DOs and DON’ TS in Laboratory:

1. Do not handle any equipment before reading the instructions/Instruction manuals

2. Read carefully the power ratings of the equipment before it is switched on whether ratings 230 V/50Hz
or 115V/60 Hz. For Indian equipments, the power ratings are normally 230V/50Hz. If you have
equipment with 115/60 Hz ratings, do not insert power plug, as our normal supply is 230V/50 Hz, which
will damage the equipment.

3. Observe type of sockets of equipment power to avoid mechanical damage

4. Do not forcefully place connectors to avoid the damage

5. Strictly observe the instructions given by the teacher/Lab Instructor

Instruction for Laboratory Teachers:

1. Submission related to whatever lab work has been completed should be done during the next lab
session.

2. The promptness of submission should be encouraged by way of marking and evaluation patterns that
will benefit the sincere students.
 Appendix

(LABORATORY REGULATIONS AND SAFETY RULES)

The following Regulations and Safety Rules must be observed in all concerned laboratory location.

1. It is the duty of all concerned who use any electrical laboratory to take all reasonable steps to
safeguard the HEALTH and SAFETY of themselves and all other users and visitors.

2. Be sure that all equipment is properly working before using them for laboratory exercises. Any
defective equipment must be reported immediately to the Lab. Instructors or Lab. Technical Staff.

3. Students are allowed to use only the equipment provided in the experiment manual or equipment
used for senior project laboratory.

4. Power supply terminals connected to any circuit are only energized with the presence of the
Instructor or Lab. Staff.

5. Students should keep a safe distance from the circuit breakers, electric circuits or any moving
parts during the experiment.

6. Avoid any part of your body to be connected to the energized circuit and ground.

7. Switch off the equipment and disconnect the power supplies from the circuit before leaving the
laboratory.

8. Observe cleanliness and proper laboratory housekeeping of the equipment and other related
accessories.

9. Wear proper clothes and safety gloves or goggles required in working areas that involves
fabrications of printed circuit boards, chemicals process control system, antenna communication
equipment and laser facility laboratories.

10. Double check your circuit connections specifically in handling electrical power machines, AC
motors and generators before switching “ON” the power supply.

11. Make sure that the last connection to be made in your circuit is the power supply and first thing
to be disconnected is also the power supply.

12. Equipment should not be removed, transferred to any location without permission from the
laboratory staff.

13. Software installation in any computer laboratory is not allowed without the permission from the
Laboratory Staff.

14. Computer games are strictly prohibited in the computer laboratory.

15. Students are not allowed to use any equipment without proper orientation and actual hands on
equipment operation.
All these rules and regulations are necessary precaution in Electrical Laboratory to safeguard the
students, laboratory staff, the equipment and other laboratory users.
 EXPERIMENT NO.-01

Aim Of The Experiment:

To study the generation of square and triangular wave using op-amp IC

Apparatus Required:

1. Resistors (1kΩ, 12kΩ, 180Ω)

2. Op Amp 741×2
3. Capacitor (0.1µF)

Theory:
Operational amplifier based triangular wave form generator is simple circuit that is widely used
in function generators. Here is the circuit for Triangular wave generator using 741 op amp. We
know that the integrator output waveform will be triangular if the input to it is a square wave. It
means that a triangular wave generator can be formed by simply cascading an integrator and a
square wave generator, as illustrated in figure.
This circuit uses two operational amplifiers. First op amp functions as a comparator and next op
amp as an integrator. Sawtooth waveform can be easily generated by doing little modifications in
the triangular wave generator circuit. In this circuit the ‘non inverting’ terminal of second op
amp is grounded, to get sawtooth generator we just need to add a potentio meter arrangement.

Procedure:
1.Comparator compares the voltage at a point ‘P’ continuously with respect to the voltage at the
inverting input, which is at ground potential.
 2.When the voltage at P goes slightly below zero, the output of comparator will switches to
negative saturation.
3.Consider the output of comparator is +Vsat, since this voltage is the input of integrator, then its
output will be negative going ramp.
4.Thus one end of the potential divider R1 R2 is at +Vsat and other end is at negative going ramp.
When the negative going ramp attains a value say –Vramp the effective voltage at P becomes
slightly less than 0V. This switches output of comparator to –Vsat.

5.During this time integrator output will be positive going ramp. When the value of positive
going ramp attains +Vramp, voltage at ‘P’ becomes slightly greater than 0V, there by switching
comparator output to +Vsat.

