may be defined with grain boundaries of mostly high angle mis-orientation.
as metal forming processes in which an ultra-large plastic strain is The ultra-fine grained metals created by the SPD processes
introduced into a bulk metal in order to create ultra-fine grained exhibit high strength [23–25], and thus they may be used as ultra-
metals [1–7]. The main objective of a SPD process is to produce high strength metals with environmental harmony. The yield
high strength and lightweight parts with environmental harmony. stress of polycrystalline metals is related to the grain diameter d by
In the conventional metal forming processes such as rolling, the following Hall–Petch equation:
forging and extrusion, the imposed plastic strain is generally less
than about 2.0. When multi-pass rolling, drawing and extrusion s Y ¼ s 0 þ Ad1=2 (1)
are carried out up to a plastic strain of greater than 2.0, the
thickness and the diameter become very thin and are not suitable where s0 is the friction stress and A is a constant.
to be used for structural parts. In order to impose an extremely Eq. (1) means that the yield stress increases with decreasing
large strain on the bulk metal without changing the shape, many square root of the grain size. The decrease of grain size leads to a
SPD processes have been developed. higher tensile strength without reducing the toughness, which
Various SPD processes such as equal channel angular pressing differs from other strengthening methods such as heat treatment.
(ECAP) [8–11], accumulative roll-bonding (ARB) [12–14], high The relationship between proof stress and grain size of pure
pressure torsion (HPT) [15,16], repetitive corrugation and straigh- iron is shown in Fig. 1 [6]. The proof stress changes inversely with
tening (RCS) [17], cyclic extrusion compression (CEC) [18], torsion the square root of the grain size, following the Hall–Petch
extrusion [19], severe torsion straining (STS) [20], cyclic closed-die relationship. It is seen that the proof stress of the ultra-fine
forging (CCDF) [21], super short multi-pass rolling (SSMR) [22] grained irons, with sub-micrometer grains, is five times greater
have been developed. than commercially pure iron. Thus, the conventional structural
The major SPD processes are summarized in Table 1 with metals with ultra-fine grains are lighter due to their high strength.
schematic configurations and the attainable plastic strain. ECAP, Since pure iron does not contain harmful elements, it is in harmony
ARB and HPT processes are well-investigated for producing ultra- with a clean environment. Moreover, the improvements of the
superplasticity, corrosion and fatigue properties of metals
processed by SPD are expected. On the other hand, the ultra-fine
* Corresponding author. grained metals are available only for micro-parts [26,27].
Table 1
Summary of major SPD processes
t0
Accumulative roll-bonding (ARB) (Saito, Tsuji, Utsunomiya, Sakai, 1998) e ¼ n p2ffiffi3 ln t
In Fig. 2 [28], the mechanical properties of a wire specimen properties of metals processed by SPD processes are shown
made by SPD is plotted against the ratio of wire diameter D to the in Section 3, the combined processes developed recently are
grain size d, D/d. The proof stress decreases with decreasing D/d explained in Section 4, and the applications of the ultra-fine
when D/d is less than 100. In particular, when D/d is less than 5, the grained metals are discussed in Section 5.
proof stress decreases abruptly with decreasing D/d. From these
observations, the ratio of D/d must be greater than 100 in order to 2. SPD processes
guarantee the safety and the reliability of metals for micro-parts.
This paper reviews the severe plastic deformation processes 2.1. Equal channel angular press (ECAP) process
to create metals with ultra-fine grains. In the following, the
fabrications of the SPD processes are shown in Section 2. Then, the 2.1.1. Conventional ECAP processes
Fig. 3 shows the schematic representation of side extrusion
processes, which are a kind of double axis extrusion or side
extrusion [29]. Fig. 3(d and e) indicates the process in which pure
shear deformation can be repeatedly imposed on materials so that
an intense plastic strain is produced with the materials without
any change in the cross-sectional dimensions of the workpiece.
These processes are named as ECAE (Equal channel angular
extrusion) or ECAP.
