Indian Journal of Positive Psychology © 2017 Indian Association of Health, Research and Welfare

2017, 8(3), 415-419 ISSN-p-2229-4937,e-2321-368X

http://www.iahrw.com/index.php/home/journal_detail/19#list UGC Approved and have NAAS Ratings

Study of mindfulness and cognitive failure among young adults

Surjeet Singh and Nov Rattan Sharma
Department of Psychology, Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak, Haryana

Mindfulness is a state of present- time awareness; which can be experienced and quite helpful to fabricate the sense
of well-being and can decrease cognitive and behavioral error in our daily lives. Cognitive failures or errors are
clearly a part of everyday life and can be observed in our behavior. These errors include distractions, blunders,
memory lapses, and oversights, perceptual and attentional error. Hence it is expected that mindfulness would be
negatively associate with cognitive failure and enhance our sense of health and well-being in a better way. The
present study is planned to examine the nature of the relationship between Mindfulness and cognitive failure.
Present study includes a sample of 80 young adults of both gender (Male=40; Female= 40). Mindfulness Attention
Awareness Scale (MAAS; Brown & Ryan, 2003) and Cognitive Failure Questionnaire (CFQ; Broadbent, Cooper,
FitzGerald, & Parkes, 1982) were administered to fulfillment the purpose of the present study. The results of the
present study revealed that mindfulness is negatively associated with cognitive failures view aroused state of active
cognitive processes. The current study found a significant negative correlation between mindfulness and cognitive
failures. In other words, the person who is more mindful were made overall the fewer cognitive errors. The practice
of mindfulness increased information processing speed, cognitive flexibility, attentional functioning.

Keywords: mindfulness, cognitive failure, adults

In today's world we are leading a busy and over stimulated life. In the
rush to accomplish necessary tasks, we may find our self is losing our
connection with the present moment missing out on what we are
doing and how we are feeling. Disruption in cognition is increasing
and effects our behavior in a negative way. Mindfulness is now being
examined scientifically and has been found to be one of the important
factor required to reduce cognitive failures.
Mindfulness: Mindfulness can be defined as “a state of psychological
freedom that occurs when attention remains quiet and limber,
without attachment to any particular point of view” (Martin, 1997).
Dispositional mindfulness is considered a naturally occurring
characteristic and is assessed by asking individuals to report on their
tendencies to have sustained awareness and attention to what occurs
in the present moment of their everyday life (Bowen & Enkema,
2014). Mindfulness is a subtle process that you are using at this very
moment. In simple word mindfulness means bringing one's complete
attention to the present experience on a moment to moment basis.
The meditation technique called vipassana (insight) that was
introduced by the Buddha about the twenty five years ago is a set of
mental activities specifically aimed at experiencing a state of
uninterrupted mindfulness. Mindfulness emphasis on paying
attention in a particular way: on purpose, in the present moment, and
non-judgmentally. It is a kind of non-elaborative, non-judgmental,
present centered awareness in which each thought, feeling or
sensation that arise in the attentional field is acknowledged accepted
as it is. Mindfulness is the active cognitive process of being attentive
and aware to one's thoughts, emotions, and experience of the present
moment without judgment or reactance (Bishop, Lau, Shapiro,
Carlson, Anderson, Carmody, & Devins, 2004). It takes place here
and now. The practice of mindfulness increased information
processing speed, cognitive flexibility, attentional functioning.
Correspondence should be sent to Surjeet Singh
Research Scholar, Department of Psychology
Maharshi Dayanand University
Rohtak, Haryana
Therefore it appears to contrast with the concept of cognitive
failures.
Cognitive failures: Cognitive failures are thought to include
perceptual, attentional, memory, and action-related mental lapses
(Broadbent, Cooper, FitzGerald, & Parkes, 1982). Similarly, the
defining feature of dissociation is the disruption of a person's usually
integrated cognitive processes, such as consciousness, memory,
identity, and perception (American Psychiatric Association, 2000).
Cognitive failures have been related to an inability to attend to a task
and to lapses of attention to errors in task execution (blunders) and to
personality traits such as boredom proneness, and to overload of
short-term memory leading. Broadbent et al. (1982) developed the
“cognitive failure questionnaire (CFQ) which is a self-report
measure of failure in perception, memory and motor function. Rast,
Zimprich, Van Boxtel, and Jolles (2008) stated that the CFQ items
load on three different factors; forgetfulness, Distractibility and
False Triggering. Forgetfulness, means failure to retrieve
information. Distractibility refers to the extent to which one is
distracted by one's environment. Means the ease with which a
person's concentration can be interfered with by External or internal
stimulation. False Triggering means interrupted processing of
sequences of cognitive and motor actions.
Mindfulness and cognitive failure
Bishop et al. (2004) and Moore and Malinowski (2009)
demonstrated that mindfulness can stimulate sustained attention,
cognitive flexibility, situational awareness and better metacognitive
skills. Gomez (2013) Studies have shown that mindfulness can
improve safety behavior for several reasons. Mindfulness workers
are more likely to avoid cognitive failure while the involuntary
lapse, inattention or lack of mindfulness about ones circumstances
and surroundings are the main cause of accident is. Other benefits of
mindfulness practice include increased information processing
speed, flexibility, equanimity, improved concentration and mental
clarity, emotional intelligence and mental health (Brown, Ryan, &
Creswell, 2007). The improvements in attention that have been
 SINGH AND SHARMA/ STUDY OF MINDFULNESS AND COGNITIVE FAILURE AMONG YOUNG ADULTS
demonstrated with mindfulness is also likely benefit memory.
Attention is an important component of encoding and recall, which
supports working memory in complex tasks such as learning and
comprehension (Chiesa, Calati, & Serretti, 2011).
Riggs, Black, and Ritt-Olson (2014) exhibited in their study that
mindfulness was significantly associated with a latent factor of self-
reported Executive function including inhibitory control, working
memory, and cognitive flexibility. The study of dispositional
mindfulness in the context of Mindfulness-Based Interventions
(MBI) like Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR),
Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) is effectively
growing, Implications of these current findings possibly extend to
teaching mindfulness practices in modern busy life, to enhance the
disposition of mindfulness or improve mental health and cognitive
skill measures.
Nehra, Sharma, Kumar, and Nehra (2012a, b, 2013a, b; 2014)
demonstrated that psychological stress reduction programs based on
mindfulness (MBSR) are useful and effective interventions in
improving patients' quality of life and to reduce psychological
distress (Stress, Anxiety, or Depression). McKim (2008) evaluated
an Eight-week Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR)
intervention on a community sample that experienced ongoing
anxiety, depression, and/or chronic pain. Participants who Followed
MBSR program participants, had reported significantly high scores
on self-reported mindfulness and significantly low scores on self-
reported rumination, psychological distress, depression, anxiety, and
physical illness. In precise Mindfulness scores significantly
predicted low level of anxiety, rumination, medical symptoms, and
psychological distress. Furthermore, the relationship between
mindfulness and depression was significantly mediated by decreased
rumination. Cahn and Polich (2009) assessed the reactions of
subjects who were very experienced mindfulness meditators to
distracting stimuli. Findings revealed that while in a meditative state,
practitioners displayed minimal emotional and cognitive reactivity
to distracting stimuli. These findings support the notion that
mindfulness contributes to decreased reactivity. Thus emotional
reactivity negatively correlated with mindfulness meditation. Moore
and Malinowski (2009) examined the effect of mindfulness on
cognitive ability; the people who had higher self-reported
mindfulness had significantly better performance on all measures of
attention and. Mindfulness meditation practice and self-reported
mindfulness were correlated directly with cognitive flexibility and
attentional functioning. Corcoran, Farb, Anderson, and Segal (2010)
demonstrated that mindfulness enhance metacognitive awareness,
attentional capacities and it decreases rumination from preservative
cognitive activities through gains in working memory; these
cognitive gains contribute to effective emotion regulation strategies.
