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    Atlas of Sedimentary Rocks PLLC the Microscope 2 = = Ss a 2 wy 2 = Le Ss = ELBS The English Language Book Society is funded by the Overseas Development Administration of the British Government, It makes available low- priced, unabridged editions of British publishers textbooks to students in developing countries. Below is @ list of some other books on earth sciences published under the ELBS imprint. Blyth and de Freitas A Geology for Engineers Edward Arnold Deer, Howie and Zussman An Introduction to the Rock-Forming Mine Longman Evans ‘An Introduction to Ore Geology Blackwell Scientific Hall Igncous Petrology Longman Holmes; Holmes (reviser) Holmes: Principles of Physical Geology Van Nostrand Reinhold (UK) Kearey and Brooks An Introduction to Geophysical Exploration Blackwell Scientific MacKenzie, Donaldson and Guilford Atlas of Igneous Rocks and Their Textures Longman MacKenzie and Guilford Atlas of Rock-Forming Minerals in Thin Seetion Longman Read and Watson Introduction to Geology Vols 1 and 2 Macmillan Tucker Sedimentary Petrology Blackwell Scientific Watson Geology and Man Unwin Hyman Atlas of Sedimentary Rocks under the Microscope A. E. ADAMS W. S. MACKENZIE C. GUILFORD English Language Book Society/Longman Longman Scientific & Technical Longman Group UK Ltd, Longman House, Burnt Mill, Harlow, Essex CM20 2JE, England Associated companies throughout the world © Longman Group UK Ltd 1984 [All tights reserved; no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored ina retrieval system, or transmitted jnany form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior ‘weitten permission of the Publishers. First published 1984 Reprinted 1987 ELBS edition first published 1988 ISBN 0 582 02701 2 Printed and bound in Great Britain by William Clowes Ltd, Beccles and London ~~ see Contents Preface Acknowledgements Part 1 Terrigenous clastic rocks Part 2 Carbonate rocks Part 3 Other sedimentary rocks Appendix 1 Preparation of a thin section of a rock Appendix 2 Staininga thin section of a limestone Appendix 3. Preparation of a stained acetate peel of a limestone References Index Wi 100 101 102 Preface The study of rocks using thin sections and a petrographic microscope was initiated by Henry Clifton Sorby in the middle ofthe nineteenth ‘century and the frst rocks he described were silcified limestones from the Jurassic in Yorkshire. This work was published in 1881. His presidential address to the Geological Society of London in 1879 was Entitled °On the structure and origin of limestones’ and Sorby had a series of plates, made from camera cida dravsings, reproduced for private circulation of his address, These ilystrated the microscopic characteristics of hmestones from through ‘al record and amounted to the frst potro= with copies of the Lex out the British geolo sraphic atlas, Despite the pertinence of Sorby's work, much of which is sill valid today, Few people recognized its importance at the time. While the petrographic study of igneous and metamorphic rocks became increasingly important, that of sedimentary rocks languished until into the present century. Since about 1950, with much geological research directed towards the search for oil and gas trapped in the pore-spaces of sedimentary rocks, sedimentary petrouraphy has become one of the most important fields of geology and forms a key part of most undergraduate courses, The aim of this book is therefore similar to that of the previously published tia of igneous rocks ad thelr textures, in that its designed fo be a laboratory handbook for the student beginning 8 study of sedimentary rocks in thin section, whether he or she is an amateur or ‘an undergraduate, Only a basic knowledge of mineralogy and palacon logy While we make no claim that the book is comprehensive, we have tried to include photographs of most of the ‘components of sedimentary rocks encountered in thin sections during an undergraduate course in geol The book isin three parts. Part | deals with the terrigenous clastic rocks and concentrates on sandstones, sine the petrographic micro: Scope is most usefully employed with rocks of this grain size. We have attempted to show the common detrital components of sandsiones.and the range of rock types occurring, without becoming involved in details ofthe many classifications which exist Part book, This is because to the newcomer to carbonate petrology limestones contain a bewildering varity of grain types. The bioclasts in particular show such variation in shape and structure that it has been dificult to know what to leave out. We have atlempted to show the range of common bioclast types while realizing that this section of the book eannot be compr mits of the number of photographs which seareable to reproduce, Most ofthe photographs ff limestones are from {thin sections and acetate peels. The Staining aids identification of minerals and textures and also makes tractive to study, The reader examining a collection ‘of unstained sections of carbonate rocks should still find the photo- graphs and tex n identifying Photographs of unstained limestone sections are included throughout ‘remind the reader what untreated material looks like Part 3 ronstones, cherts, evaporites, phosphorites and ‘deals with the earbonate racks and is the longest seetion i the useful arin iypes and textures, carbonaceous roeksin thin section, We hope the section on evaparites willbe of ps some minerals are rare ticular interest, as published colour photomicrographs of Three appendices are included. Appendix 1 is a slightly modified form of theappendix inthe Ailas of igneous rocks and their rexsures and describes how a thin section may be made. Appendix 2 describes « Timestones and Appendix contains instructions on how to make acetate peels Throughout the book we have tried to keep the text descriptive and toavoid details of interpretation, However, has proved impossible to 85, particularly with the carbonate rocks wliere identification of grains and textures goes hand in hand with an interpretation of their origin. We have attempted to show typical material rather than pacticularly good examples of any (eature ilusirated, Extensive cross-referencing is given to help the reader i finding other photographs of similar phenomena Inevitably the bulk of the illustrated material comes from the Brit Isles; we belicve however that iis representative of sedimentary rocks, the world over Finally, we must repeat the cautionary note in the preface to Alas of Jgnecus rocks and their textures, This book isa laboratory handbook to dassist in the study of sedimentary rocks in thin seetion, There is 90 Substitute forthe student examining material under the microscope for 1 herselFand we h students to make method of staining thin sections of pe this book will encour Acknowledgements Although this book is based on thin scetions and acetate pe the teaching collections of the Department of Geology, University of Manchester, t would not have been possible without the generous loan of material from the research collections of many colleagues, We are particularly indebted to Professor Sir Frederick Stewart who loaned ‘much ofthe material for the evaporites section. Weare grateul to Drs. J.M. Anketell, P. Gutteridge, J. Kantorowicz, J. F, Pollard. A. T.S. Ramsay, K. Schofield, Mr R. D. Vaughan and Professor E, K, Walton allof whom loaned material and made suggestions or comments on the ‘manuscript, We would also like to thank Professor J. B. Dawson for permission to include a photograph of one of Sorby’s thin seetions From the collection held at Shefield University We wish to thank Patrica Crook for her patient typing of various versions of the text and Phil Stubley for drafting the originals of the ‘iaurams, Finally we wish to acknowledge the help given to vs by al the staff of the Longman Group. We acknowledge permission [rom Springer Verlag and Professor F J. Pettjohn to reproduce Figs. Aand D,and the American Association of Petroleum Geologisis for Figs. E and F and Tables 3 and 4 Part | Terrigenous clastic rocks Terrigenous clastic rocks Introduction Tetrigenous clastic sediments are made up of transported fragments Table 1. Grain-size classification of sediments Jerived from the weathering of pre-existing igneous, sedimentary oF melamoephic rocks. These rocks are classed ntialy according to | simammm | Clas term Grain sie ems fork train sire sxing the Uden-Wentworth seal (Table 1) Boundary itis those trigenous sediments of intermediate grain sie — the - cous silistones, sandstones and finer conglomerates and breccias ous that are most usefully studied using the petrographic microscope, sin aos smudite the grain types can be identified by this means. The princip 4, ane rudaceous rock component grain types are quartz, feldspar and rock fragments. The | °!