Segal [8,30] proposed this process in 1977 in order to create an
ultra-fine grained material. Although ECAP is generally applied to
solid metals, it may also be used for consolidation of metallic
powder. Kudo and coworkers [31] employed repetitive side
extrusion with back pressure to consolidate a pure aluminum
powder. In the 1990s, developments of ultra-fine grained materials
were carried out with this method by Valiev et al. [9,10,32], Horita
and coworkers [33–45] and Azushima et al. [46–48] and others
Fig. 1. Relationship between proof stress and grain size of pure iron [6]. [49–51].
The schematic representation of the ECAE process is shown in
Fig. 4. The specimen is side extruded through the shear
deformation zone with the dead zone in the outer corner of the
channel. When the workpiece is side extruded through the
channel, the total strain is
1 f c f c
e ¼ pffiffiffi 2cot þ þ c cosec þ (2)
3 2 2 2 2
Fig. 2. Material behavior during forming processes of micro-parts of a wire Fig. 3. Schematic illustration of side extrusion process, which are a kind of double
specimen with diameter to grain size D/d [28]. axis extrusion or side extrusion [29].
718 A. Azushima et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 57 (2008) 716–735
Fig. 5. Fundamental process of metal flow during ECAP. (a) The deformation of a
cubic element on a single pass [33]. (b) Shearing characteristics for four different Fig. 6. Schematic representation of repetitive side extrusion process with the back
processing routes [36]. pressure [46].
A. Azushima et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 57 (2008) 716–735 719
Fig. 7. The ECAP process using a rotary-die: (a) initial state, (b) after one pass and (c)
after 908 die rotation [52].
Fig. 11. The principle of the ECAR process for use in continuous production [68].
Fig. 8. Schematic representation of 2 turn ECAP [61].
providing additional pressure as shown in Fig. 8 may become a process is represented schematically in Fig. 11. The strip is fed
viable option available on common hydraulic presses. Presses with between two rolls and extruded to reduce the thickness of the
two opposite and equally powerful rams could be used for a cyclic strip. Then, the strip flows into the outlet channel. The principle of
process. In this process, the total strain becomes 2.3 after one pass. the ECAP conform process is represented schematically in Fig. 12.
These ECAP processes have been used only in the laboratory The workpiece is driven forward by frictional forces on the three
because of their low productivity. For mass production, continuous contact interfaces with the groove. The workpiece is constrained to
processing techniques must be developed. First, in order to the groove by the stationary constraint die, which restricts the
produce long metal bars and strips, equal channel angular drawing workpiece and forces it to turn by shear deformation similarly to
(ECAD) [62] and con-shearing were developed. the ECAP process.
The principle of ECAD is represented schematically in Fig. 9. In Fig. 13 shows an Al workpiece at every stage of the ECAP
the ECAD process, the material in the form of a bar is drawn conform process, from the initial feeding stock with a round cross-
through the two channels. The rods are preformed by bending section to the rectangular rod after the first ECAP pass. For the
them 1358 to fit to the die, and are drawn through the ECAP die ECAR process and the ECAE conform process, the total strain after
using as Instron tensile testing machine. one pass operation is given by Eq. (2), and the accumulated total
The principle of the con-shearing process is represented strain is n e after n passes.
schematically in Fig. 10 [63–65]. An equal-channel die with a The Incremental ECAP (I-ECAP) was developed by Rosochowski
channel angle is located at the exit of a satellite mill. Satellite rolls et al. [70–72]. Fig. 14 explains the principle of this process; it is
and a central roll are used as feed rolls. All the rolls are driven at an based on incremental feeding of the billet by a distance ‘‘b’’
equal peripheral speed to generate large extrusion forces and the and using a reciprocating die ‘‘C’’ whose movement is synchro-
strip is extruded through the die continuously. This process uses nized with feeding. This enables feeding to take place during
friction between rolls to push the workpiece through an ECAP die. the withdrawal phase of die ‘‘C’’. When the billet stops at a pre-
In this process, the shear deformation is given to the strip determined position, die ‘‘C’’ approaches it and deforms a small
continuously, and the total strain after one pass is given by Eq. (2).