6. This cycle repeats and generates a triangular waveform

7. Triangular waveform can also be generated by integrating square wave from an astable
multivibrator.
Design of Triangular wave generator

The frequency of triangular waveform is given by either the following expressions

Peak to peak amplitude of ramp voltage is given by

Circuit Diagram
Output:
 EXPERIMENT NO. -02

Aim Of The Experiment:

To study the operation of Class A, Class B power amplifiers.

Apparatus:
Multisim soft ware.

Circuit Diagram:

THEORY:
The classification of amplifiers is based on the position of the quiescent point and extent of the
characteristics that is being used to determine the method of operation.
1.Class A 2.Class B
CLASS A:- In class A operation the quiescent point and the input signal are such that the current
in the output circuit (at the collector) flows for all times. Class A amplifier operates essentially
over a linear portion of its characteristic there by giving rise to minimum of distortion.
CLASS B:- In class B operation , the quiescent point is at an extreme end of the characteristic ,
so that under quiescent conditions the power drawn from the dc power supply is very small .If
the input signal is sinusoidal, amplification takes place for only half cycle.

PROCEDURE:
1. An input sine wave (peak-peak) of 50mV is applied to the circuit.
2. Connect the output to the C.R.O.
3. Varying R3 value, observe and record the output waveforms for different classes of operation.
4. Also observe the Vi & Vo waveforms using parameter sweep for different classes of
operation.

RESULT:
 Experiment No.-3

WIEN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR USING TRANSISTORS

Aim Of The Experiment: To study and calculate frequency of. Wein Bridge Oscillator.
Apparatus:
1.Transistor (BC107) – 2no,
2.Resistors – 10KΩ - 4no,1KΩ - 3no,2.2KΩ, 33KΩ, 6.8KΩ,
3.Capacitors - 10 F - 2no, 100uF, 0.01uF – 2no,
4.SDC Kit,
5.CRO,
6. Connecting wires.

Theory:

The Wien Bridge oscillator can still be built using similar principles to the early Hewlett Packard
versions, but with modern components.

Fig. 3.4.1 shows a basic Wien Bridge Oscillator using a filament lamp with an op amp. It is a
property of filament lamps that the resistance of the tungsten filament increases in a non-linear
manner as the filament heats up. The lamp in Fig. 3.4.1 is connected in the negative feedback
potential divider that sets the gain of the non-inverting amplifier. The gain of the amplifier is set
by:

Fig. 3.1 Miniature Filament Lamp

Compared With a Match Head
Therefore the greater the resistance of the lamp the lower the amplifier gain. By choosing a
suitable lamp, the gain of the amplifier can be automatically controlled over an appropriate
range. Usually a lamp with a maximum current flow of around 50mA or less is used, to give an
initial gain of more than 3 as the oscillator starts, falling quickly to 3 as the lamp heats up.

Hewlett’s original 1939 design used a high voltage vacuum tube (valve) and relatively large
lamp, with modern low voltage semiconductors however, it is not easy to find suitable filament
lamps that have a suitable voltage range and a low enough current to avoid overloading the
amplifier, although useful lamps can still be found, usually of the wire ended T1 or ‘grain of
rice’ types but even they are becoming more difficult to find in component suppliers catalogues,
as LED types become more popular for low voltage lighting.

Fig. 3.2 Non-linear resistance

of a filament lamp
Fig. 3.4.2 shows a low current filament lamp designed to work from 5V at 45mA, and Fig. 3.4.3
is a graph taken from a typical example, showing how its positive temperature coefficient
resistance varies with voltage. (Note that resistance without any temperature dependant
characteristics would be a straight line). The useful area of the lamp characteristic, where the
largest change in resistance occurs is shaded green, the oscillators amplitude is stabilised by
making use of this area. However, because filament lamps are not made as electronic control
devices, manufacturers do not usually provide graphs such as that in Fig.3.4.3 so, when using a
lamp as a stabilising component it is necessary to first construct a graph for the lamp to be used,
and decide on the active area.

The gain of the amplifier in Fig. 3.4.1 depends on the ratio of the values of the feedback resistor
R3 and the lamp. For oscillations to start, the amplifier gain needs to be greater than 3, but to
work correctly after the initial start up the gain must be 3. Using the formula:

This requires the lamp to be half the resistance of the feedback resistor R3 to provide the
necessary gain of 3, but slightly less than twice the resistance of R3 at start up.