————T nw “al conglomerate mattx of such sediments may be te fine-grained weathering products. | — 4 bree af the soure rocks, sich a lay sincrals, ort may be a secondary anes Clays and shales are too fine-grained for study using the petro 9 cane snd graphic miroscope and must be examined by electron microscopy or | 1 X-ray diffraction, The components of coarser conglomerates and ne breccias can usually be identified with the aid of only a hand Jens, 0.544) : — « The shape and roundnes of the components of trrigenous clastic | 59 = eee rocks are important in describing sedimentary textures. Categories of J 92541 a. nobis roundness for grains of high and low sphercty are shown in Fit. A. | 9 as Sedimentary textures are discussed on p28 vy fw ad 00625) 9) TV pedi sik arpilite Tne it fatale 007% mudrsk vey fit a » lay ‘layst ins 5. Wellrounded | 4 Rounded | 3. Subrounded | 2. Subangular 1. Angular Very angular] Lionas Terrigenous clastic rocks Quartz Contains opaque iton oxide and some calcite. Shows high-order pink and green interference Dand 2: Red Mountain Format Alabama, USA: maj 3 348 Tervigenous elastic racks Quartz (continued) The three rounded grains in the centre of Sand 4 are made Terrigenous elastic rocks 6.7.8 Quartz (continued) ‘The quartz grain in the centre of the field of view in 6 appears to be single homogencous crystal. In 7 however where the same field of view is seen under crossed polars, the quart grain is clearly made up of parts of two crystals. One, cromprising the upper let portion of the nim is shosbing a mid-grey interference colour, whereas the rest of the grain comprises a crystal with areas showing slightly diferent interference colours. The lefi= and right-hand sides are in extinction and interference Colours become progressively paler towards the contre of the grain, Such a grain would show sweeping extinction when related, This phenomenon, known as undulose extinction, 18 @ result of sirain and is found in quartz trains from both igneous and metamorphic sources ‘Quartz crystals may sometimes incorporate mineral inclusions and identification of the minerals may yield information about the provenance of the sediment The quartz grain in the centre of 6and 7 has a number of needie-shaped inclusions, although they are too small for the mineral to be identified at the magnification shown. Inelusions of the fu present a the time of erystallization are common in quartz erystals and are known as fluid inclusions ot vacuoles, ® shows @ quartz grain with abundant vacuoles, These appear as dark specks, and in the sample illustrated, many are concentrated in lines running ata low angle 1 the length of the picture, Quartz ‘with abundant vacuoles is usually derived from a source of low-temperature origin, sich as a hydrothermal vein, ‘and appears milky-white in a hand specimen. the photo- graph also shows a green mineral inthe matrix around the ‘quartz grain, which is chlorite 6 and 7: locality amd age unknown: magnification PPL, 7 NPL 8: Coal Measures, Upper Carboniferous, Lancashire England; magnification x Undulose extinction can al 9,10 Terrigenous elastic rocks Feldspar Feldspars are a major constituent of many sandstones rnd conglomerates. Alkali feldspars are more common than caleic plagioclase, partly because they are more resistant to chemical weathering, and partly because the ultimate source of many terrigenous rocks is granite or ineiss, rocks in which the feldspars are mainly’ the alkali varieties. The chemical weathering of feldspars may be ‘micas and clay minerals. Therefore pid, prod feldspars are most abundant and best preserved in rocks serived from mechanical weathering, The identification ‘of feldspars in thin section is straightforward in the ease of multipl-twinned grains of plagioclase or microcline, or ‘where perthitic textures are present. Distinguishing be teen tntwinned orthoclase and quartz can be dificult The following features may help: 1, Alteration ~ because orthockase is more susceptible to ‘chemical weathering than quartz, itis often cloudy c brown-coloured in PPL, whereas quartz is usually clear 2R but higher than that of Canada balsam, whereas the index of orthoelase is always lower than balsa 3. Interference figure — orthoclase is biaxial with moderate 2 V. qui al unless strained. 9 and 10 show a | wdentifed by the twinning inthe pk crossed, The grain shows a combinal twins which are probably Carlsbad (simple twin) and Ibite (multiple winning), The cloudiness seen in PPL is tauised by patchy alteration of the feldspar. The hi bircfringent, fine-grained ctive Index ~ the index of quartz is very close t, grain which is easily 9 and 10: Caban Conglomerane, Situran, Rhayader Wales: magnication x 25:9 PPL 10 XPL Terrigenous clastic rocks 18 Feldspar (continued) 11 and 12 show a pebble-sized fragment composed a intrely of mierocline, Mieroeline can be identified by the cross-hatched twinning which i€ invanably Although the microcline shows litle alteration, feldspar ns inthe upper left, including multiple-twinned plagioclase. are brownish coloured as a result of alter ition. In contrast, the quartz in the upper right is d unaltered, perthitic intergrowths. co of sodium-rich feldspar in potassium: Fick feldspar, are not uncommon in sediments. 13 and 14 sized f of perthite. Most and the matris ‘sin (upper trystale are also visible inthe field of view Feldspar (continued) Feldspars are also shown in 54,58, $8, 59, 64 and 68, Terrigenous clastic rocks 17,1819 Rock fragments Rock fragments, in particular metamorphic rock frag ments, afe important contributors to) many detrital 8 show a sediment with many rock fragments, entre of the photograph above ‘up of fine-g morphic rocks are nent of muscovite beating quartz-rich Jakes show a pre ferential alignment resulting in a schistose texture. Such fragments are sometimes classified as schistase quartz E rather than metamorphic rock fragments. Sedimentary rock fragments, other than chert, are relatively uncommon in terrigenous sedimentary rocks hecause they’ usually bre fairly easily into their eomponent grains, 21 and 22 show a large sandstone int. Note that although the component particles nll quai they are clealy distinguishable even with This contrasts with the composite quartz grain B shown in 3 anda, where individual crystals re not vis in PPL. The photograph taken with XPL shows that individual quartz grains are separated by a cement 1 colours. This is likely to be clay 20, 21,22 Terrigenous clastic rocks Rock fragments (continued) 17 and 18: Caban Co Wales: magnification x2 19 and 20° Cabann Con Siturian, Rhayader, Wales: magnification 20 XPL. 21 and 22° Arenig Conglomerate, Rhosneigr, Anglesey Wales; magnification » 16:21 PPL, 22 XPL Silurian, Rhayader IB NPL Terrigenous clastic rocks Rock fragments (continued) The variety of igneous rock fragments found in sediments sss great as the variety of ick of space prevents the sxamiples, Reference to the ‘may assist inthe identification of Tr le in earth surface n. making identifica lasio fe and polyerysalline he whole rock contains bieefting fringence, The lower part of the ined by a coarse-grained be alkali feldspar, altho Jn in sedimentary conglomerate in whieh the large rounded fragments are chert. The view 26,27, 28 Terrigenows clastic racks Rock fragments (continued) taken with crossed polars shows that the fragments are made Small frigments of ehert can be dificult 0 distinguish Fock although the latter ple illustrated vartz(micro-quart, p. 82), 29,30 Micas ‘Terrigenous clastic rocks Micas rarely form more than a few pe terrigenous sediment, even though the A spicuous in hand specimens. Muscovite than biotite sine itis more resistant (0 We souree is usually 4 granitic oF schistose ro show « typical micaceous sandstone, Not ‘alignment of the muscovite flakes and the ‘at a particular level. This indicates the bedding. The thin section has been positioned to show the second-order interference colours of the muscovite. Ifthe thin section was shown with the bedding horizontal, the muscovite Makes would be at extinction 29 und 30:7 Inugnificarion (Other micas are shown in 68 and 69. s, Silurian, Llangadog, Dyfed. Wales WO XPL Clay minerals Clay minerals form a significant fraction of sandstones, and are the major constitu nts of argillaceous rocks. They be detrital or authigenic, However, since they cannot be readily identified using an ordinary light microscope but are studied by use ofthe electron microscope and by X-ray diffraction, they are not considered in detail here. Clay minerals ean be seen in plates 22-24, 48, 46, 62-67 Terrigenous clastic rocks 16 Tervigenous elastic racks 31,32 Chlorite The sheet silicate mineral chlorite, is abundant in sedi mentary rocks. Tt-may oceur as detrital Makes, usualy 31 and 32 Ordovician, Llangranog, Dyfed, Wale 72,41 PPL, BD XPL Chlorite is shown also in 8, $8 and 39 Tervigenous clastic racks Glauconite Glauconite is a hydrous potassium iron alumino-siies mineral which forms exclusively in marine environment usually in fairly shallow waters, It commonly pellets which are Mand M4 show a aun 1eourse sandstone, The ghaue a the photograph taken in plane-polarised or brownish-green colour. Th 43 and 34: Lower Greensand, Lower Cretaceous Folkestone, England: magnification x 22: 32 PPL, 46 XPL Co. Anion, Northern Ireland: PP town also tm 244 and 215, Terrigenous elastic rocks 8 Sandstones — Matrix and cement ©n deposition, many sandstones contain litle sediment, mairis between the component grains. Some terrigenous mud may be deposited with the grains and those sed ments with more than 15% clay matrix are classified as, greywackes (62-67). A few sandstones have a matrix of carbonate mud, 36 and 37 show a sediment containing, large, rounded quartz rains together with smaller, subangularto subrounded grains in fine-grained matcix relict. In the XPL photogr interference colours, characteristic of ea This sample is a sandstone with a carbonate mul matrix, which was probably deposited at the same time as the rains, rather than being introduced later as a cement ‘Cementation isthe principal process leading to potose ity reduetion in sandstones, the most common cements 8 quartz, calcite and clay minerals. Clay mineral coatings on component grain surfaces are important i the diagenesis of sediments, in that they may inhibit the rowth ef poresilling quartz or caleite cements. Such (extures require the use of the electron microscope for detailed study. 