Jha, Stanley, Kiyonaga, Wong, and Gelfand (2010) examined
working memory capacity and emotional experience among military
persons. They were observed in a highly stressful redeployment
period. The study revealed that non-meditating military group
displayed decreased working memory capacity over time whereas
working memory capacity among non-meditating civilians was
stable across time. Within the meditation military group, meditation
practice increased working memory capacity, directly related to self-
reported positive affect and inversely related to self-reported
negative affect. These findings suggest that adequate mindfulness
meditation practice may enhance working memory capacity and
decrease cognitive failure and thus, study concludes mindfulness
416
may be positively correlated with Working Memory. Hoffman,
Sawyer, Witt and Oh (2010) stated that mindfulness leads to
increased positive affect and decreased anxiety and negative affect.
Reaction time was thought to represent emotional interference with
the categorization task. Meditation experience was inversely related
to emotional interference when we face unpleasant stimulus.
Above research literature explained the benefits of mindfulness
especially in relation to cognitive aspects. In fact, mindfulness has
been proposed as a common factor in psychotherapy (Martin, 1997).
Theorized benefits of mindfulness are objectivity, affect tolerance
(Fulton, 2005) self-control (Masicampo & Baumeister, 2007). The
sense of mindfulness provides ability to relate to others and one's
self with kindness, acceptance, and compassion, better
psychological well-being, decreased task effort, and having fewer
thoughts that are unrelated to the task at hand (Walsh & Shapiro,
2006). Other benefits of mindfulness practice include increased
information processing speed, flexibility, equanimity, improved
concentration and mental clarity, emotional intelligence and mental
health (Brown et al., 2007).
In the light of previous research review the present study
hypotheses that there is adverse relationship between Mindfulness
and cognitive failure. The focus of the present study is to better
understand the relationship between Mindfulness and Cognitive
failure (& its main facets; Forgetfulness, Distractibility & false
triggering).
Objectives of the study
● To examine the relationship between mindfulness and cognitive
failures.
● To assess the gender differences on mindfulness.
● To assess the gender differences on cognitive failures.
Hypotheses of the study
To achieve these objectives following hypothesis were formulated.
● Mindfulness would be negative correlated to Cognitive failure
(forgetfulness, Distractibility & False Triggering) among young
adults.
● Males (n=40) would be high on mindfulness as compared to
females (n=40).
● Males would be low on Cognitive failure (forgetfulness,
Distractibility, & False Triggering) as compared to females.
Research design
A correlational design followed by comparison between gender on
males and females.
Method
Participants
Purposive sample of 80 young adults of both genders were selected
from the colleges, the University and the surrounding area (40 males
& 40 females), with ages ranging from 18 to 30.
Instruments
For the purpose of present research paper, following tools were
used:
The Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) (Brown & Ryan,
2003) the construct of Mindfulness was assessed in dispositional
terms by the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS), a 15-item
417 Indian Journal of Positive Psychology 2017, 8(3), 415-419
self-report instrument. The 15 items are each rated on a six-point
Likert scale from 1 (almost always) to 6 (almost never). An example
item is “It seems I am running on automatic without much awareness
of what I'm doing”. Sound psychometrics has been found for the
MAAS with Cronbach Alpha coefficients ranging over several
studies from 0.86 to 0.92 (Brown & Ryan, 2013). The scale has been
validated with college students, working adults and cancer patient
populations.
The Cognitive Failures Questionnaire: The Cognitive Failures
Questionnaire (CFQ; Broadbent et al., 1982) has 25 items and was
developed to assess a person's likelihood of committing an error in
perception, memory (Blenders & Name), and motor function in the
completion of everyday tasks. Some sample items include: “Do you
find you forget people's names?” and “Do you daydream when you
ought to be listening to something?” Items were rated using a 5-
point Likert scale that indicated how often each item was true for
the individual (e.g., 0 = never & 4 = Very often). Higher scores
indicated more cognitive failures, while lower scores indicate less
cognitive failures. Validation studies have found strong
relationships between lack of attentiveness and cognitive errors.
(Wallace & Chen, 2005).
Procedure
The study was conducted on 80 young adults. Each participants was
contacted individually and in a group. They clearly informed about
the purpose of the study. After establishing the rapport with the
participant/s, questionnaires were administered to each participants.
Participants completed Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS)
and Cognitive Failures Questionnaire (CFQ). After scoring data
were analyzed by using SPSS software.
Results and discussion
The present study highlights the role of mindfulness and cognitive
failure among young adults; for the purpose descriptive statistics has
been applied. Further Pearson product moment correlation was
calculated followed by t-test to assess the gender differences on
mindfulness and cognitive failure among young adults.
Table 1: Descriptive statistics mean, SD of young adults
Variables Mean S.D.
Mindfulness 59.96 14.42
Cognitive Failure 35.48 14.14
Forgetfulness 11.54 05.03
Distractibility 13.08 06.06
False Triggering 09.33 04.74
Table 1 exhibits the descriptive statistics for mindfulness for
which obtained mean value is 59.96 (SD= 14.42) with the score
range from 45.54 to 74.38. Similarly obtained Mean value of
cognitive failure is 35.48 (SD=14.14) with the score range from
21.34 to 49.62 further each
Dimension of cognitive failure were taken in to account including
Forgetfulness, Distractibility, False Triggering. On Forgetfulness
Mean value is 11.54 (SD= 5.03) with the score range from 6.51 to
16.57. Obtained Mean value of Distractibility is 13.08 (SD=6.06)
with the score range from 7.02 to 20.2; whereas on False triggering
Mean value is 9.33 (SD=4.74) with the score range from 4.59 to
14.07.
Hence the descriptive statistics highlights the significance of
mindfulness among young adults as the obtained mean score is
above average (52.50). Further obtained mean score on cognitive
failure is falling below the average (50) and on each dimension of
cognitive failure too (16).
Table 2: Intercorrelation matrices
Variables 1 2 3 4 5
Mindfulness 1 -
Cognitive Failure 2 -.740** -
Forgetfulness 3 -.667** .797** -
Distractibility 4 -.724** .881** .640**
False Triggering 5 -.736** .818** .783** .724** -
**significant at 0.01 level
Intercorrelation matrices (Table 2) shows that mindfulness a
positive construct is negatively correlated with overall cognitive
failure (r=-.740; p ≤ .01) which is highly significant.
Further obtained correlation values between mindfulness and
each dimension of cognitive failure i.e. for forgetfulness,
distractibility and false triggering (r = -.667, r = -.724, r = -.736
respectively) are significant in negative direction. Intercorrelation
among various dimension of cognitive failure ranges from .640 to
.881. Hence on the bases of pertinent correlation has been
accepted.
The study showed that there is a significant negative relationship
between cognitive failures and mindfulness, indicating that the
higher the mindfulness scores the lower the cognitive failure scores.
Mindful individuals, as compared to those who are less mindful,
have a heightened awareness of their cognitions and future
behaviors, yielding greater insight into the antecedents of behavior.
Mindful people may have greater conscious awareness of their
cognitive and behavioral scripts in the present, it follows that they
might have higher Executive Function proficiency.
This result supported by the research by Carriere, Cheyne, and
Smilek (2008) which modeled a link between mindfulness and
attention related cognitive failures and by Mrazek, Smallwood, and
Schooler (2012) which demonstrated a negative correlation between
MAAS scores and mind-wandering (& that mindfulness exercises
reduced mind-wandering). Indeed, similar results were obtained by
Hendron (2008) who found a significant negative correlation
between the CFQ and another mindfulness scale created by Brown
and Ryan (2003). Klockner and Richard (2015) studied the
Cognitive Failures, Mindfulness and big five factors of personality
at work and demonstrated the negative correlation between
mindfulness and all four of the facets of cognitive failures (memory
destructions, blunders & names) as well as in the total score on
cognitive failure.
A significant negative correlation has been obtained between the
mindfulness scores and the Distractibility scores (see Table 2).
Mindfulness reduces the extent to which one is distracted by one's
environment (distractibility). This finding is consistent with a
previous research reporting a negative relationship between
mindfulness and distraction; in which Gorbovskaya, Park, and Kim
(2014) found that the participants who scored higher on the
mindfulness, the less time they complete their task with distractions
(i.e., successfully ignoring distractions). These types of results are
expected, as people who practice mindfulness meditation have
performed better on sustained attention tasks than non-
practitioners.
 SINGH AND SHARMA/ STUDY OF MINDFULNESS AND COGNITIVE FAILURE AMONG YOUNG ADULTS 418

Table 3: t-test of mean differences between males and females

Variables Gender n Mean S.D. t-value Sig. (2-tailed)
Mindfulness Male 40 63.33 12.08 2.13* .04
Female 40 56.60 15.87
Cognitive Failure Male 40 32.28 12.19 2.06* .04
Female 40 38.68 15.35
Forgetfulness Male 40 10.38 04.66 2.11* .04
Female 40 12.70 05.18
Distractibility Male 40 11.90 05.57 1.76 .08
Female 40 14.25 06.37
False Triggering Male 40 07.88 03.90 2.86* .01
Female 40 10.78 05.09
*significant at 0.05 level.

Mean deference in Table 3 reveals that males were found high on
mindfulness (t= 2.13; p ≤ 0.04). Results revealed significant gender
difference among adults on mindfulness disposition. We found that
males are high on mindfulness than the females. Other studies, also
consistent with the present study, Nolen Hoeksema, Larson, and
Grayson (1999) and (Tamres & Helgeson, 2002) have found
significant gender difference on mindfulness. This may be explained
by the fact that females ruminate on negative feelings more than
males, As mindfulness involves paying attention to both positive and
negative stimuli, females may experience more difficulty being
mindful than males. Males were found to have significantly higher
mindfulness scores than females on the awareness and non-reactivity
subscales (Slonim, Kienhuis, Benedetto, & Reece, 2015). Whereas
males are found low on overall cognitive failure (t= -2.06; p ≤ 0.04)
and two out of three dimension of cognitive failure that is
forgetfulness (t= -2.11, p ≤ 0.04) and false triggering (t= -2.86, p ≤
0.04). The finding in of the study revealed that males are low on
overall cognitive failure, is consistent with the study by Hood,
MacLachlan, and Fisher (1987) which found that females scored
significantly higher rate of cognitive failures than males. In later
stage cognitive failure coupled with stress may result in
psychological disturbance in female.
In the present study it has been found that females are high on
forgetfulness as comparison to males, or in other words it could be
said that females report memory complaints more often than males.
The findings of present study are also in line with the study by
Palermo, Cinelli, Piccardi, Ciurli, Incoccia, Zompanti, and Guariglia
(2015) which stated that women are better at remembering to
perform and fulfil future tasks and plans. Females are also better than
males at remembering activities linked to events rather than to a
specific time. On the dimension of false triggering, however no
significant differences was reported for Distractibility between
males and females.
Conclusion
The current study found a significant negative correlation between
mindfulness and cognitive failures. In other words, the person who is
more mindful were made overall the fewer cognitive errors. In light
of this, study suggests that cognitive mistakes often happen in the
absence of mindfulness or moment by moment awareness and that
mindfulness (i.e., a counterpart to absent-mindedness) can reduce
common cognitive errors. Overall, the results of the study contribute
to the growing body of research that suggests that mindfulness can
reduce the forgetfulness, distractibility and false triggering and
improve attention and concentration. It seems that the emphasis on
the value of mindfulness training and interventions would be
supported by the results of the present study, as increased
mindfulness skills and responses are associated with decreased
errors. This assumes that mindfulness is at least partly a state-based,
developable skill and not simply a trait that is less open to change.
Implication of the study
The present study found that individuals with higher dispositional
mindfulness reported less distractibility, forgetfulness, and false
triggering, have high cognitive flexibility and better attentional
functioning. Researches showed that Mindfulness meditation
practice and self-reported mindfulness enhance focused attention,
have positive effects on working memory and focused attention
tasks, Reduced rumination, Stress, emotional reactivity, Boosts to
working memory, increase information processing speed. More
cognitive flexibility and predicts relationship satisfaction.
Mindfulness developing Intervention programs should be follow to
maintain health. Dispositional mindfulness should be focused in
health care programs. Future studies would need to explore creative
measures of dispositional mindfulness using qualitative,
neurobiological, and psychometric approaches. The field of
psychology could benefited from future research examining
dispositional mindfulness as an important psychological construct
that promoting Health and well-being.
References
American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental
disorders (4th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
Bishop, S. R., Lau, M., Shapiro, S., Carlson, L., Anderson, N. D., Carmody, J., &
Devins, G. (2004). Mindfulness: A proposed operational definition. Clinical
Psychology: Science and Practice, 11, 230-241.
Bowen, S., & Enkema, M. C. (2014). Relationship between dispositional mindfulness
and substance use: Findings from a clinical sample. Addictive Behaviors, 39, 532-
537.
Broadbent, D. E., Cooper, P. F., FitzGerald, P., & Parkes, K. R. (1982). The cognitive
failures questionnaire (CFQ) and its correlates. British Journal of Clinical
Psychology, 21, 116.
Brown, K. W., Ryan, R. M., & Creswell, J. D. (2007). Mindfulness: Theoretical
foundations and evidence for its salutary effects. Psychological Inquiry, 18, 211-237.
Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its
role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84,
822-848.
419 Indian Journal of Positive Psychology 2017, 8(3), 415-419
Cahn, B. R., & Polich, J. (2009). Meditation (Vipassana) and the P3a event-related brain
potential. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 72, 51-60.
Carriere, J., Cheyne, J. A., & Smilek, D. (2008). Everyday attention lapses and memory
failures: The affective consequences of mindlessness. Consciousness and Cognition,
17, 835-847.
Chiesa, A., Calati, R., & Serretti, A. (2011). Does mindfulness training improve
cognitive abilities? A systematic review of neuropsychological findings. Clinical
Psychology Review, 31, 449-464.
Corcoran, K. M., Farb, N., Anderson, A., & Segal, Z. V. (2010). Mindfulness and
emotion regulation: Outcomes and possible mediating mechanisms. In A. M. Kring
and D. M. Sloan (Eds.), Emotion regulation and psychopathology: A transdiagnositc
approach to etiology and treatment (pp. 339-355). New York: Guilford Press.
Fulton, P.R. (2005). Mindfulness as clinical training. In C. K. Germer, R. D. Siegel, and
P. R. Fulton (Eds.), Mindfulness and psychotherapy (pp. 55-72). New York: Guilford
Press.
Gorbovskaya, I., Park, N., & Kim, C. (2014). The relationships between mindfulness,
distraction control, and working memory. Inkblot: The Undergraduate Journal of
Psychology, 3, 20-27.
Gomez, R. (2013). ADHD and hyperkinetic disorder symptoms in Australian adults:
Descriptive scores, incidence rates, factor structure, and gender variance. Journal of
Attention Disorder, 11, 340-350.
Hendron, F. (2008). Testing mindfulness with perceptual and cognitive factors: External
vs. internal encoding, and the cognitive failures questionnaire. Personality and
Individual Differences, 44, 32-41.
Hoffman, S. G., Sawyer, A. T., Witt, A. A., & Oh, D. (2010). The effect of mindfulness-
based therapy on anxiety and depression: A met analytic review. Journal of
Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 78, 169-183.
Hood, B. M., MacLachlan, I. M., & Fisher, S. (1987). The relationship between cognitive
failures, psychoneurotic symptoms and sex. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 76(1),
33-50.
Jha, A. P., Stanley, E. A., Kiyonaga, A., Wong, L., & Gelfand, L. (2010). Examining the
protective effects of mindfulness training on working memory capacity and affective
experience. Emotion, 10, 54-64.
Klockner, K., & Richard, E. H. (2015). Cognitive failures at work, mindfulness, and the
big five. The Global Science and Technology forum Journal of Psychology, 2(1), 1-7.