To find a value for R3 that will give the correct amount of gain at start up and during oscillation,
its value should be slightly greater than twice the value of the lamps resistance at the lower end
of the green shaded area (i.e. 2 x 30Ω = 60Ω) to give a gain >3, but no greater than twice the
value of the lamp’s resistance at the upper limit of its useful slope (i.e. 2 x 75 = 150 Ω), the gain
should then stabilize at 3, with the oscillator providing an undistorted sine wave output.

To obtain an undistorted output at a specific amplitude, it is useful to initially use a variable

resistor of about 1kΩ in place of the feedback resistor. Varying the resistor will show the limits
between the greatest amplitude before distortion and the smallest amplitude for stable operation.
The resistance of the variable control can then be measured find the value of feedback resistor
that provides a stable and undistorted wave of acceptable amplitude. In a test circuit, built using a
LM324 op amp with a supply voltage of ±9V to ±12V a value of 68Ω to 82Ω proved ideal.
To find values for R and C in the Wien Bridge that will give a specific frequency:

Fig. 3.3 Lamp Stabilized Circuit

on Breadboard

The formula for frequency:

Can be re-arranged as:

and
 Fig. 3.4 Output Waveform from
Lamp Stabilised Circuit

These calculations will almost inevitably produce values that do not match available components
so it will be necessary to choose a preferred value closest to the calculated one. It may be
possible to make up an odd value from two preferred values to get closer to the required
frequency, remembering that component tolerances will make absolute accuracy difficult to
obtain. The test circuit shown in Fig. 3.4.4 used 10K and 100nF, which gives a calculated
frequency of 159Hz, the measured frequency turned out to be 157Hz. The output wave is shown
in Fig 3.4.5.

DESIGN PROCEDURE:
Formula f =1/2π√(R1C1R2C2)
Given R=10kΩ, C=0.01uf If R1=R2 ; C1=C2 RCfT = 1/ 2
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig 3.5 Circuit Diagram of Wein Bridge Oscllator

Procedure:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram
2. Feed the output of the oscillator to a C.R.O by making adjustments in the Potentiometer
connected in the +ve feedback loop, try to obtain a stable sine Wave.
3. Measure the time period of the waveform obtained on CRO. & calculate the Frequency of
oscillations. 4. Repeat the procedure for different values of capacitance.
RESULT:
 EXPERIMENT NO.-04
Aim of the Experiment:
a) Design RC phase shift oscillator to have resonant frequency of 6KHz. Assume R1 = 100k, R2
= 22K, RC = 4 K ,RE =1K & VCC = 12V.
b) Obtain hfe for the above designed value for AV > - 29, R≥ 2 RC.
Apparatus:
1.Multisim software.
Design Procedure:
A) Let R = 10K Fr = 1 ___________ 2πRc√ (6+4K) WHERE K=Rc/R
B)hfe ≥ 23= 29/K for sustained oscillations

Theory:

n an RC Oscillator circuit the input is shifted 180o through the amplifier stage and 180o again
through a second inverting stage giving us “180o + 180o = 360o” of phase shift which is
effectively the same as 0o thereby giving us the required positive feedback. In other words, the
phase shift of the feedback loop should be “0”.

In a Resistance-Capacitance Oscillator or simply an RC Oscillator, we make use of the fact

that a phase shift occurs between the input to a RC network and the output from the same
network by using RC elements in the feedback branch, for example.

RC Phase-Shift Network
The circuit on the left shows a single Resistor-Capacitor Network whose output voltage “leads”
the input voltage by some angle less than 90o. An ideal single-pole RC circuit would produce a
phase shift of exactly 90o, and because 180o of phase shift is required for oscillation, at least two
single-poles must be used in an RC oscillator design.

However in reality it is difficult to obtain exactly 90o of phase shift so more stages are used. The
amount of actual phase shift in the circuit depends upon the values of the resistor and the
capacitor, and the chosen frequency of oscillations with the phase angle ( Φ ) being given as:

Circuit Diagram:
PROCEDURE:
Rig up the circuit using multisim software and verify the results using Oscilloscope.

RESULT:
 Experiment No.-5
Hartley Oscillators
Aim Of The Experiment:
To design Hartley Oscillators to have resonant frequency of 1KHz.
Apparatus:
1.BJT(BC107),
2.Resistors(2.2kΩ,100kΩ,10kΩ,1kΩ),
3.Capacitors(10µf,100µf,0.33 µf),
4.Decade inductance box ,
5.RPS.
Equipment:
1. SDC kit.
2. Function generator.
3. C.R.O.