38 and 39 show a highly porous sandstone with sounded qua” grains. The speckled areas which appear black in the XPL photograph are pores filled with the mounting medium. Although comprising a loose fabric of trains, the sandstone is wellcemented by secondary (authigenie) quart in the form of oversrowths on the dltrital grains. The surfaces of the original grains are picked out hy a thin red-brown rim of iton oxide. Since hoth the overgrowth and the detrital cores ofeach grain show uniform interference colours, itis clear that the ‘overgrovths grew in optical eontinuity with the grains on which they nucleated, Note that where overgrowths are well-developed. the overall shape of the grains has Changed from rounded to subhedral. A good example of ‘euhedral erystl terminations can be seen near the top of the photograph on the right-hand side. ‘Caleite comenisin sandstones are usually fairly coarse ed (sparite p. 34). Occasionally they are so coarse one cement erystal envelopes many detetal grains resulting in a poikiltc texture, 40 and 41 show a sandstone in which the detrital grains are subangular to subrounded quartz. The eement is calcite of such a grain Siae that there are only a few crystals in the field of view shown, Individual cement erystals can be distinguished in the XPL photograph by their slightly different inter- ference colours (high-order grey an pink). 38, 40, 41 Terrigenows clastic rocks Sandstones — Matrix and cement (continued) Cements (continued) 42 shows a high magnification view of a fine sandstone ‘which contains both quartz and calcite cements. The quartz ezment isin the form of overgrowths on detrital s the euhedral terminations seen imples can be seen just above the 3h). Unlike the quartz in the Simple in 38 and 39, the shape of the original detrital not visibie where overgrowths are present fent postdates the quartz overgrowths and ‘The thin section has been stained with Slizarin Red S and potassium ferricyanide (se p. 34) and the caleite isa very pale mauve colour because it contains 3 and 44 show a fine sandstone which is cemented by ly the same bireftn: {show up wel inthe XPL reli of the ‘gypsum coment crystals enclose Several detrital grains. One showing pale grey interference Coloursin the XPL view occupies the upper left part ofthe photograph: seousie, Yor, etn Sa and 44s Cretaceous, Tinisia: magnification x 2; 43 PPL. 44 XPL 48,46 Tetrigenous clastic rocks Cements (continued) 4S.nd 46 show a quartz sandstone at high magnification. Note the mica fake in the centre ofthe photograph. field of view shown many thus black in the XPL ns and mica flake in the ded by numerous smal showing first order carboniferous, Fifeshire, Scotland: 5 PPL. 46 XPL Terrigenous clastic rocks show signs of compaction. Since most of the in sandstone are rigid, there is usually litle or grain fracture and breakage (cf. limestone luron. This. is the process whereby a sediment under load is subject to selective solution, the penstaich of one arta by Where pressure-solution is more intense, the contacts between. grains sandstone in whiel alse oF press ction (geelusion) of pore an be seen, the result isu texture in which the 1 grain boundaries can no longer be identified. The sample illustrated is particularly unusual in that @ thin ormica separates the sutured quartz grains. It relic than the quartz and i clearly visible in PPL.. This thin zone of hy relative to thei neighbours, ibility to the sandstone, demon- pecimens. Sandstones of this type are le sandstones or tracolumites and ate cexiremely rare 47: New Red Sandstone, Triassic, Cheshire, England: 5, PPL 48 und 49. Tacolumite, Brasil: magnification 31. 48 PPL. AD XPL Grain solution and replacement mounting medivin has been iny a dye so that the pores appear mauve-coloured. Note that the “ommon porosity types p. 65) and in with examples from Many of the terms are equally applicable to rented by a few large ‘order interference in the XPL. photo 2 both, monocry 1 quartz, are coated with a thin ‘The texture of the rock is areas of calcite outlined coriginal grains. A on oxide being in example can be Brixham, Devon Bngland: magnification x 43: $1 PPL, 82 XPL. 50, 51, 52 ‘Terrigenous elastic rocks Terrigenous clas Sandstone classification Modern sandstone classifications require th estimation ofthe propor tions of the principal grain types and thus thin section study is required ‘OF the different sandstone classifications propo widely-used example, that of Folk (1974). Figure B shows the classification oF those rocks containing less than 15% fine-s matrix in terms of the three principal components; quartz, leldspar {plus granite and gneiss fragments) and other rock fragments. Those amtaining more than 15% fine-grained matrix are the ind are subdivided aceording to Fig, C. We refer readers to Pett john (1975) for details of other sandstone classifications and for theclasiication of eonglomerates and mudrocks, where studies using sined a a6/X subariose 2°/]\_— sui itharente gs \ Te (Feldepar + granite tattomer sedimentary RE Volcanic Metamorphic RF RF Fig. B Classification of sandstones. The upper triangle shows a sandstone classification for sediments with less than 7 ous Pe warrock rispune TS srwacke ‘reywacke LS vy Feldspar 1 Rock fragments Py Sediment maturity There are wo types of sediment maturity Mineralogically mature sediments are thos tion of the m minerals such as qu ‘mineralogical and vexturl ‘ontaining a high propor stable and- most physically resistant stable heavy minerals, such as zircon and tourmaline. Mineralogically immature sediments contain the less stable tins, such as feldspars, and those rack fra consisting principally of quactz The textural maturity of a sediment depends on the content of fine- rained material, the sorting and the roundness ofthe grains, A scale ‘of textural maturity proposed by Falk (1951) is presented below. Diagrams illustrating visual estimation of sorting sediments using thin sections are shown in Fig, D. Poorly-sorted etions (after Pesifohn et al., 1973, 53,54, 55 “Terrigenous elastic tocks Quartz arenite, arkose Terrigenous clastic rocks 56, 57.58 Litharenites Litharenites are sandstones with less than 95% quartz nd more rock fragments than feldspar. They may be classed according to whether the rock fragments are jominantly sedimentary, volcanic or metamorphic z. Bp. 24) sow a sedarenite, in which the fragments are from carbonate rocks. The fine-grained fragment just hove the centre is from dolomite rock, Exai limestone fragments can be seen in the lower ri quadrant, The sediment also contains monoc {quartz and echinoderm plates. The latter are the speckled rains with uniform interference colours (seep. 4). In umple the echinoderms are ne and are not fragments show a mineralogi consisting mainly of igneous ro lly immature sediment fragments cemented by pale brown chlorite. The clear areasiin the view taken with PPL show high-order interference colours under erossed ‘ in types 18 Many of the ‘phenocrysts of clase laths and porphyritic texture of the lente source rock and thus the sediment isa nite, Such an igmatuze sediment Would be ( its souree rock and itis, perhaps, locally reworked pyroclastic rock 60 and 61 show quartz, The remaining Thence the sediment m The rock fragments a metasedimentary rocks, 59, 60, 61 Litharenites (continued) a Terrigenous elastic rocks 62,63, 64 Greywackes re those sandstones containing more than ined matrix, Their classification is shown in 24) nd polyerystalline quartz grains, but a small percentage ints (cloudy particles of fine-grained ‘Feldspars includ’ plagioclase with multiple winning and par. The sediment is thus lasifed as xs isan igneous rock [ragme { amphibole. The amphibs ‘absorption colour and its sat 120", Smaller fine-grained rock frag: ments and individual Ferro-magnesian mineral grains are also present Terrigenous clastic rocks Greywackes (continued) Man, Dyfed, Wales 68, 69 Siltstones Siltstones are those terrigenous sediments in which the majority of the grains are between yj and fy mm in silistone (notice that the magnification is higher than that fof most of the previous photographs) with abundant quartz grains and thin mica flakes. The micas include both muscovite (colourless) and biotite (yellow oF brown). Museovite is more abundant and shows second: ‘order interference colours, seen in XPL. The sediment is ‘cemented by calcite, showing high relief in PPL and high: order interference colours with polars crossed, 658 and 69: Age and locality unknown; magnification x 72, {68 PPL, 69 NPL 0,71 Siltstones (continued) Many siltstones show small-scale sedimentary structures. 7 shows a laminated siltstone, the laminae being defined by changes in grain size, The dark layers, seen near the base ofthe photograph, are composed almost entirely of| clay-sized material, whereas the band just above the contre is composed of clear fine sand-sized quartz. The photograph also shows graded layers (below and above the coarse band). The fining-upwards gradings shown by ‘decrease in the clear quartz material and an increase in the dark-coloured clay 71 shows a siltstone in which ripple eross-lamination can be seen, indicating a flow from right to lef, as seen in the picture, The ripple structure is picked out by the alternation of dark clay-rich and pale clay-poor laminae 70: Coal Measures, Upper Carboniferous, Lancashire England: magnification x18, PPI. 71> Ashgillian, Llangranog, Dyfed, Wales; magnific tion x 9, PPL ‘Terrigenous clastic rocks ET Part 2 Carbonate rocks Carbonate rocks Introduction Unlike terrigenous sediments, carbonate rocks mprise: mate sen the two minerals. Results of the e ‘cumulation ofthe sediment. process are shown in Table 2. Much of the material is produced by biological processes. Two Appendix 2 atbonate minerals are common in older lime aicite, CaCO, ‘The inlensity of the stain colour is partly related to the intensity of and dolomite, CaMg(CO,)s. In recent shallow marine carbonate the etching with acid. Fine-grained erystal fabrics with many erystal ironic, also CaCO,,isabundant. However, it boundaries etch more rapidly and thus show deeper stain colours than fhe normal conditions prevailing in sediments and course crystal labrics with few crystal bound is usually dissolved once a limestone is exposed to circulating meteoric Stain colours are particularly welk-llustrated in 100, 124, 131, 161 ay invert dircetly to calcite, Dolomite is and 168. normally a secondary mineral replacing ealeium carbonate, although Other stains have heen used ta distinguish between aragonite and itmay form in sediments very soon alter their deposition, B and dolomite may conta roan is used bef wvenin books on Carver (197 the mineral name Carbonate rocks may also be examined using acetate peels, These The optical properties of calcite and dolomite are similar and record an impression of an eiched rock surface (which also may be therefore they can be difficult to distinguish optically. Simple chemical stained) on a thin sheet of acetate film. Acetate peels have’ th ining cchnigues are often employed by carbonate sedimentologists advantage of being cheap and casy to make, but because they are » distinguish ealeite from dolomite and to distinguish ferroan from isotropic. minerals cannot be identified by opti ferroan minerals, Felic! and birefringence. Details of the procedure The dye Alizarin Red Sis wsed to differentiate caleite and dolomite, peels are given in Appendix 3 whereas potassium fi leis used to differentiate ferroan and no erroan minerals, The dyes are dissolved in a weak acid solution, This also helps to distinguish dolomite From ca react with cok dilute aciel whereas calcite doe I properties, such as or making acetate Components The three most important components of carbonate rocks are altochem 1 calcite, and sparry calcite 5) 1. Allochemical components or allocems, are organized aggregates Mioral | Eet of Stun Stan [Combed | 1 CrCarbonate sediment which have formed. within the basin of eehinn emer | ee | deposition ‘They include ooids, Biclats, peloids,intracasts and teas [fewiyanae roids and are considered in detail nthe following scion 7210 . |, am pee Cant, (ee ” Bac Microcrystalline calcite or micriteis carbonate sediment in the form _— wsition, either as @ precipitate from seawater or from the ‘Solem |Consider- | Pink 1 Mauve to yration of the hard parts of organisms, such reen algae. |rsieoen | pening on although strictly mud includes material of elay- and sil-size (up to vopconiens 62m). Micrite is illustrated in 84, 89. 111 and 187. mrarom)|et | i duumcter Much of coarse. with erystals commonly upto mm maintained) | in size. IL is usually @ pore-filling cement and thus may form in. Dolomite Nowe JV (ter deposition ofthe orginal allochems and (eroun) mich trated in 73-8, Hadad 13 | T Jassification of limestones involves the identification of | allochets and estimation of the proportions of micrite and sparite see | p62) Carbonate rocks pherical or ellipsoidal grains, having and eon itic_earbonate ids, from those 7 Sua thin section, Upper Jurassie, Cap Rhir, PL Carbonate rocks 15,16,77 Peloids and Intraclasts [A large proportion of the allochems in limestones are trains composed pactly or entirely of micrte, but having heir outermost zones. Various Jassify these grains and most rho coneenttic laminae i terms have been used depend on an inte Thos recognizable internal ws @ limestone in ‘Such peloids recalled pellets. The trace of internal structure although its nature ea not be identified In the lower part of the photograph are fs, and midway up the right ‘of the dasycladaccan alga 3). Roth echinoderms and al placement by micrite around th eis probable that the 1 mieritzation of bioclast, ‘an oneoid (see p. 3 sharp contact sith ion (See p. $4), His therefore likely that itis a Tocally-reworked sediment, the brachiopod shell having once been ineorporated in a fine-grained, Sediment which was later eroded to produce intraclats 75: Stained thin section, Upper Jurassic, Cap Rh mn 33, PPL tion, Woo Dale Limestone, Lower sale, Derbyshire, England: magni 36 — tM 78,79, 80, Aggregate grains and lithoclasts 78 and 79 show aggregate grains. These are made up of irregular aggregates of a small number of recognizable pariicles cemented together by micrite or fine sparite. 78 shows the Bota form type of these agrees ‘component particles include ooids (the grain right of as well as peloids and a few bioelasts. These es are similar t0 the grapestones of modern environments, where particles become Cemented om the sea-floor in areas of low sedimentation rate. The opaque material in the top eenteeis bitumen (see 160), 79 shows li than botry ether completely envelopes them, and is more important volumetrically than the cement tro the ais shown in 78 is uy th mmicrte with a little sparite and som 4 Lithoclasts or extraclasts ate eroded fragments off lhfied sediment which have been transported and eleposited. 80 shows lithoclasis which are made up of ented by very pale pink-st Note the truncation of the lithoclast margins, indie reworking of lithiied sediment, The equant sparite ce ment within the lithoelasts is typical of precipitation from meteoric waters ¢p. $5), so these Ir of a limestone which environment of deposition of the lthoctasts, nor in the final ‘deposition, ofthe elass themselves, They are, in fact, fragments of a Carboniferous Limestone reworked during the Jurassic. The final eement is Iilae-stained, coarse ferroan calcite Lower cl muse thin section, Bee Low Lim Windy Knoll, Derbyshire PL. 18: Stained thin secton. Ouanamane Formation, Middl Jurassic, Ait Chebrud, Wester High Atlas, Morocco, Inaemiication x 14, PP 0: thin section, Sutton Stone, Lower Jurassic Ogmoresby-Sea, South Wales; magnification x 23. PPL Carbonate rocks 81,82, 83, § Pisoids and Oncoids menclature of earbonate grains which are larger than 2mm in diameter and have an outer layer with concentric laminae, depends to 4 certain extent on an imerpretation of their origin. Thus the term pisoid or pisolith usually refers to 19 have formed Ty, usually in a subaerial environment. On the d, oncoids, oF ancolths, are presumed to be genie, blue-green ulgac on the grain surfaces, trapping and binding fine sediment particles. ‘81 is photograph ofa polished rock surface showing fonvoids, Note the size of the grains, the asymmetrical rowth and the wavy nature of many of the tres characteristic of oncoids, The blush-grey areas parry caleite and the orange-brown areas are stained with iron oxides. '82 and 83 show concentrcally-laminated grains whose origins are more difficult to interpret, #2 shows grains ‘which are about 2 mm in diameter. The outer surtaces are jooth as most ooids, although the concentric nis very regular. Grainsin the upper right show irregular outer coats of micrite and some particles have $y grown together to form compound grains (¢. his latter features unlikely to eur in ooids, (ed earbonate laminae are formed while the graimis held in suspension. These grains are therefore imerpreted as oncoids, The cement is sparite. This photograph is ofa thin section made by Sorby in 1849 and Hlustrates the high quality of his sections. ins with a regular, well-defined concentric ins up to Smm in diameter. Thisis typical fowth and these grains may be pisoids team be seen towards the top right of the photograph BE: Potisied surface, Llanelly Formation, Lower Carbo hiferous, Blaen Onnew, South Wales: magnificaion x 18. 