Recently, equal channel angular rolling (ECAR) [66–68] and
ECAP conform [69] were developed. The principle of the ECAR
Fig. 9. Schematic of the equal channel angular drawing process (ECAD) [62]. Fig. 12. Schematic illustration of the ECAP– Conform process [69].
720 A. Azushima et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 57 (2008) 716–735
Table 2
Summarizes the geometrical changes of the specimen during the ARB process
where roll-bonded by 50% reduction per cycle [81]
Number of Cycles, n 1 2 3 5 10
Number of layers, m 2 4 8 32 1024
Total reduction, r (%) 50 75 87.5 96.9 99.9
Equivalent strain, e 0.80 1.60 2.40 4.00 8.00
The ARB process was first developed by Saito et al. [80–83]. The
principle of the ARB process is represented systematically in Fig. 16
Fig. 17. Longitudinal cross-section of initial and ARB processed IF steel strips [82].
punches have radial teeth to facilitate the application of torque. 2.4. Other processes
The ring specimens were constrained from all directions which
created a condition closer to hydrostatic pressure. The principle of the cyclic extrusion compression (CEC) process
Recently, Valiev et al. conducted the HPT process using devices developed by Korbel et al. is represented schematically in Fig. 21
under high pressure as shown in Fig. 19 [15,16,89,91–104]. The [18,108–111]. In the CEC process, a sample is contained within a
design is a further development of the Bridgman anvil type device. chamber and then extruded repeatedly backwards and forwards.
In this device, a very thin disk is compressed in a closed die by a This process was invented to allow arbitrarily large strain
very high pressure. The torque is provided by the punch with deformation of a sample with preservation of the original sample
contact friction at the interface between the punch and disk. The shape after n passes. The accumulated equivalent strain is
strain in torsion is given by approximately given by
2pnr
g ðrÞ ¼ (4) D
l e ¼ 4nln (6)
d
where r is the distance from the axis of the disk sample, n the number
where D is the chamber diameter, d the channel diameter and n the
of rotation and l the thickness of the sample. The equivalent strain
number of deformation cycles. Since the billet in the CEC process is
according to the von Mises yield criterion is given by
compressed from the both ends, a high hydrostatic pressure is
g ðrÞ imposed. The extrusion–compression load becomes high so that
eðrÞ ¼ pffiffiffi ; (5)
3 the special pre-stressed tools are required, otherwise the tool life
will be short. This process is better suited for processing soft
This method has the disadvantage that it utilizes specimens in material such as aluminum alloys. However, the strain introduced
the form of relatively small discs and is not available for the in the forward extrusion may be cancelled by the strain introduced
on the backward extrusion.
The principle of the cyclic closed-die forging (CCDF) process
developed by Ghosh et al. is represented schematically in Fig. 22
[21,112,113]. A billet is first compressed in the vertical direction
and then in the horizontal direction. The equivalent strain per
operation is given by
lnðH=WÞ
e¼2 pffiffiffi (7)
3
Fig. 22. Schematic of cyclic closed-die forging (CCDF). Fig. 25. Principle of spin extrusion [115].
tically in Fig. 23 [17]. The technique consists of bending a straight of this approach is the opportunity to create a changed structure in
billet with corrugated tools and then restoring the straight shape of the surface region, keeping the lower region or core unchanged.
the billet with flat tools. The equivalent strain per one operation is The incremental forming method of the spin extrusion as shown in
given by Fig. 25 is used to create cup shaped or tube shaped parts from solid
billets. The hollow shape is created by the concurrent partial
½ðr þ tÞ=ðr þ 0:5tÞ
e ¼ 4ln pffiffiffi (8) pressure of three rolls on the surface of the workpiece and the
3 pressure of the forming mandrel acting in the axial direction. The
where t is the thickness of sample and r is the curvature of bent material flows axially and a cup wall is created between the
zone. By repeating these processes in a cyclic manner, high strains forming tools [116].
can be introduced in the workpiece. The principle of the severe torsion straining (STS) process
Linear flow splitting developed by Groche et al. is another developed by Nakamura et al. is represented schematically in
possibility to obtain ultra-fine grained metal [114]. The principle of Fig. 26 [20]. The process consists of producing a locally heated zone
this process is shown in Fig. 24. A sheet metal is compressed and creating torsion strain in the zone by rotating one end with the
between the splitting roll and the supporting rolls. Under this state other. The rod is moved along the longitudinal axis while creating
of stress two flanges are formed into the gap between the splitting the local straining. Therefore, a severe plastic strain is produced
and the supporting rolls. The material flow is mainly associated by continuously throughout the rod. In order to create the torsion
a surface enlargement of the band edge. Several hundred percent of strain efficiently, the locally heated zone should be narrow and the
plastic strain occur. As a consequence, the outer surface areas of rotation of the rod should be fast with respect to the moving speed
the flanges consist of ultra-fine grained metal. The properties of the of the rod. Moreover, a modification is made for the cooling system
metal in this state can be used for an increase of load bearing so that the heated zone is more localized to create torsion strain.
capability, e.g. bearings for rollers. The principle of the torsion extrusion process developed by
The applicability of incremental bulk forming processes with Mizunuma et al. is represented schematically in Fig. 27. This
high deformation for grain refinement in the sub-micrometer process is characterized by rotation of a die or a container during
range was investigated by Neugebauer et al. [115]. A specific aspect an extrusion process for introducing a very large strain in to the
metal. As high hydrostatic pressure involved in the extrusion raises
the ductility of the metals, a very large torsion straining can be
introduced to the workpiece. The mean value of representative
Fig. 23. Principle of repetitive corrugating and straightening [17]. Fig. 26. Principle of the severe torsion straining (STS) process [20].
A. Azushima et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 57 (2008) 716–735 723
Fig. 29. TEM Micrograph of ultra-low carbon steel after ECAPed 10 passes by route
A [46].
Fig. 27. Principle of the torsion extrusion process [19]. low carbon steel an ultra-fine grain size with a major axis length of
0.5 mm and a minor axis length of 0.2 mm was developed by 10
strain on a cross-section of a column can be calculated as below. passes of repetitive side extrusion at room temperature as shown
in Fig. 29 [46]. At the same time, they showed the relationship
4pRN
e ¼ pffiffiffi (9) between the area fraction and the mis-orientation angle by the
3 3H EBSP analysis [46]. They reported that most of the boundaries are
where R is radius of column, H is the height of the column, N is the high-angle grains, so that the processed steel is considered to be a
number of rotation. kind of ultra-fine grain structured metal.
Fig. 28 [19] shows a magnified view of the longitudinal section In the ARB processes, it was noted that the evolution of
of the etched aluminum specimen after the torsion extrusion microstructure and the increase in mis-orientation of boundaries
process, compared with that of the conventional extrusion. The were much faster than those when using conventional rolling
torsion extruded part of the specimen is clearly observed to be [117,118]. A typical TEM micrograph of the ultra-fine structure in
more severely strained than that of the conventional extrusion. the interstitial free (IF) steel ARB processed by 7 cycles at 500 8C is
shown in Fig. 30. From the crystallographic analysis by Kikuchi-
3. Properties of metals processed by SPD line analysis, they reported that most of the boundaries were at a
high angle.
The SPD-processed metals normally have ultra-fine grained From these TEM microstructures, it is expected that the
structures that cannot be obtained through conventional thermo- hardness and the tensile strength of metals with ultra-fine grains
mechanical processing. As a result, the SPD metals exhibit unique become higher. A number of studies have been conducted on the
and excellent properties such as high strength, compared with the strength and ductility of various kinds of metallic materials
conventional materials having a coarse grain size of over several processed by various SPD processes. The SPD-processed materials
tens of micrometers. generally have very high strength compared with conventional
In the optical microstructure of metals over 5 passes of the ECAP metals. Fig. 31 illustrates a general tendency of the change in
processes, it is observed that the strong filamentary microstructure strength and ductility during SPD. The strength of the materials
is developed with an increasing number of passes. In these continuously increases with increasing the applied strain and then
conditions, observed microstructure must use a TEM analyzer. gradually saturates. On the other hand, the ductility drops greatly
From the TEM microstructure, it is confirmed that many metals with a relatively small strain, and then keeps a nearly constant
with an ultra-fine grain size (under 1 mm) are developed by ECAP value or slightly decreases as the strain increases.
processes. Fig. 32 shows the relationship between the tensile strength,
The ultra-fine grains of sub-micron size were created by ECAP elongation and number of passes in ECAP for Armco steel [30]. The
processes in many of the metals and the grain size of the Al–4%Cu– tensile strength increases with increasing pass number. The tensile
0.5%Zr alloy became about 200 nm by ECAP with a plastic strain of strength is increased from 300 to 750 MPa after one pass. The
7 at 160 8C [2]. Aluminum and aluminum alloys with a sub-micron tensile strength is increased by a factor of 2 after one pass in
grain size were developed by ECAP processes [45]. For the ultra- comparison with the specimen before the ECAP process, and
increases with increasing pass number up to 8 passes. The tensile
strength is higher than 800 MPa after 8 passes. On the other hand,
the elongation decreases from 20% for the specimen before the
ECAP process to several percents after 8 passes.
Fig. 28. Magnified view of a longitudinal section of the etched aluminum specimen Fig. 30. TEM microstructure of the IF steel ARB processed by 7 cycles (e = 5.6) at
[19]. 500˚ C [118].
724 A. Azushima et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 57 (2008) 716–735
Fig. 31. Illustration showing the general tendency of the change in strength and
ductility during SPD. Fig. 34. Relationship between total elongation and pass number for carbon steels
based on ref. [121].
Horita et al. [33–35] reported the same results for the after 10 passes are plotted in the Hall–Petch relationship of the
aluminum alloys, and Azushima et al. [46–48,119–121] and Shin yield stress against the root grain size as shown in Fig. 2. In this
et al. [122–129] also reported for the steels. In particular, Aoki and figure, the results for these specimens show good agreement with
Azushima [121] reported the relationship between nominal stress the standard Hall–Petch relationship of iron obtained by Takaki
and nominal strain of specimens of ultra-low carbon steel, 0.15%C and coworkers [130].
steel, 0.25%C steel and 0.50%C steel processed by ECAP of 1, 2, 3, 5, Fig. 34 shows the relationship between total elongation and the
and 10 passes in route A at room temperature. They reported that pass number for the carbon steels. For the low carbon steel, the
the as-received material exhibits a stress–strain curve that elongation decreases to 20% after 3 passes, and for the other carbon
indicates normal strain hardening, while the specimens after steel, it decreases to 10% after 3 passes.
ECAP do not exhibit strain hardening. The stress for each specimen Moreover, Shin and coworkers [128] also reported the stress–
increases rapidly with increasing strain and reaches a maximum at strain curve of low carbon steel processed by ECAP at elevated
lower strain. temperatures as shown in Fig. 35. The tensile strength decreases
Fig. 33 shows the relationship between the tensile strength and with increasing processing temperature of ECAP and the total
the pass number for the carbon steels. The tensile strength elongation increases.
increases with increasing number of passes of ECAP. The tensile In the ARB process, Saito, Tsuji et al. [131–142] reported the
strength of ultra-low carbon steel after 10 passes was greater than mechanical properties of many metals processed by ARB. The
1000 MPa and was increased by a factor of 3 in comparison with relationship between the tensile strength, elongation and cycles of
the as-received material. The experimental data of the specimen a commercially pure aluminum (JIS-1100) SPD processed by the
ARB process is shown in Fig. 36 [132]. The tensile strength of the
1100-Al greatly increases to 185 MPa while the total elongation
drops down to 13% by the 1 ARB cycle (equivalent strain of 0.8). As
the number of the ARB cycles (strain) further increases, the flow
stress continuously increases and reaches 340 MPa, which is four
times higher than that of the starting material having a
conventionally recrystallized microstructure.
On the other hand, the elongation of the 1100-Al does not
change as much after the second ARB cycle. As was illustrated in
Fig. 29, this is the typical change in the mechanical properties
during SPD, which seems to occur regardless of the kind of SPD
process and material.
The decrease in ductility is a general feature of strain-hardened
metallic materials. Thus, it is not surprising that the SPD-processed
materials, i.e., ultra-high strained materials show limited tensile
Fig. 32. Relationship between tensile strength, elongation and pass number of ECAP ductility. It can be expected that the ductility can be recovered by
for Armco steel [30]. subsequent heat treatment, as is the case with deformed and
annealed materials. However, this has proven to be not so simple.
Fig. 33. Relationship between tensile strength and pass number for the carbon Fig. 35. Stress–strain curves of the CS steel after ECA pressing at 350, 480, 540 and
steels based on ref. [121]. 600 8C [128].
A. Azushima et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 57 (2008) 716–735 725
Fig. 36. Tensile strength and elongation of the 1100 commercially pure aluminum Fig. 38. Yield strength and UTS vs. accumulated strain for AA-6061 SPD processed
ARB processed by various cycles at RT [131]. by ECAP, MAC/F and ARB at room temperature [149].
Fig. 37 shows the stress–strain curves of the 1100-Al and ultra- Besides the mechanical properties, the fatigue property
low-carbon interstitial free steel SPD processed by the ARB and [120,150–154] and superplasticity property [133,155–167] were
then annealed at various temperatures for 1.8 ks [132]. In the investigated by many researchers.
figures, true stress and true strain are indicated by assuming
uniform elongation. Also the mean grain size of the specimens 4. Combined process and properties
measured from the microstructure observations are superimposed
in the figures. The strength of the materials decreases with 4.1. SPD process and conventional process
increasing grain size, i.e., with increasing annealing temperature.
However, large elongation can be obtained only after the strength In order to improve the strength of the ECAP processed metals,
decreases. In particular, the curves clearly show that the flow stress cold deformation can be combined with the ECAP process to
reaches its maximum at an early stage of tensile test and is then introduce crystalline defects and refine the grains. Recently, two
necked down to fracture in the UFG specimens. combined processes, the ECAP process and cold rolling, and the
The limited tensile ductility of the ultra-fine grained materials is ECAP process and cold extrusion were developed.
understood in terms of early plastic instability. As is well-known, the The principle of the combined process of ECAP and cold rolling
plastic instability condition (i.e., necking condition in tensile test) for is represented schematically in Fig. 39. Azushima et al. carried out
strain-rate insensitive materials, for example, is expressed as experiments in which the specimens of ultra-low carbon steel
were processed by ECAP in route A at room temperature and then
ds
s (10) the specimens processed by ECAP were rolled repetitively at room
de
temperature in order to increase the strength. Fig. 40 shows the
where s and e are true stress and strain, respectively. Ultra-grain tensile strength after the combined process [168]. After 10 passes
refinement greatly increases the strength, especially yield of ECAP, the tensile strength of ultra-low carbon steel is 1000 MPa
strength, of the materials. When the strain-hardening rate and after cold rolling with a reduction in thickness of 95% it
coincides with the flow stress, plastic instability, in other words becomes 1300 MPa.
necking, starts in the tensile test, which demonstrates a uniform Next, warm ECAP process was first used to refine the grain size
elongation. of commercially pure Ti billets and the billets were further
The mechanical properties of the metals with ultra-fine grain processed by repetitive cold rolling. The properties of the pure Ti
processed by SPD have been investigated [143–149]. Cherukuri processed by the two-step method are summarized in Table 3
et al. reported a comparison of the properties of SPD-processed AA- [169]. ECAP increased the yield and tensile even strength to 640
6061 by ECAP, CCDF and ARB as shown in Fig. 38 [149]. and 710 MPa, respectively. After a cold reduction of 35%, the yield
Commercially available AA-6061 in the annealed condition was and tensile strengths increased to 940 and 1040 MPa which are
subjected to severe plastic deformation processing by ECAP, CCDF higher than those for the Ti–6Al–4V alloy. Further cold rolling to a
and ARB at room temperature to approximately the same reduction of 55% resulted in even higher yield and tensile
accumulated strain (4). From Fig. 38, it is understood that the strengths.
SPD technique used did not show much effect on the flow behavior The principle of the combined process of ECAP and cold
of AA-6061. extrusion is represented schematically in Fig. 41. Stolyarov et al.
[170] carried out experiments in which the billet of commercially
pure Ti were first processed by ECAP in route BC at about 400 8C and
then the billets processed by ECAP were further processed by cold
extrusion to the accumulative reduction. The properties of the pure
Fig. 37. True stress–strain curves of (a) the 1100-Al ARB processed by 6 cycles at
200 8C and then annealed at various temperatures ranging from 100 to 400 8C for
1.8 ks and (b) IF steel ARB processed by 5 cycles at 500 8C and then annealed at
various temperatures from 200 to 800 8C for 1.8 ks [132]. Fig. 39. Principle of the combined process of ECAP process and cold rolling.
726 A. Azushima et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 57 (2008) 716–735
Table 3
Properties of pure Ti processed by two-step [169]
Table 4
Properties of pure Ti processed by warm ECAP and cold extrusion [170]
Fig. 45. Tensile strength and elongation of ECA pressed low carbon steel annealed at
480 8C for various times [173].
Table 5
Properties of pure Ti processed by warm ECAP and cold rolling with subsequent annealing [169]
micro-alloying technology is difficult to be applied to this increased from 350 to over 700 MPa with in decreasing grain size
process. The temperature of the strip is controlled throughout 4.5–1 mm, which is in good agreement with the Hall–Petch
the combined process to accumulate the dislocations in the grains relationship. It is also confirmed that the uniform elongation
before accelerated transformation. deceases.
An example of such combined processes is shown in Fig. 46. Another example of the combined process for producing the
This process can be used to produce ultra-fine grained C–Si–Mn ultra-fine grained steel is warm rolling and cooling, which uses
steel with a grain size of 1 mm [175]. A strip with a width of ferrite recrystallization during warm rolling [177–183]. Torizuka
300 mm was successfully produced by this process. Fig. 47 shows et al. [177,180–183] carried out multi-pass warm caliber rolling of
an example of ultra-fine grained C–Si–Mn steel obtained by hot two low carbon steel (SM490) specimens with a microstructure of
extrusion. Fig. 48 shows the yield strength of the steel sheet ferrite and Pearlite.
produced by the SSMR process as a function of ferrite grain size The specimen of the square bar with a side width of 80 mm was
[176]. Some previous studies and Hall–Petch equation are used. The warm caliber rolling schedule is summarized in Fig. 49.
also shown in the figure as a comparison. The yield strength is The caliber rolling at 500 8C was conducted in five stages to obtain
specimens of different cumulative strains for different micro-
structure and mechanical properties. The cumulative reduction
and the cumulative strain at each stage of rolling are also shown in
Fig. 49.
Fig. 50 shows the relationship between nominal stress and
nominal strain of specimens subjected to different cumulative
strains. The yield and tensile strengths of the caliber rolled
specimen increase monotonically with increasing cumulative
strain. There is a reduction in the elongation to failure of the
caliber rolled specimens compared to the undeformed specimen,
but there is almost no change among the specimens with different
accumulative strains.
Fig. 49. Caliber rolling schedule with cumulative reduction and cumulative strain at
each stage [180].
Fig. 51. High strength thread articles out of SPD Ti alloy [184].
Fig. 54. View of article of ‘‘Piston’’ type fabricated from nanostructured Al1420 [2].
5. Applications
The properties of the metals processed by SPD exhibit high numerous laboratory-based SPD methods will emerge as the most
strength, ductility and fatigue characteristics. UFG metals are used appropriate for industrial implementation.
as a structural material due to these properties. Bolts are also As a result, potential producers of UFG metals hesitate to
manufactured with titanium alloys processed by ECAP as shown in commit themselves to any particular method. They are also
Fig. 51 [184] and are widely used in the automobile and aircraft concerned about the commercial viability of UFG metals, which
industries. Micro bolts using the UFG carbon steel processed by depends on the demand from potential markets and the cost of
cold ECAP have also been manufactured as shown in Fig. 52 [185]. production. Both of them are difficult to assess because of the low
Long carbon steel bars, of over several kilometers, with ultra- availability of UFG metals and uncertainty regarding the SPD
fine grains are manufactured by the warm continuous caliber technology. There is also a lack of knowledge regarding post-SPD
rolling and cooling process, from which the micro bolts are processing or shaping of UFG metals.
manufactured. Recently, in a Japanese National Project, sheets of Nevertheless, there are some applications which, with a high
low carbon steel of 2 mm thickness with ultra-fine grains were degree of probability, will be leading the introduction of UFG
manufactured by the TMCP process. The deep drawing ratio of each metals into commercial markets. Initially, those applications are
sheet was 1.9 and the parts were used in sheet metal forming as likely to be in the niche markets producing low volume specialty
shown in Fig. 53 [186]. products (e.g. sputtering targets). The next step will be the medium
It is well known [187,188] that superplastic forming is a highly volume markets with the emphasis put on product’s performance
efficient method of processing complex shape articles. An example rather than price (medical implants, defense applications, aero-
of a possible practical application for nanostructured Al alloys is space components, sports equipment). Eventually, the mass
shown in Fig. 54 [2]. It presents a complex shape article of ‘Piston’ production of components may be undertaken by the automotive
type which was fabricated from the nanostructured Al1420 alloy and construction industries.
by superplastic forming using the high strain rate superplasticity. With the exception of sputtering targets, the examples
In practice, despite a range of improved mechanical and presented below refer to potential applications rather than the
physical properties of bulk UFG metals produced by SPD, the current ones. Despite the focus of this paper on SPD-produced UFG
uptake of these materials by industry has been very slow so far. metals, applications using UFG consolidated powders and nanos-
There are several reasons for this; one is the lack of industrial tructured electrodeposited metals will also be considered as these
awareness of UFG metals. This is despite a large number of are indicative of what can be achieved with all types of UFG metals.
academics being engaged in research on SPD and UFG metals. The first commercial application of bulk UFG metals was in
Another reason is the scarcity of appropriately sized UFG samples sputtering targets for physical vapour deposition (Fig. 55).
for industrial trials; those produced by laboratories are usually too Honeywell Electronic Materials, a division of Honeywell Interna-
small because they are intended for metallurgical observations or tional Inc., offers UFG Al and Cu sputtering targets up to 300 mm in
basic mechanical testing. Finally, it is still not clear which of the diameter which are produced from plates by ECAP [189,190]. They
are used for metallization of silicone wafers in the production of
semiconductor devices. The main advantages of UFG sputtering
targets, compared to their coarse grained (CG) counterparts, are:
(1) the life span increased by 30% due to stronger material which
allows the use of monolithic targets and (2) a more uniform
deposited coating which results from reduced arcing. Another
company offering UFG Cu targets is Praxair Electronics, which
claims better sputter performance and 75% reduction in the
ownership cost of such targets.
Fig. 52. Overview and cross-section of micro bolts manufactured UFG Carbon steel
processed by cold ECAP [185].
Fig. 53. Examples of ultra-fine-grained C-Mn steel sheet forming [186]. Fig. 55. Worn out UFG 300 mm sputtering target [189].
730 A. Azushima et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 57 (2008) 716–735
Fig. 57. AAV7A1 Amphibious Assault Vehicle (image courtesy of BAE Systems). Fig. 58. NDMX golf ball (image courtesy of NanoDynamics).
A. Azushima et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 57 (2008) 716–735 731
Acknowledgment
The authors wish to thank Prof. K. Osakada and Dr. J. Allwood for
checking the manuscript of keynote paper.
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