Martin, J. R. (1997). Mindfulness: A proposed common factor. Journal of Psychotherapy
Integration, 7, 291-312.
Masicampo, E. J., & Baumeister, R. F. (2007). Relating mindfulness and self-regulatory
processes. Psychological Inquiry, 18, 255-258.
McKim, R. D. (2008). Rumination as a mediator of the effects of mindfulness:
Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MNSR) with a heterogeneous community
sample experiencing anxiety, depression, and/or chronic pain. Dissertation Abstracts
International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 68(11), 76-73.
Moore, A., & Malinowski, P. (2009). Meditation, mindfulness and cognitive flexibility.
Consciousness and Cognition, 18, 176-186.
Mrazek, M. D., Smallwood, J., & Schooler, J.W. (2012). Mindfulness and mind-
wandering: Finding convergence through opposing constructs. Emotion, 12(3), 442-
448.
Nehra, D.K., Sharma, N.R., Kumar, P., & Nehra, S. (2012a). Efficacy of MBSR program
in treating depression, anxiety and perceived stress in coronary heart disease
patients. Indian Journal of Positive Psychology, 3(1), 91-95.
Nehra, D.K., Sharma, N.R., Kumar, P., Nehra, S. (2012b). Efficacy of cognitive
behavior therapy on perceived stress and health complaints in coronary heart disease
patients. Indian Journal of Positive Psychology, 3(1), 84-88.
Nehra, D.K., Sharma, N.R., Kumar, P., & Nehra, S. (2013a). Cognitive behaviour
therapy: An overview. In D. Hooda and N.R. Sharma (Eds.), Mental health risk and
resources (pp. 271-313). Global Vision Publishing House, Delhi.
Nehra, D.K., Sharma, N.R., Kumar, P., & Nehra, S. (2013b). Mindfulness based stress
reduction: An overview. In D. Hooda and N.R. Sharma (Eds.), Mental health risk
and resources (pp.197-231). Global Vision Publishing House, Delhi.
Nehra, D.K., Sharma, N.R., Kumar, P., & Nehra, S. (2014). Efficacy of mindfulness
based stress reduction (MBSR) Program in reducing perceived stress and health
complaints in patients with coronary heart disease. Dysphrenia, 5, 19-25.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Larson, J., & Grayson, C. (1999). Explaining the gender
difference in depressive symptoms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
77, 1061-1072.
Palermo, L., Cinelli, M.C., Piccardi, L., Ciurli, P., Incoccia, C., Zompanti, L., &
Guariglia, C. (2015).Women outperform men in remembering to remember. The
Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 8, 1-10.
Rast, P., Zimprich, D., Van Boxtel, M., & Jolles (2008). Factor structure and
measurement invariance of the of the cognitive failures questionnaire across the
adult life span. Assessment, 16(2), 145-158.
Riggs, N. R., Black, D. S., & Ritt-Olson, A. (2014). Associations between disposition al
mindfulness and executive function in early adolescence. Journal of Child and
Family Studies, 24(9), 2745-2751.
Slonim, J., Kienhuis, M., Benedetto, M., & Reece, J. (2015). The relationships among
self-care, dispositional mindfulness, and psychological distress in medical students.
Medical Education Online, 20, 1-13.
Tamres, L.K., & Helgeson, V.S. (2002). Sex differences in coping behavior: A meta-
analytic review and an examination of relative coping. Personality and Social
Psychology Review, 6, 2-30.
Wallace, C. J., & Chen, G. (2005). Development and validation of a work-specific
measure of cognitive failure: Implications for occupational safety. Journal of
Organizational and Occupational Psychology, 78, 615-632.
Walsh, R., & Shapiro, S. L. (2006). The meeting of meditative disciplines and western
psychology: A mutually enriching dialogue. American Psychologist, 61, 227-239.
Copyright of Indian Journal of Positive Psychology is the property of Indian Association of
Health, Research & Welfare and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or
posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users
may print, download, or email articles for individual use.