82: Unstained thin section, Wenlock Limestone, Sitarian, Malvern Hills, England: magnification = 13. PPL 83. Stained thin section, Lower Jurassic, Greece; mugnif ation x 11, PPL Skeletal particles (Bioclasts) Introduction Skeletal particles, oF bioclasts, a © the remains, complete oF frag. ecreling organisms. There is such a variety in the mineralogy. structure and shape of skeletal material that Several books could be writien on this subject alone, When trying to identify bioclasts, the following features should be mented, of the hard parts of earbor The internal wall structure of the particle, Many structures are more easily visible with polars crossed than in plane polarized light iis important to distinguish those bioclasts which were originally calcite and have well-preserved wall structures from those which ‘were originally aragon I stcucture modified or replaced during the alteration to caleite, nd have had their wi In this section we have attempted to show the diversity of skeletal struetures present in aneient limestones, concentrating on examples from groups which are particularly common or occur over a wide stratigraphic range, For more detailed descriptions and illustrations of skeletal particles readers are refereed 1o Majewske (1969), Horowitz and Potter (1971), Bathurst (1975) and Scholle (1978), Carbonate rocks 2» Carbonate rocks 84, 85, 86 Bioclasts Molluses Bivalves and gastropods are common components of limestones. Most were made 0 although uring diagenesis leaving a filled with a sparite cement, There are, however, import- ant molluscan groups which had a caeite shell, especially among the bivalves, and these have well-preserved wall ‘$4 shows a limestone with abundant mollusean casts Inthis case shell moulds have been infiled witha few large calcite erystals. Gastropods ean be seen, both in long jon (lower right) and transverse section (lower Ie Tong straight shells are bivalve fragments. C jon shows that the Tong valves in the upper left havea two-layer structure a thick layer of coarse sparite ‘anda thin layer with a different structure. This latter ayer may have been ealeite originally, indicating that the frganisin had & mixed atagonite/calete skeleton, The rock mattis is mieritie sediment 85 shows a limestone made up ulmost enttely of rounded bivalve fragments preserved as casts. The shape Of the fragments is shown by the thin mierite rims on the margins of the These are micrite envelopes and formed by micrization by endolithic algae (p. 54). The cement infilling the bivalves and between the shells is a fine sparite, initially pink-stained non-ferroan ealeite, but becoming ferroan towards the centres of pore-spaces as indicated by the bluish staining Ro illustrates « section through large thick-shelled ropod, er margin of the shell ot more than 0.5mm thick at this magnification, but the inner sat has partially filled the hell contains ims internal cavity, The sediment around the abundant stall peloids ained thin section, Evam Limestone, Lower Carbo: us, Ricklow Quarry, Derbyshire, England; magni 13, PPL ained thin section, Upper Jurassic, Dorset, England: nagnification x 14, PPL {86° Stained acenate peel. Martin Limestone, Lower Carbo: hiferous. Millom, Cumbria, England; magnification 7 per 40 Bioclasts Molluses. (continued) aphs on this page illustrate bivalves wich were entirely or partly caleite The oysters ate one of the most important groups of cakitc bivalves, 87 shows two large pink-stained oyster fragments, each having a foliated aternal structure Fragments of oysters may be difficult to distinguish from brachiopods, although their thick shells with a rather inregular foliated structure are characteristic. Note also hhow the left-hand end of the upper fragment is upturned ang splitting. The rest ofthe sediment eomprises broken: Lup bioclasts set in @ blue-stained ferroan calcite cement. ‘The white areas are holes in the section, Some bivalves have a thick prismatic layer the prisms being elongated at right angles to the shell wal, 88 shows a fragment of the common Mesozoic bivalve Jnoceramnus (tight) The shell s sectioned more ot less parallel to its length and hence the prisms are seen in cross-section. Individual prismatic erystals break away easily from the Shell and inthis example most of the sediment is composed of these crystals, seen in various sections, 89 shows examples of hin bivalve shells known as filaments, These ae the valves of planktonic bivalves and s-common in Mesozoie pelagic limestones. The micttic Sediment between the shells contains small circular of spurte. These are probably calete casts ofthe sil microfossils, adiolaria (p. 82). WF Stained thin section, Inferior Oalite, Middle Jurassic Leckhanpion Hill, Gloucestershire, England: magmic ation x8, PPL WM: Stained thin section, Upper Cretaccous, Strathaird Skye, Scouland; magnification x 14, PPL 89: Stained thin section, Triassic, Greece: magnifi ion 16, PPL Other moliuses are shown th 1OS, 124, 138, 136, 143, 153, 16 and 159. 87, 88, 89 Carbonate rocks a Carbonate rocks 90,91, 92 Bioclasts Brachiopods raleiteand so their shell structures are well ‘brachiopods have a thick inner layer of ealeite ie to the shell wall A thin outer prismatic layer may be '90 shows a broken brachiopod of which pai valves are present and surrounded by a mictt (p. 34) The fibrous structure is clearly visible, as are fine tubes at right angles tothe shell wall, filled with blue- crize some groups of bra example of coarse, blue-stained ‘aleite cemer hows two large fragments of pseudopunctate brax ehiopads, In these, the fibrous wall siructure is inte J rupted, not by open tubes but by caleite rods, The ltt hand fragment shows the pseudopunctae sectioned par: silel to their length, Note the wavy m: adjacent to the pseudopunctae, The right-hand fragmen isa section of shell showing the pseudopunctae in cross- ‘92 illustrates a brachiopod fragment with srpreserved. The foliated nature of 11 shown. The art ofa ribbed sh impunctate, lacking either endopuretae or pseudopunc- toe. ‘These factors in_an Upper Jurassic brachiopod indicate that itis part ofa ehynchonellid. The fine-grained faleite matrix contains abundant colourless fine sand: and siltsize quartz 90: Stained thin section, Inferior Oolite, Middle Jurassic pion. Hill, Gloucestershire, England: magnific " section, Monsat Dale Limestone, Lower Carboniferous, Cressbraok Dale, Derbyshire, England magnification x 16, PPL 92" Stained thin section, Upper Jurassic. Jebel Amsitton, Morocco: magnification x 40, PPL 2 Bioclasts Brachiopods (continued) 93 shows. number of small impunetate brachiopods with the pedicle valve and smaller brachial valve The roughly elliptical fr netlke structure Some spiriferoid and pentameroid brachiopod shells in inner layer composed of caeite prisms aligned at lesto the length ofthe shell. In this case the outer foliated and prismatic la ness. 94 shows two large shell fragments with a thick inner prismatic layer. One is below the vent view. I other 3s contains brachiopod fragments with the more normal foliated structure in a matrix of fine sparite, probably of rneomorphic origin (see p. 60) containing grey-coloured cexystals of replacement dolomite Some pseudopunctate brachiopods possess. hollow spines. 95 shows hhave a structure similar t0 the P the outer prismatic layer preserved. Note how the shape ofthe spine gives the foliated layer a concentric structut longitudinal section through a brachiopod spine can be seen in the upper left-hand corner of 94 98: Stained a Inferous, Rick ftom «20, PP tae peel, Eyam Limestone, Lower Carbo~ we Quarry, Derbyshire, England: magnific Headstone Cutting, Derbyshire, England; magnif 27. PPL, 95: Stained thin section, Eyam Limestone, Lower Carbo inferous, Ricklow Quarry, Derbyshire, England; magnific tation «38, PPL Other brachiopods and brachiopod spines are shown in 77, 103,106, 120, 123 and 183. 93, 94, 98 Carbonate rocks Carbonate racks 96,97, 98 Bioclasts Echinoderms Echinoderms, particularly echinoids and crinoids, are major contributors to the allachemical fraction of marine limestones, They are easy to identify because they dlown into plates w tinction, They usua & speckled oF dusty ap- pearance as the result of infilling of the fine pores which permeate the pl ‘96 and 97 sho sediment is ne a red colour under erossed ‘arrounding some of the etinoid . The XPL photograph shows that the interference colour of this cement isthe same as the ‘adjacent crinotd fragment, Hence itis probable that the ptical continuity with the erinoid. Such mon in echinoderm-bearing sediments syrtaal rim cen le comprises. m strate bryozoans (9.57), The temain- sediment and ower right band Echinoid spines are widespread, particularly in Mesozoie and Cenozoic limestones. 98 shows one plete transverse section of @ Tight of together with a smaller broken fragment. Echinoid spines are circular ore neross-section and show a Variety of radial structures, Like other echinoderm frag iments, they are single erystal 2, Evam Limestone, Lower Quarry... Derbyshire nagnification «13; 96 PPL, 97 XPL 1, Cap Rhir, Moroceo ents are also shown in 73, 76, 78, 132, 178. 183 and 184. 4a Bioclasts Corals ce best identified by their overall morpholo se and labulate Palacozoie corals we F microstructures are well-preserved. The walls are usually fibrous and fragments. which lack evidence ofthe characteristic coral form can be difficult idemity 99 shows a transverse section and parts of two longi tudinal sectio coral Lithostver Note the thick outer wall and septa seen inthe transverse section, The columella and thin tabula are clearly visible in the longitudinal section, Parts of the coral walls have boon silicitied (hrownish colour), The pore-filling material is mainly sparite cement with some micritic sediment ben rallites 1 section through a tabulate coral, Note the corallite walls and thin tabulae but absence of other internal structures. The infil is sparite cement, initially non-ferroan_ealeite (pink-stained), but finally ferroan (blue-stained The Mesozoic and Cenozoic scleraetinian corals are jonite and hence their microstructure is not well-preserved in limestones. Scleractinian corals are Shown it 126, 144 and 143 composed wy: Date Limestone, Lower bys, England: mag ained thin section, Mons Carboniferous, Coombs Dale heaton x16, PPL 100: Stained thin section, Torquay Limestone, Devonian, Brisharn, Devon, England: magnification 16, PPL 99,100 Carbonate rocks 4 Carbonate rocks 101, 102, 103 Bioclasts Bryozoans Bryozoans are widespread in marine limestones and are particularly common in Palacozoic ref complexes. Most lite hard parts and a laminated wall structure is preserved, ‘Among the most characteristic bryozoans are the Irond-lke fenestrate types, examples of whieh are seen in wall of laminated calcite surrounding led pores (zooecia), Most of the fragments are sections but the large piece tothe lower left of centre is longitudinal section 102 is a transverse section of a stiekelike bryozoan colony, showing the overall rounded shape of the ‘stem’ find ofthe zooecia within, Some of eben infiled with fine sediment (upper rig ) but most have « blue-stained, feroat infil Tn 103, the two citcular, concentrically-laminated rains stained red-brown ate brachiopod spines. These are encrusted by @ bryozoan, Note the thick calcite wal of the bryozoan and the pores of different sizes within the Skeleton, filed with pink-stained non-ferroun calcite tement, Some fragments of Fenestrate bryozoans ean be Seen along the left-hand side ofthe photograph, 10K: Stained thin section, Exam Limesto niferous, Ricktow Quarry, Derbyshire ialon 1, PP U2 Stain J Lower Carbo ad: magnifc lt n section, Ouanamane Formation, M "m High Atlas, Morocco; un TOE Stained thin section, Red Hill Oottve. Elliscales Quarry, Dalton-in-Furness, Cupnbria, England: magnific tion «20, PPL Other bevzoans are shown in 96,997, 132, 133 and 178 Bioclasts Arthropods Ostracods ‘These photographs show examples of the arthropod ricrofossils, the ostracods, which are widespread part ularly in sediments deposited in brackish or hypersaline conditions. Ostracods have thin valves with a finely prismatic or granular microstructure 104 shows group of complete two-valved shells, some filled with sparite cement, some with micritic sediment and some with oth. Note the overlap of valves seen in Some sections — a characteristic feature of many ctracods 105 shows disarticulated ostracod valves (thin curved shells) associated with longer straight lengths of shell, Which are fragments of a calcitic non-marine bivalve, 104: Stained shin seetion, Red Hill Oolite, Loner Carbo: ryjerous, Ellscates Quarry, Dalton-in-Furess, Cumbria, England; magnification <0, PPL 105: Unstained thin section, Upper Carboniferous, Cob ridge Brickworks, Hanley, Staffordshire, England: mag nifieation x 18, PPL. Osrracods are shown also te V7, 19 and 136, Trilobites Trilobite hard parts were originally calcite and a finely granular microstructure is preserved. Each erystal isin a similar but not identical orientation to its neighbours, leading to sweeping extinction when the sample is rotat with the polars crossed (not illustrated here). 106shows.a cross-section of a rilobite (centre) and part ‘ofa brachiopod shell (base). Note the hooked shape seen atthe left-hand end ofthe trilobite fragment, produced by incurving of the skeleton at its margin. A ein of bluc- siained ferroan calcite follows the edge of the skeleton slong part of its Iength. Note that the trilobite is stained mauve and hence consists of slightly ferroan caleite. This contrasts with the brachiopod fragment which is non ferroan cali. In some racks itis thought that bioclasts originally comprising high magnesium calcite may be feplaced by ferroan calcite, whereas those of low may resium calcite remain unaffected. 106: Stained thin section, Wenlock Limestone, Silurian Fagland: magnification x 21, PPL 104, 108, 106 Carbonate rocks a Carbonate rocks 107, 108, 109) Bioclasts Foraminifera minilera are widespread in marine limestones, Most e, San Salvador, Majorca Greece: magnifi Upper Miocene, Cala Pi PPL — — 10,111 Carbonate rocks Bioclasts Foraminifera (continued) Carbonate rocks 112,113,114 50 Bioclasts Algae part of the skeleton beams skeletal calcareous algae, Tgp contributors. to carbonate. sediment Ihroughout the Phanerozoic and exhibit a wide diversiy of forms. Green algae are one of the most importa groups and the photographs on this page illustrate tne examples, one from each of the major groups, tbe Coditeeae, Dasyeladaceae and Charophyceae, For Halimeda, which still occurs toy ‘examples contain organic filaments embedded i aragonite. The example shown is froma pootly consolidated Quaternary sediment which hid to he Impregnated with resin before: i sd by the laments are the impregnaig medium. In this sample the Halimeda se resi aragonite, although the wall struct seen This magnification. Halimed n pork preserved because ofthe replacement of 13 shows wo typ sof microstructure durngth i by calcite of algae. The large fragment ith the honeycomb structure and walls of fine-grained cate fs the common Carboniferous dasyeladacean an Konin ypora. Several algal segments of dierent pe the Koninckopora. At the level ah we no discernible wall strut nd lance to echinoderm fragments a a fine fibrons wall structure and henee at le crystals, They may show branching and a fof Y-branching can be scen in the loverngi part of the photograph. These belong to a probleme roup, often referred to as ancestral coralline alge, ba sometimes classified with the foraminifera or stoma poroids The third ge although the ure freshwa alc, and usually only the reproductive parts (oy -shaped bodis vil aments. 114 shows thee oogonia in cog ied, These are sm 112: Stained acetate peel, Quaternary, Mombasa, Keyl magnification x 13, PPL 113: Stained thin section, Chee Tor Rock, Lover Ca niferous, Tunstead Quarry, Derbyshire, England: maga ication 17. PPL T4: Stained thi Jurassic, We ‘atom = $6, PI uel Belkar Formation, Ua jen High Atlas, Morocen magia 115, 116, 117 ‘Carbonate rocks Bioclasts Algae (continued) Many algae possess a central stem encased with calcium carbonate, through which filaments pass to the outside. TISshows numerous sections of such an alga in a brown- stained micrte matrix. Both longitudinal and transverse Sections are present. The transverse sections are roughly sirular or elliptical and the centres are infilled with hgrite sediment. Around the margins ofthe wall can be seen the holes formerly occupied by the filaments, now ‘ocupied by micrite sediment. Details ofthe wall structure have not heen preserved so the alga was probably aragonite, The longitudinal sections show that the centre ff the stem contains poorly-preserved casts of the algal filaments The red algae are important skeletal calcareous algae, ‘and one group, the coralline algae, are major con: tmbutors (0 sediments, including reefs, during. the Cenozoic. 116 shows a fragment of a coraline alga, with its characteristic reticulate appearance caused by thin imerite walls separating small, more or less rectangular, tell. The sparcilled holes within the skeleton, called onceptacles, are also characteristic. To the let of the ¢oralline alga can be seen part of « nummulitid foramini- fora, with its thick radial-ibrous wall The blue-green algae occur typically as long narrow filaments and only a few species become calcified. Girvan- lla illustrated in 117 is widespread and occurs over a long stratigraphic range. It is made up of bundles of arrow tubes about a millimetre in diameter at this ‘magnification, with a thin mierite wall, They ean be seen inlongitudinal section (e.g. upper part ofthe photograph) and transverse section (eg. lower right). The remainder of the sediment comprises a ew bioclasts (e.g. an ostraco, lower left) and a mixture of carbonate mud sediment and sparite cement, the latter being partly pink-stained, non ferroan calcite and partly blush ferroan caleit, US: Stained thin section, Upper Cretaceous, Tunisia magnification x 19, PPL. 116: Stained thin section, Eocene, Greece; magnific ation «23, PPL U7: Stained shin section, Chatburn Limestone, Lower Carboniferous, Chatburn, Lancashire, England: magnific- ation 37, PPL. Other algae are shown in 76, 128, 130 and 180, Carbonate rocks 118, 119, 120 Bioclasts Calcispheres and Worm Tubes Worm tubes Although rarely abundant, calcareous worm tubes are widespread in shallow marine and freshwater limestones, 118 shows a bioclastic limestone with a large fragien ‘comprising numerous worm (ubes, seen in cross-section Most of the tubes are filled with micrte. The associated fauna include a bryozoan (top centre), mollusean cass (top ight), an echinoderm fragment (top right) and brachiopods (bottom). The sediment is cemented by bus: J stained ferroan calete. 119 shows sections through the alse racods (eg. upper kf. ‘cement ills the chambers and the tmicrite with a few thin-valved ost 118; Stained thin section, Inferior Oolite, Mid Leckhampton Hill, Gloucestershire, England: dation x 13, PPL 119: Unstained thin section, Ardwick Limestone, Upp Carboniferous, Manchester, England: magnification x1 PPL Worm tubes are also shown in 214 and 215. Calcispheres a i Calcispheres are small hollow spherical bodies of cals usually with a mieritic wall They are particulary com: ‘mon in Upper Palaeozoic limestones and) may be te calcified reproductive parts of dasycladacean algse. 19 ; shows numerous ealeispheres ~ the circular objects wi ep, red-brown-stained walls associated with mii ‘walled endothyracid forami ind a foliated beacin pod shell which extends right across the field of vier 120: Stained acetate peel, Woo Dale Carboniferous, Long Date, Derbyshire ation 21, PPL 5 82 Non-skeletal algae Stromatolites Stromatolites are laminated rocks interpreted as fos sized algal mats. The mats are formed of filamentous bi algae. The laminae in stromatolites are usually alternations of earbonate mud and grainy, often pelleted, Sediment. The laminae are, at most, a few millimetres thick and are often more easily seen in hand specimens. than hin sions, Lamiolt fenestrae, 68)areofen od with stromatoites, & photograph of snlate laminated sediments sf from algal mats from those formed by physical processes. The laminae in stromatoites may form Mat of crinkly struc domes Concentric a re rise to the grains kno 122 shows a thin section of the same specimen as that Ihwstrated in 121, The laminations consist of alternating hin micritie layers and layers containing a mixture of imerite and in arcas the micrite hi as oncoids (p vaguely been coating the algal filaments which then decayed, leaving « mould which was later filled with sparitecement. 121 and 122: Lower Carboniferous, Carriére de ta Vallée Heweuse, Boulonnais, France: 121 hand specimen, mag ification = 1.8; 122 ‘stained shin section, magnifica tion» 12, PPL. Carbonate rocks 54 123, 124, 128 Non-skeletal algae Mice ization In the shallow marine environment, some non-skeletal blue-green algae may bore into skeletal material. These ed endolithic algae. The borings, around 10 jm in are filed with micrite after the death of the If the process continues, the margin of a. shel nent may become completely replaced by micrite. ‘The process is known as micrivzation and the replaced shell margin as a mierive envelope. 123 shows mierite envelopes developed on brachiopod shells (the foliated structure) and echinoderm fragments (the speckled plates). Note the irregularity ofthe contact between the micrite envelope and the unaltered skeleton, Thisenables micrite envelopes formed by micritization by blue-green algae to be distinguished from micrtic coat ings around the exierior of skeletal rts (77. Repeated micritization may lead to the production of a grain with no remaining recognizable structure. This, would then be called a peloid (76). Skeletal algal frag. ‘ents are often susceptible to this total miritization and itis possible that some of the micrtic grains in 123, with their regular shape and trace of internal structure, were formed by this process. 124 shows the importance of micrite envelopes in preserving molluscan fragments during diagenesis. The ori mite molluscan shell has been completely issolved and the mould, outlined by & thin micrite envelope, was then filed by a sparry calcite cement Although the sparite is mainly blue-stained ferroan caleite, there are thin zones of pink-stained non-fereoan caleite This is cleaely seen in the shell fragment to the let below the centre Allochems other than bioelasts may become micrtized 12S shows a number of grains with varying degrees of preservation of radial and concentric ooid textures (p 45). Its possible that the texture was partially lest by rmicrtigation, although it might also have been lost during inversion of an original aragonite ooid to caeite(neomor phism. p. 60), 10 Dale Limestone, Lower byshire, England; magn 123: Unstained thin section, ¥ Carboniferous, Peak Forest. ication x25, PPL in section, Inferior Oolite, Middle Jurassic il, Gloucestershire, England: magni dation x 12, PPL. 125: Stained thin section, Llandyfan Limestone, Loner Carhoniferous, Black Mountains, South Wales: magwc sation x 43, PPL Carbonate cements The morphology and mineralogy of the pore-fling foment crystals in a limestone can yield information thout the environment of cementation. Cements pre- Uipitated from marine pore-waters close to the sediment faler interface may be aragonite or high magnesium tilite, but in either case they may form small crystals wih high length-to-width ratio. Theerystals are aligned i right-angles to the surface on which the cement rucleates. On curved surfaces this means that many marine cements display a radial-fibrous fabric. 126 shows a section through a coral. skeleton (brownish-stained, structure not clearly visible) in which the fist generation of cement is aceular aragonite show ing a radialfibrous texture. Note the variation in the Keath of the erystals which gives a very irregular outer margin o this generation of cement. Such cement, being fraponite, is not likely o be well-preserved in an ancient limestone. If it undergoes neomorphism (p. 60), the ‘eral radiabfibrous fabric may be retained although | Micrite > 1-10% allochems [<1%] 4 care in capital letters Tea Sty cate e| Fiems| © & 2 z i : agt4+— i 3 68 [an & Jrosstarmocs [— i aoe : Dero eee oe aie ae] Sonne] Sorina] Rounder & Gillhona | Wiens | Abetene | Recher ee Sere | eau estos | Fosliterous brctad unsores | sone | Rounded ee aes TE BSS Sk HB Micrite matrix ‘parry caleite coment, Fig. E The range in textures shown by carbonate rocks, illustrated using the rock names of the Folk classification (after Folk, 1959) Limestone classification (continued) 146 ilustrates a grainstone. The rock is grain-supported. with a spar cement. The sediment is loosely-packed, fuggesting that cementation occurred before significant Compaction. The allochems are a mixture of eoids (some tare superficial ooids, see p. 35) and bioclasts. It is therefore an oosparite according to Folk. Since the allochems are rounded it would be a rounded oosparite, Using Folk’s textural spectrum. 147 shows 1 packstone The rock shows two sizes of grains, having largeand small peloids, The former have a trace of oolitie structure in places and may be micritized ooids (p. $4) The latter are probably faccal pellets. The sediment contains some ferroan calcite cement but also much carbonate mud sediment in the matrix. Its nevertheless grain-supported and thus a packstone, According to Folk’ classification it \sa poorly-washed oosparite. 146: Unstained thin section, Jurassic, unknown Locality England: magnification x23, PPL. 147: Stained acetate peel. Inferior Oolite, Middle urassi: Cooper's Hill, Gloucestershire, England: magnitie ation x 13, PPL Other grainstones are shown (Folk classification in ‘rackeis) in 73 (vosparite). 74 (oosparite). 78 (sorted pelsparite), 77 (unsorted imerasparite), 87 (unsorted bio- sparite) and 124 (unsorted biosparte) Other packstones are shown in 72 (poorly-washed oos parite). 79 (packed intramicrite) 96 (poorly-sashed biospavite) and 14S (packed biomicrite) 146, 147 ‘Carbonate rocks Carbonate rocks 148, 149,150 Limestone classification (continued) 148 shows a wackestone, The grains are bioclast, mainly echinoderm plates with some bryozoans (eg. lower let part), These grains are supported by a matrix of ear- onate mud in which many small particles are visible at this magnification. 149 shows @ mudstone, being « matrix-supported limestone with less than 10% allochems. In this ease the allochemsare microfossils- foraminifera and calcite casts of radiolaria, The sediment is cut by thin veins of pale blue-stained ferroan calite, This sample is a fossliferows Imicrite according to Folk’s elassfcation ‘A boundstone is a limestone in which sediment is bound together by organisms, such as occurs in many reefs, Textures are often mote clearly visible at hand: Specimen scale, 150 shows a thin section of a reef limestone comprising growths of a number of problems. tic organisms (probably algae or foraminifera) whieh have encrusted one another while incorporating fine: grained sodiment into the rock framework, 148: Stained acerate peel, Wenlock Limestone. Silurian Shropshire, England; magnification « H, PPL. 149: Stained thin section, Upper Cretaceous, Pindos Zone, Greece: magnification x43, PPL. 150: Stained thn section, Red Hill Ootte, Lower Carbon- iferous, Bliscales Quarry, Dalion-in-Furness, Cumbria, England; magnification x12, PPL. Other wackestones are shown (Fotk classification in brackets), in 10S (Biomicrite) and 156 (biomicrite), Carbonate rocks Limestone Porosity Any description of a limestone should include an evaluation of the amount and type of porosity in the sediment. Porosity may be primary, having been present in the rock sinee deposition, or secondary, having. developed asa result of diagenesis. A classification of porosity types S| shown in Fig. F. The terminology of porosity types illustrated here ith limestones, i aso applicable to sandstones, Fabrie selective Pe | Sy | ies: Interpenicie. ——Inivaparicle——_Intererystal Mouisie Z| Fenestral Shetter Growth framework Notfabre selective == > + ps Fracture Channel™ Vos" Cavern™ * cavern applies to man-sized ar larger pores of channel oF vug shapes Tabrie selective or nat BIT Breccia Bring Barrow Shrinkage Fig. F_ Basie porosity types in sediments. Pores shaded black (after Choquette and Pray. 1970) Carbonate rocks Limestone porosity (continued) 151 and 152 show an oolitic/peloidal sediment in which much ofthe depositional space between grains is unfilled by sediment or cement. The rock is said to show primary intergranular porosity. When deposited, such a sediment ‘ay have had as much as 50% pore-space. This has been reduced by compaction and by the introduction of some ceient. Two types of cement are present ~ a fine spar, Forming eoatings on most grains (about | mm thick at this, magnification and best seen in XPL) and. syntexial Dvergrowths on echinoderms (lower left. Although loca lized, the latter are volumetrically more significant. ‘A’ common type of secondary porosity is mouldic porosity, usually lormed by the dissolution of aragonite bioclasis, 183 shows a sediment having primary inter aranular and secondary mouldic porosity. Thin micrite envelopes have supported the shell moulds, although that supporting the fragment seen in the lower part of the photograph has partly collapsed, The bluish-urey interference colours soea in the inter ‘eranular pores and the shell moulds of 182 and 183 are ‘caused by strain in the mounting medium ISP and 182: Stained thin séerion, Portand Stone. Upper Jurassic, Dorser, England: magnification x 27, 1ST PPL. 152 NPL. 183: Stained thin section, Portland Stone, Upper Jurassic Dorset, England: magnification x 11, XPL 154, 155, 156 Carbonate rocks Limestone porosity (continued) 184 shows a limestone composed mainly of echinoderm Fragments ina pink-stained, non-fereoan, ealeite sparite ment. However, a number of grains comprising a small tchinoderm fragment nucleus, surrounded by a zone of blue-stained ferroan calcite cement, are also present. This cement is interpreted as a late infilling of pore-spuce formed by the dissolution of an aragonite eoating 10 the schinoderm fragments. Such a coating is ikely to have teen ooltie and after solution the sediment would have thibited oomouldic poros Porosity may develop asa result of the burrowing and boring activities of organisms. 185 Sho Sediment. Note that grains are truncated around the ‘margins of the indicating that the sediment was ithtied when the organism was at work and hence the siructure isa boring rather than a burrow. The boring is, ved in a convex-up postion, 1 ragments in a carbonate mud sediment. in a conver-up position, including the large fragment extending right across the field of view, have ayeis of sparite cement below them which was pre cptated during the infilling of shel ‘as unable to fill the cavities tlle of the shel Ist: Stained acetate peel, Oolite Group, Lower Carbo. nijerous, Daren Cll, Llangattock, South Wales, musnif keaton 15, PPL 15: Stained thin section, Inferior Oolite, Middle Jurassic Cooper's Hill, Gloucestershire, England; magnific- ‘ion 16, PPL 156: Stained thin section, Lower Carboniferous. Arbigland, Dunjries, Scotland; magnification x 6. PPL Carbonate rocks 157,158 Limestone porosity (continued) Fenestrae is the name used for pores in a carbonate Sediment which ate karger than grain-supported spaces They usually become infilled with internal sediment or ‘cement, of @ combination of the two. Fenestra can be Silferont shapes and sizes depending on their mode of 187 shows sparcflled fenestrae in a micrite. Most are irregular in shape and probably formed as a result ofthe tentrapment of fluid in a sediment duting desiccation, although the elongated fenestra in the centre may have ibeena burrow. Fenestracof this typeare sometimescalled birds-eve structures, The sediment contains a few micrte Walled foraminifera, Fenestral micrites were called dis: Imicrive by Folk (see Table 4), 188 shows fenestrae in «fine pellet grainstone. They show a tendency to be elongate parallel to the bedding, ‘trae ofthis typeare known as laminoid fenestrae and may form from the decay of organic matter associated ‘with algal steomatolite (p. 53). 157, Stained thin section, Lower Jurassic, Central High jo. Morocco; magnification x IS. PPL. Stained acetate peel, Woo Dale Limestone, Lower Carhoniferous. Derbyshire, England; magnification » 7 PPL 159, 160 ‘Carbonate rocks Limestone porosity (continued) Pore-space in limestones may be filed with sediment as ell as cement. Sediment partially infilling cavities, pacticularly in fossils or fenestrae, will indicate the horizontal plane at the time of its deposition. Such sediment infills are known as geopetal infills, 159 shows szopetal sediment within a gastropod. On deposition the Bisiropod would have had a primary porosity within its Chambers (intragranular porosity), ‘This was partially infilled by mieritie sediment and the cavity finally filled by Ferroan caite cement. Inclusions within the shel wall of the gasiropod and surrounding bioclasts suggest thal they inverted to calcite during neomorphism (p. 61), rather than being cementcfilled casts, Some pore-spaces have hydrocarbons within them or have evidence that hydrocarbons have passed through, 160 shows a limestone in which a fee pores are filled with black hydrocarbon and others re lined by a thin coating oft, Examination ofits relationship to the: that the hydrocarbon entered the rock generation of isopachous cement (marine?) and before the fina filling of coarse blocky eement (meteoric) 188: Stained shin section, Purbeck Marble, Upper Jurassic Dorset, Eneland: magnification x 12, PPL 160: Cnstained shin section, Bev Low Limestone, Lower Carhoniferous, Windy Knoll, Derbyshire, England: mag tfication = 16, PPL. Carbonate rocks Introduction Dolomite, CaMg(CO,),, is & major component of limestones, It is tually secondary, replaving pre-existing carbonate minerals, Unlike {aleite, it often occurs as euhedal shomb-shaped crystals. However, Since ils optical properties are similar to those of caeite, it ean be Sifieult to distinguish between the 10. For this reason etching and Staining of sections with Alizarin Red S is carried out (sce p. 4), ‘Dolomitic racks are classified according to their dolomite content as Follows! Oto 10% dolomite limestone 1010 50% dolomite dolomite limestone 50 10 90% dolomite _cakitic dolomite 39 t0 100% dolomite dolomite Since the term dolomite s used for both the mineral and the rock, some ‘Narkers prefer the term dolostone for the rock, although the term has pot been universally accepted and is not employed here, 70 Carbonate racks Dolomitization (continued) 161 shows a dolomitie limestone containing 20 to 30% dolomite, The dolomite is unstained and occurs as euhedral rhomb-shaped erystals which contain inchi, sions, probably of calcite, and are thus cloudy. ‘The tunaltered limestone surrounding the dolomite is pinks stained, non-ferroan calcite and shows a patchy texture of micrite and sparite with few recognizable grains. Ths isa neomorphic fabric (p. 60) 162 shows a calitie dolomite in which the original calcite matrix has been wholly replaced by dolomite (unstained) but the micritie allochems (peloids) have resisted dolomitization and are only. partly replaced (dolomite unstained, caleite red). Where replacement is incomplete, eubedrai rhomb-shaped erystals are visible Where replacement is complete, crystals have grown, together and the euhedral shape is lost 161: Stained thin section, Woo Dale Limestone, Lower Carboniferous, Derbyshire, England: magnification «20, PPL 162: Stained thin section, Middle Jurassic Jebel Amsitten, Morocco, magnification « H4. PPL Carbonate rocks 163, 164, 168, Dolomitization (continued) 163 shows a sediment in which the original limestone has, ben totally replaced by dolomite, The result is a mosaic ‘of anhedral ergstals, Although the section was immersed in the staining solution, no stain at all is upparent, indicating the completeness of the replacement. T6d shows dolomite in which theerystalsare distinctly zoned. Although the erystal fabric is ight interlocking, the rhombic shape of te dolomite crystals is clearly ‘outlined by the zoning, The zoning may be partly caused bby chemical differences in the dolomite but i is probably due mainly to varying amounts of foreign matter in sorporated in the growing crystals, The mineral dolomite may containiron substituting for magnesium, When the iron content reaches 1mole the term ankerite is used. 168 shows a ferroan dolomite approdching ankerite in composition, The ferroan nature ‘of the mineral is shown by the turquoise stain colour (see 3M). although the section was stained for a longer time than usual to enhance the colour, whichis why the caleite present is red rather than pink-slained. The iron content ff the dolomite is also shown by the dark brown margins to-some crystals, where iron has been oxidized, producing 163: Stained thin section, Penmaen Burrows Limestone ‘Lavser Carboniferous, Caswell Bar, South Wales: magni featlon x43, PPL 164: Unstained thin section, Woo Dale Dolomite. Lower Carboniferous, Woo Dale, Derbyshire, England: magnif tation » 56, PPL 165: Stained thin section, Woo Dale Dolomive, Lower Carboniferous, Woo Dale, Derbyshire, England; magni ation x 30, PPL 166, 167, 168 Carbonate racks Dolomitization (continued) 166 shows loosely-interlocking network of eubedral

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