Theory:

One of the main disadvantages of the basic LC Oscillator circuit we looked at in the previous
tutorial is that they have no means of controlling the amplitude of the oscillations and also, it is
difficult to tune the oscillator to the required frequency. If the cumulative electromagnetic
coupling between L1 and L2 is too small there would be insufficient feedback and the
oscillations would eventually die away to zero.

Likewise if the feedback was too strong the oscillations would continue to increase in amplitude
until they were limited by the circuit conditions producing signal distortion. So it becomes very
difficult to “tune” the oscillator.

However, it is possible to feed back exactly the right amount of voltage for constant amplitude
oscillations. If we feed back more than is necessary the amplitude of the oscillations can be
controlled by biasing the amplifier in such a way that if the oscillations increase in amplitude, the
bias is increased and the gain of the amplifier is reduced.

If the amplitude of the oscillations decreases the bias decreases and the gain of the amplifier
increases, thus increasing the feedback. In this way the amplitude of the oscillations are kept
constant using a process known as Automatic Base Bias.

One big advantage of automatic base bias in a Voltage Controlled Oscillator, is that the oscillator
can be made more efficient by providing a Class-B bias or even a Class-C bias condition of the
transistor. This has the advantage that the collector current only flows during part of the
oscillation cycle so the quiescent collector current is very small. Then this “self-tuning” base
oscillator circuit forms one of the most common types of LC parallel resonant feedback oscillator
configurations called the Hartley Oscillator circuit.
 Hartley Oscillator Tank Circuit

In the Hartley Oscillator the tuned LC circuit is connected between the collector and the base of
a transistor amplifier. As far as the oscillatory voltage is concerned, the emitter is connected to a
tapping point on the tuned circuit coil.

The feedback part of the tuned LC tank circuit is taken from the centre tap of the inductor coil or
even two separate coils in series which are in parallel with a variable capacitor, C as shown.

The Hartley circuit is often referred to as a split-inductance oscillator because coil L is centre-
tapped. In effect, inductance L acts like two separate coils in very close proximity with the
current flowing through coil section XY induces a signal into coil section YZ below.

An Hartley Oscillator circuit can be made from any configuration that uses either a single tapped
coil (similar to an autotransformer) or a pair of series connected coils in parallel with a single
capacitor as shown below.

Design Procedure:
Hartley Oscillator
F = 1 / (2π√LeqC) Where Leq=L1+L2

Circuit Diagrams:

Hartley Oscillator:
RESULT:
 Experiment No.-06
Colpitt Oscillator
Aim of The Experiment: To design Colpitt’s Oscillators to have resonant frequency of
1KHz.

APPARATUS:
1.BJT(BC107),
2.Resistors(2.2kΩ,100kΩ,10kΩ,1kΩ),
3.Capacitors(10µf,100µf,0.33 µf),
4.Decade inductance box ,
5.RPS.

EQUIPMENT:
1. SDC kit.
2. Function generator.
3. C.R.O.

Theory:

The Colpitts Oscillator, named after its inventor Edwin Colpitts is another type of LC oscillator
design. In many ways, the Colpitts oscillator is the exact opposite of the Hartley Oscillator we
looked at in the previous tutorial. Just like the Hartley oscillator, the tuned tank circuit consists of
an LC resonance sub-circuit connected between the collector and the base of a single stage
transistor amplifier producing a sinusoidal output waveform.

The basic configuration of the Colpitts Oscillator resembles that of the Hartley Oscillator but the
difference this time is that the centre tapping of the tank sub-circuit is now made at the junction
of a “capacitive voltage divider” network instead of a tapped autotransformer type inductor as in
the Hartley oscillator.
 Fig 1.Colpitts Oscillator
Tank Circuit

The Colpitts Oscillator uses a capacitive voltage divider network as its feedback source. The two
capacitors, C1 and C2 are placed across a single common inductor, L as shown. Then C1, C2 and
L form the tuned tank circuit with the condition for oscillations being: XC1 + XC2 = XL, the same
as for the Hartley oscillator circuit.

The advantage of this type of capacitive circuit configuration is that with less self and mutual
inductance within the tank circuit, frequency stability of the oscillator is improved along with a
more simple design.

As with the Hartley oscillator, the Colpitts oscillator uses a single stage bipolar transistor
amplifier as the gain element which produces a sinusoidal output. Consider the circuit below.

Design Procedure:
Colpitt’s Oscillator

F = 1 / (2π√LCeq) Where Ceq= (c1*c2) / (c1+c2)

Circuit Diagrams:
Colpitt Oscillator: