MUST3000: DISSERTATION

The Implementation of Soundscapes and Acousmatic Music in the British

Primary School Curriculum to Enhance Learning and Raise Student
Engagement.

By James Alexander Cane

P14132869

De-Montfort University
Music, Technology and Innovation BA (Hons)

May, 2017

Word Count: 9,978

 Abstract

This study examines the British primary school curriculum and how it can be challenged to

become more engaging and educational by using innovative pedagogy. Through observation

as a voluntary teaching assistant the author found that more work is needed in the area of

creativity within the curriculum. It seems likely that the poor models and applications of

creativity may be weakening and risking the subject to lack substance, which consequently

leads to a lack of engagement in students. Music Education is now an integral part of the school

curriculum, instead of being taught as a ‘extracurricular’ subject (Glover and Ward, 2004).

The lacklustre approach to teaching music has caused some schools to drop the subject

entirely. Moreover, on April 24th 1998 a startling survey by The Times Educational Supplement

uncovered that one in five schools had cut down on music, and it could be suggested that the

culprit was the government focusing on Literacy and Numeracy. Additionally, students feel

less confident in their own musical ability, which in some cases is causing music in the

curriculum to decline (Pound and Harrison, 2003, p.1).

Sound-Based Music (SbM) is an integral part of this study, and is presented in the styles

of Acousmatic Music and Soundscapes. SbM is defined in Landy (2009, p.17) as ‘music in

which the sounds, not notes, form the basic unit’, meaning students have more freedom over

what they are composing, and do not need any musical ability.

The significance of implementing innovative methods into the curriculum could offer

alternative means and a more diverse scope. Specifically, the research obtained by the author

provides factual evidence and concrete information, helping construct a balanced argument.

Finally, some of the key issues and problems in music teaching will be underlined throughout

the study, while proposing contemporary and innovative alternatives to the current system.

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 Acknowledgements

Foremost, I would like to express my sincere appreciation to Dr Deniz Ertan, who supervised
my study and applied exceeding amounts of assistance to helping me construct it. I will take
on your feedback into my further research, and will never forget the lectures and tutorials you
provided!

I would like to thank Bilton Junior School for permitting their students to participate in my
research. The students that took part in the workshops are the best students I have ever taught
and the school should be very proud! Thank you also to Mrs Alex Norton – Head teacher of
Bilton Junior School, for organising the dates and helping me with my primary research.

Dr David Holland and Dr Kevin Dahan both assisted with primary research, and with their
opinions I would not have crafted this essay with a brand new, modern opinion.

I would like to thank Dr Pete Batchelor for showing me Sound-Walks in the second year of
my bachelor’s degree, as my perspective of music has completely changed for the better since
then; I probably would not have been as passionate about promoting SBM as I am now.

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 Table of Contents

Introduction 5

Chapter One 7
Issues with Music Education in Primary Schools

Chapter Two 15
Research Approach and Paradigms

Chapter Three 28
Discussion of Findings

Conclusion 38

Bibliography 40

Appendices 44

IV
 Introduction

Primarily, it is important to address that within this study that both Acousmatic music and

Soundscapes can and may be referred to as Sound-Based Music (SbM) within this study.

Sound-Based Music (SbM) is defined as an ‘art form in which the sound and not the musical

note is the base unit’ (Landy, 2007, p.17) suggesting that little music theory knowledge is

needed. It could be suggested that all music is ‘sound-based’, but with Landy’s slowly gaining

traction at De-Montfort University, it is only a matter of time before it ventures further into

education. Within Pound and Harrison (2003 p.20) they use (Blacking’s, 1976) definition of

music, which is ‘humanly organised sound’, meaning that whatever the case, music has to have

some form of structure to be classified as music. However, Glover (2004 p.2) argues that ‘all

music has its roots in activities of ordinary daily human living’, which suggests that only some

or no rhythm at all is needed for sound to be classified as music. Glover’s definition of music

is highly relatable to Landy’s definition of SbM, suggesting that SbM is not too different and

unusual that it would look out of place in the current music curriculum.

Soundscape is a term derived from Schafer (1994 p.7) who states that ‘we can isolate

an acoustic environment as a field of study just as we can study the characteristics of a given

landscape’. Further, the term sound-walk is fairly self-explanatory, in simplistic terms it is

‘going on a walk to listen to sounds’. However, there is much more than just listening to the

sound of an environment, in the context of this study, the environments will be filled with

different sounds that students hear daily, yet do not pay attention too; this can be referred to as

extraneous noise or is referred to by Schafer (1994) as ‘noise pollution’.

Acousmatic music is similar in the way that ‘as opposed to traditional musical

notes’ Therapontos (2013, p.50) they both use manipulative processes through the means of

technology to reach a desired musical result (Therapontos, 2013, p.50). It is important to

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 recognise that all these techniques require little or no musical ability, which reinforces

Pound and Harrison’s (2003, p.1) research which states ‘in many cultures every is considered

musical’. Furthermore, the addition of a topic that requires little ability or talent provides an

opportunity for all students to develop skills in music.

As identified within the abstract, Sound-Based Music (SBM) can be used as a tool to engage

students for longer durations than the standard education methods currently in practice. Recent

studies quoted in Finney and Burnard (2010, p.198) show that ‘when time and space and

interactivity are coupled with teacher expertise, then creativity and technology are embedded

in curriculum development’. Further, this research proves that implementing more creative

pedagogical methods may influence the development of music education.

The collection of secondary literature acquired for this study has provided several

perspectives of teaching music from the early 2000’s. (Glover, 2004), (Jones and Robson,

2008) and (Burnard and Murphy, 2013) all access how music is taught and question the level

of creativity within lessons. Conversely, Thesis’ by (Therapontos, 2012, 2013) question the

entire curriculum of music education in a specific country, and use SbM as a catalyst for

innovation. The more recent studies on music education were obtained online through articles

and journals, however, Ofsted reports and statements by the DofE have also been attained as

factual reinforcement and for comparisons to the primary research which should access if

schools are upholding the standards set by the government.

Furthermore, music education plays a large part in the development of sensory skills,

which at the age that students attend primary school (7-11) has a large impact on their future

development in other disciplines such as mathematics; literacy, ICT and geography. it is clear

that music education is pregnant with ambiguity and issues that need to be addressed in order

to accentuate its importance in education.

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 Chapter 1: The Issues of Music Education in Primary Schools

Within Ofsted’s (2012, p.5) inspection on music education in the UK exposed that ‘33 out of

90’ primary schools gained ‘good or satisfactory’. Evidently, music is a deteriorating subject

within education. However, one issue in particular, that could be considered the catalyst has

guided music into an academic route. Moreover, this is rather than the practical and artistic

subject it should be taught as; so that students can enhance their imagination and creativity

skills. Schools are disregarding music as an important subject in the British education system,

which is reinforced in a survey created by Russel Bowie (2004 p.2) whereby 43% of students

felt that their schools actually gave a ‘high priority to music education’. Conversely, Catteral

in Barton (2014, p.205) states that ‘consistent high levels of involvement in instrumental music

show… significantly higher levels of mathematics proficiency by Year 12', which in the

context of music not being given high priority, is a conflicting opinion that should not be

marginalised. Furthermore, this study aims to apply unfamiliar styles of music into the

curriculum in the intention of showing the possible enhancement of engagement and creativity.

Music Education at a Glance

Although outdated, Smith (1962, p.31) labelled music as an ‘activity’ within schools, which is

still highly relevant in relation to the current educational system and is mentioned within other

credible sources (Pound and Harrison, 2003). Many primary schools in the Britain value music

indefinitely, but suggestively consider it as extra-curricular rather than a primary, core subject

with as importance as Maths, English, and Science. The Times Educational Supplement survey

displayed within Philpott and Plummeridge (2001, p.9) discovered that ‘one in five primary

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schools in England and Wales were cutting down on music, and some dropping the subject all

together’, which is a thought.

Arts subjects, especially music, fall into the domain of aesthetic learning, which is

where ‘our senses are operating at their peak’ Robinson for The RSA (2010). Hence aesthetic

learning is vital to education because it enhances young people’s appreciation of the arts and

value judgment, more crucially, making them more sensitive to aesthetically and musically

induced emotions. Conversely, this is compared to learning, a method commonly promoted in

schools as the standardised format of education. Standardised education is a term used by the

author to describe a modernised depiction of education; it also highlights the ways in which

arts subjects are currently being. Suggestively, the current educational is too ‘industrial’ and

according to the RSA (2010), the current system’s main focus is ‘how do we educate our

children to take their place in the economies of the 21st century?’ It appears that a paradigm

over creative and expressive subjects has been formed by the education system, which

overhauls their importance, due to its lesser economic value or impact (than core-academic

subjects). When in fact, today’s careers in media (TV, Film), which are some of the most

important jobs in the country, require skills that are currently being classed as of low

importance to education. Moreover, the current economy is so ambiguous and unpredictable

that standardised education could become threatened and made obsolete in the near future.

Nonetheless, it would be a great pity and loss to contemporary culture if music became a victim

of such uncertainty, poor judgment and inequity. Education without music would limit the

expressive and creative sides of all students, especially those who are less academically gifted.

It would also narrow down attraction to work in cultural areas and creative businesses in the

future.

Music enhances brain activity whether through creativity, or long term memory; as Köksal

(2012, p.1898) states, music can be ‘effective in encoding information in the long term

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memory’. Music can also play an important part in a student’s achievement and attitude

towards a given subject because of its effective means of retention; ‘it stands out as an effective

means of teaching vocabulary’ Köksal (2012, p.1898). The enhancement of memory capacity

and retention of important information is a substantial indication in the opinion of the author,

and should be a main factor in the revival of music’s stance in education.

Funding

Leading educators within the United Kingdom have a right to provide a high-quality music

education (DofE 2011 p.3) but the Government funding is being used for instrument tuition

rather than on better, up-to-date resources that would make music a more appealing subject

than what it is today. Thus funding is a critical issue, vital for the sustainable future of music

education, including music technology. Music technology within this study will be defined as

the technological resources that are used within music education, such as: Keyboards, Digital

Audio Workstations (Music production software), Headphones, Recording Devices and even

in some cases Assistive Music Technology for Special Education Needs Students.

The importance of modern technology being integrated into the curriculum is vital as

humanity evolves through an era where almost everyone uses technology. Modern technology

such as Apple’s iPad could support music teachers, which may allow more innovative and/or

technically (practical and digital) creative lessons. State school financial budgets are lacking a

sizable amount, which is hindering the process of updating school’s technological resources.

Additionally, there appears to be an exploit of the funding for music in the UK: other arts

subjects also rely on it (see H interview in Chapter 3). Further, music needs more funding due

to its use of specific resources (such as speakers and instruments) compared to other subjects.

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 Within The School Budget Planning Guide (2013) created by Northampton Council,

the average primary school ‘needs to have the right resources to support the changing needs of

the curriculum and the mix of students’ Northampton Council (2013, p.2). The ‘right resources’

need to be clarified if this is the case, as schools may benefit from their arts budget in order to

promote a creative and cultural interest, rather than dropping it all together. Another

questionable demand is for schools to ‘Challenge, Compare, Consult and Compete’

(Northampton Council 2013, p.9), which refers to meeting standards and competing with other

schools across the county and nationwide. The author suggests that an alternative would be for

music budgets to be increased due to the understandably excess amount that is spent on external

music tutors, and musical instruments.

Innovative Technology and Adequate Alternatives

Intriguingly, an interpretation by Fell (2015) strikes music education in the UK as

‘poor’, and stuck in a domain whereby ‘social and cultural context of music is the same as

playing an instrument’. Moreover, music much more than a subject based solely on

instrumentation and performance; theoretically, it is also about ideas, concepts and the

humanity at large. Contradicting the support of technology, music may not need traditional

instruments and can be made with any object. (John Cage has also demonstrated that even

silence can be turned into music; see 4’33 by John Cage). Ofsted’s (2012, p.6) report on music

in primary schools shows that music teaching has been ‘dominated by the spoken word or

written word, rather than by musical sounds'. In 2012, Ofsted welcomed openly the continued

government funding and support for music education (Ofsted 2012, p.5) However, their

inspections suggest that there is still an insufficient amount of funding present for the subject,

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which is likely to be one of the reasons why ‘the quality of schools’ music provision and their

coordination with external partnerships’ (Ofsted, 2012, p.7) is declining.

Evidently, technological resources would be a help, yes, but also (maybe more

importantly) creative curriculums, imaginative lesson plans and innovative exercises,

activities, etc. Funding is then essential to ‘buy’ more planning time (and space) for teachers

and/or for them to hire other resources (such as world music instruments and musicians, or an

acousmatic composer). But funding isn’t everything, incredibly innovative music lessons can

be devised through minimal resources (tables, sticks, pots, mugs, pans, or even different forms

of silence and noise. The requirement for extra funding is not essential, but to overcome the

above mentioned issues, funding needs to be distributed more carefully and selectively

assessing the most vital aspects and needs for money. Although this suggestion is the author’s

idea of an ‘ideal’ education system, little funding for the performance arts may not be the entire

issue. A question will be asked to interviewees that will provide a valid response on this matter

(see chapter 3). Moreover, administration and headmasters may not want new music

technology resources and additional teacher training due to their ‘digging’ into academic

subject’s budgets.

Music Specialist vs. Non-Music Specialist

In summer 2012, the Department of Education in the United Kingdom (UK) wanted to ensure

only the highest quality teachers would become qualified, so they setup ‘The Teaching

Agency’. The agency has developed a teacher training module to boost teacher’s skills and

confidence in teaching music (DofE, 2011). Conflictingly, Ofsted (2009, p.5) reported that only

‘half of the teaching’ in music deemed ‘good or outstanding’ when compared to other academic

subjects. Ofsted also implies that is important to make the distinction between subject expertise

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(musical ability, performance with an instrument, vocal) and subject knowledge (musicology

‘progressive’ pedagogy), which is suggestive of another underlying issue, that many music

teachers are lacking subject knowledge.

Subject knowledge is key within any class; having a plethora of knowledge presents

confidence to both the student and the teacher. Students will undoubtedly benefit from being

taught by a subject specialist rather than someone who has little to none experience or limited

expertise in music. It could then be deduced that it would be highly beneficial for teachers to

be given a subject audit training that will boost their knowledge prior to being in the role rather

than during. As mentioned previously, the Teaching Agency has provided a training module

since 2012. Within the lessons, that Ofsted inspected, it was stated inadequate subject

knowledge was causing the teaching observed to be no better than ‘satisfactory'. In addition,

this was because ‘sufficient time should be given for the subject leader to work with and

monitor the work of other teachers’ Ofsted (2009, p.8).

Teachers with a substandard amount of subject knowledge are also affecting the

students' knowledge, which is considered as ‘outstanding' or ‘good' standards of practice.

However, as cited in Holden and Button (2006 p. 31), it is questionable whether ‘they are able

to promote music as an enjoyable subject’. Figure 1:1 shows that teachers with no

qualifications in music felt reasonably or not at all confident in their teaching ability, which

possibly results in the teacher often restricting himself/herself to teach just one aspect (or a

limited area) of music rather than cover the entire subject. The initial survey created by (Holden

and Button, 2006, pg. 30) considers both primary school year groups; key stage 1 (KS1) and

key stage 2 (KS2), suggesting that ‘a higher proportion of KS2 teachers felt less confident in

teaching music' than in KS1. This may be a result of inadequate support for in-class teaching

or a lack of subject specialisation.

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 The terms ‘music specialist’ and ‘non-music specialist’ are evasive labels which do not

clearly represent the person they allegedly signify. Music specialist is considered as someone

who has a vast amount of specialised subject knowledge, even though subject knowledge and

the primary school curriculum are not mutually inclusive. Non-confident teaching is also

suggestive of a lack of resources and means, which is an issue that lies at the heart of this study.

Further, the disadvantages of the contrasting differences between specialist and non-specialist

teachers can, in some ways, be seen as an advantage. Non-specialists could teach the specialist

teachers about the more practical pedagogy within music education. Possibly, the specialist

teachers could educate the non-specialists about the theoretical side, which may resolve the

issue of two contrasting teaching styles that both lack confidence in their own ability in some

way.

The Future of Music Education

Music as a subject within British primary school education may be in peril. To make matters

worse, the future of the subject is pregnant with uncertainties: it may even be completely

removed from curriculums in the future. As previously mentioned, The Times Educational

Supplement in Cox, Philpott and Plummeridge (2001, p.9) uncovered the dismaying discovery

that ‘one in five schools had to cut down on music’, although this is outdated information, it

has left the author apprehensive about what the current statistics would be.

Music can indeed continue to flourish and have a future within education, so long as

the obstacles and difficulties it faces are resolved, which may or may not involve an innovation

similar to what this study proposes (see Chapter 3). H’s perspective in chapter 3 advocates that

SbM could be an alternative, but may not be proficient enough to salvage music from its

demise. The impact of SbM will be discussed in more detail within chapter 3.

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 Overall, the supposedly sufficient funding for education that is supplied by the

government is a scarce amount. Moreover, (School Cuts 2017) projects that primary schools

will lose one-hundred-and-thirty-three thousand pounds per student by 2020. If this is the case,

the funding schools obtain will undoubtedly be used to fund the core-academic subject and

their resources, which may leave the arts subjects with an inadequate amount to obtain new

resources that could change the methods of teaching (new computers, music technology, AMT,

software). Teacher Training modules to improve subject knowledge are only somewhat

existent; teachers need to feel confident in their ability to learn and teach and therefore need to

be embedded into training schemes. Their roles and responsibilities in a primary school have

evidently been changing as society began to rely on technology more and more. Even though

technological aids and resources should effectively support, enhance and enrich the job, they

also seem to be causing problems and limitations. The research collected within this chapter

looks at the hindrances and obstacles that music teachers are facing in education, which should

help justify to the reader the severity of the problems and how some can be solved by

renovating the current pedagogical approaches. Suggestively, funding cannot provide an easy

solution due to its current scarcity or unavailability in the entire country. Training courses that

not only teach subject knowledge, but also basic information technology (IT) skills would be

largely beneficial for teachers that have lost confidence because of the development of

education in the last decade. It is important to clarify that the author believes technology is

considered a positive within education, yet, like most things in life comes with hindrances that

teachers do not have the time for. Finally, with some of the large issues uncovered, it has

become apparent that affordable, and more creative pedagogy needs to be implemented in an

attempt to revitalise the importance of music.

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 Chapter 2: Methodology

Philosophy

To underpin and define the main methods that are going to be used within this study, a

comparison of both qualitative and quantitative is necessary. The methods chosen are

Positivism, Interpretivism and Post-Positivism because they are all philosophical research

methods that are present at some point within this study. Using two or more contrasting

paradigms can be defined as ‘triangulation’, meaning this study will experiment with

positivism and interpretivism methods to collect the most positive outcome. Triangulation is

comparable to post-positivism, but for the purposes of this study, the author will refer to them

as two separate paradigms.

Each research philosophy has its own perspective on the world and what humans know

about it. Both the ontology and epistemology within positivism and interpretivism are the

antithesis of each other, yet post-positivism takes a more agnostic approach. Additionally, the

ontology of this study is imitative of a interpretivist approach, due to the belief that music

education is structured by society, rather than music education structuring society.

Consequently, this study suggests uses of interpretivist methods, but the approaches used

deploy elements of positivism.

Fundamentally, Hoepfl in Golafshani (2003 p.597) explains ‘researchers who use

logical positivism or quantitative research employ experimental methods to test hypothetical

generalizations’, which when compared to this study, can be linked. Moreover, the link

between this study and positivism derives from SbM being an unfamiliar style of music in

society, and the ‘hypothetical generalisation’ being that the entirety of music education is

lacking engagement and creativity. The philosophy of the research undertaken is evidently

being conducted with an approach that demonstrates signs of positivism. However,

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interpretivism can also be found within the data collection; a small number of respondents and

a comprehensive analysis.

Post-positivism, defines ontology and epistemology as an objective world with filtered

knowledge through subjective experiences, and knowledge is increased by individual

experience (Ty, 2012). However, approaching this study with the view of a post-positivism

philosophy would require students to work too independently on an unfamiliar topic, which

could affect the findings when measuring engagement. Although it is evident that both

qualitative and quantitative methods will be used within this study, qualitative methods such

as: interviews, observation and most prominently, action research will be the catalysts in

finding a conclusion. Post-positivism could also be adopted as the main research philosophy

so that the research collected does not take an incorrect philosophical approach. The methods

used within post-positivism would allow the construction of a hypothetical theory, but also

permits experimental pedagogy.

Approach

Action research is the idea of practically creating your experiment first hand. Further,

(Kemmis and McTaggart, 1988) uses a diagram (see Figure 2:2) to describe the cyclic nature

of action research, with the terms plan, act, observe, reflect being the words to describe the

necessary ‘actions’. To put Kemmis’ diagram in the context of this study, the ‘plan’ section

would be the lesson plans created for the lessons, and the act being the conducting of them.

Moreover, the observe action will be used within both a separate observation beforehand, but

also within the lessons conducted by the author as an assessment of attentiveness and creativity.

However, with the last action being to reflect, it could be perceived as a self-reflection, as well

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as a deliberation of the overall lesson. This insinuates that a self-evaluation would suggestively

be affective, and would have a relation with the prior observation.

Whilst a quantitative approach is addressed within this study because of the collection

of data and the method of interpreting it, mixed methods is an approach which is used within

the interviews conducted. Moreover, because the interviews are open-ended questions, a

different method of analysing the data will be used so that the emotion and personal

perspectives of the interviewees can be explored. The approach of analysing data in such a

manner is called qualitative, and therefore when gathering all the research collected, mixed

methods is a highly used approach. The mixed method approach will also be useful in reflecting

the different perspective on the subject, in context, music education’s perspective before and

after the SBM content is implemented.

Although SBM being implemented is a logical alternative, it is essential that to be as

realistic as possible, so that this study can be considered a service to education, rather than a

desire for one who is passionate about the future of music education.

Within King and Horrocks (2010, p.1) they state that ‘failure to recognise the special

requirements of qualitative interviews can result in the elicitation of data that have serious

limitation of a study’, this meaning if the relevance of the person is slightly obscured, or the

questions are not clear.

Overall, although there are several research methods used, the study has its limitations.

The main limitation being the lack of consideration to different methods in the research

process, such as a pragmatic approach; more practical, less theoretical. However, the pragmatic

approach would subtract the theoretical side, so the balance of methods already chosen should

be substantial enough to carry out the research required. Referring back to (Figure 2:2), the

diagram shows the many other research methods that could have been considered, some being

relevant and commendable, others less relevant to this specific study.

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Research Design

A conceptual research design has been formed to optimise the potential findings within this

study. Three strategies: observation, interviews and action research in that order have been

conducted. The reason is so that a current music class can be accessed, SbM can be

implemented and finally, interviews with educators can be conducted to obtain their

perspective on both music education and SbM as an alternative to standard. Consideration of

research methods has been a large factor of this study, and the design is simple, yet affective.

Table 1 - Showing the research methods and their chosen paradigm in chronological order:

Research Method Paradigm

Observation Interpretivist – Purposive

Questionnaire 1 Positivism – Purposive

Action Research Positivism – Convenience

Questionnaire 2 Positivism – Convenience

Interviews Interpretivist – Convenience

The structure of Table 1 allows a ‘before and after’ effect to take place, with the students

answering questions before the action research, and afterwards. This will help when accessing

the level of engagement, and also structure a comparison between the class observed, and the

class taught. In addition, an unambiguous structure proposed can be portrayed as bias, due it

the fact the action research will take place after the observation; resulting in the students having

the workshops still fresh in their minds.

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Triangulation is the idea of looking from two perspectives, and in the context of this study, it

concerns the philosophies chosen. Because this study includes both positivism and

interpretivist approaches; triangulation occurs. Although previously stated as ‘post positivism’,

the idea of using contrasting research paradigms will provide more credible and reliable data,

due to looking at two different perspectives.

Observation

An observation took place in a primary school in an urban area of Warwickshire, England. The

purpose of the observation was to understand the student’s attitudes towards their current music

lessons, and to access the creativity and engagement level by giving them a questionnaire based

on their current lessons. Also, it is essential to understand the teacher’s attitude to teaching, so

that it is clear whether teachers do lack confidence or not. The ideology proposed to the school

was to implement SbM as an alternative method rather than deemed ‘extra-curricular’ to

enhance the creativity levels and promote divergent thinking. Moreover, Robinson in RSA

(2010) states that divergent thinking is ‘the ability to see lots of possible answers to a question,

lots of ways to interpret questions’, which is not seen within the direct teaching methods used

in core academic subjects like maths and English as for the majority of the time a correct answer

is compulsory

To justify the cause and obtain a direct experience in a classroom, objectives, similar

to a checklist were created to understand if music is being taught in an insufficient way, based

on the secondary research done for this study. The objectives consist of 5 obtainable targets

that are assessed from the beginning to the end of the lesson:

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Objectives within Observation

 Students are attentive and show signs of engagement

 The teaching methods used work effectively

 Demonstration of aesthetic or an-aesthetic questions

 Enjoyment levels are high (for a long duration)

 Behavioural issues dealt with through musical activity (optional)

The objectives were created with an interpretivist approach, because the observation needed to

be accessed in a great amount of detail to obtain the levels of creativity, and an evaluation of

teaching.

The sample of respondents used within the observation are evidently primary school

students. However, so that the study could promote SbM as a realistic alternative, the sample

consisted of students who had an interest in music (musical instrument tuition) and the other

half with more academic skill and less interest in arts subjects. The issue with selecting half

that did not learn a musical instrument was that half of the respondents could not take part in

the observation. Moreover, the questionnaire provided afterwards also caused issues as the

students are constructing a perspective from past experiences with arts subjects, rather than

current lessons. Though this issue was difficult to overcome, the observation was only tainted

in the number of respondents that could partake, other than that, the method was informative

and necessary before the action research was conducted.

Purposive Sampling targets the people needed to ‘satisfy the specific needs of the

project’ Robson and Mccatan (2016 p.280) and also ‘implies that the way that researchers must

be tied to their objectives’ Palys (2008, p.697). Furthermore, the sampling conducted was

purposive due to selecting primary school students with particular interests. There are specific

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methods within purposive sampling such as homogeneous and typical case (Etikan et al, 2016

p.3) which can be comprehended within this strategy. The homogeneous method is present due

to the focus on respondents who have similar traits. Although the dissimilar divide with the

group of respondents offsets the homogeneous method, leaving it to be categorised as typical

sampling. Typical sampling uses the probability that all respondents will act in a similar way.

Although this is only a prediction, the primary school students sampled are all of the same age

and therefore share common ground. This statement however, does not mean they have similar

interests or hobbies, though the probability is still high.

Interviews

The purpose of conducting interviews for this study is briefly mentioned within the approach.

The emotional and personal perspective of a person whom is relevant to the education system

can bring an intricate and subjective opinion on the matter in question. Five questions based

around the secondary research found, and also questions directed more at the interviewee and

their experience with primary education.

To respect ethical purposes, pseudonyms will be made for both interviewees. The first

interviewee will be referred to as H, who has studied the impact of SbM in primary education

for his PhD study. Moreover, the facts and opinions that H will provide will be an important

access to this study, because they will provide a valid, alternative and exclusive opinion to the

secondary research found. The second interviewee was dissimilar to H, as the author also

wanted to obtain the perspective of an avid SbM composer. D is a Lecturer at De-Montfort as

stated previously, but also composes pieces of SbM. Therefore, the opinion of a SbM

composer, who also has a passion for music education, is an obvious candidate for an

21
interview about the issues of music education. Although there are not many restrictions

regarding H, D’s status in music education is less of relevance to this study. Moreover, D’s

significance does not encumber the results dramatically, but does restrict some of the questions

asked as they are more directed towards primary education.

Convenience sampling places ‘primary emphasis on generalizability’ Etikan et al (2016

p.3) compared to the purposive sampling used within the observation, which selects a niche

and specific sample; relevant to the study. Earlier, the process of interviewing two university

lecturers was deemed as an act of ‘Convenience sampling’, which essentially means they are

easily accessible. Likewise, an interview could have been conducted with a teacher that was

incredibly passionate on the subject matter, but accessibility plays a large factor in obtaining

the data, especially when on a strict schedule. Convenience sampling can alter results as it

relationships between the interviewer and the interviewee differ, answers differentiate

depended on how comfortable the interviewee is with giving you their opinion; especially when

it is about their current career.

The next focus was to devise the questions for the interview, and whether they were open

ended or closed. Arguably, open-ended questions are more appropriate when obtaining in-

depth answers, however, a closed question could hold the same impact if asking an important

yes or no question. For example, one of the questions asked to the interviewees was ‘Although

you deal with higher education, do you have any opinion on music education in the primary

sector?’, which could be answered with a simple ‘no’, or, it could be answered with a detailed

interpretation of primary education. When devising the interview questions it was also

important to stay relevant, and design the questions around the research already done.

Likewise, an example would be a question based on (RSA, 2010) suggesting that music is stuck

in an 'aesthetic' field, which then the interviewee would give their opinion on, leaving the

findings ready for an analysis of comparison.

22
Questionnaires

To obtain vital primary information for this study, two questionnaires were produced, and

would be the gateway to accessing the creativity and engagement levels; before and after the

action research.

The respondents chosen for this study are 9-10-year-old students that share similar

characteristics due to their age, and interests. Both purposive and convenience methods are

present. The purposive method being that the respondents have been chosen to “satisfy the

specific needs of the project” Robson and McCatan (2016, p.280). In addition, by satisfying

the need of the study, the sample chosen will provide a correct and adequate amount of

responses.

Convenience sampling methods are also present within this research method, as the

author negotiated with Mrs. Alex Norton (Head Teacher of Bilton Junior School) so that the

students chosen to be a ‘sample’ within this research had an interest in music. Therefore, the

sample was tailored to suit the study, which could be considered biased, but allowed for a

quicker and easier experience when obtaining the data required.

As the study requires only the focus of a small group of respondents, the questionnaires

did not need to be ‘online’, as online questionnaires are typically used to “allow large samples

to be reached, from respondents who may be in distant locations” Woods (1986: p.114) and

Opie (2004: p.95).

Not only does this study require the measurement of attentiveness and skills within students,

but also a comparison of primary research with the secondary research. With the data collected

from the questionnaires, a comparison of both primary and secondary research can be created,

23
which will lead to statistics being accessed, allowing a correlation to be shown between the

respondent’s answers, and the secondary literature that states music education is in peril (see

chapter 1).

Action Research (SBM Lessons)

According to Power (2005 p.7) action research can be described as “any research into practice

undertake by those involved in that practice, with an aim to change and improve it”. In addition,

action research is undoubtedly the most important method of primary research within this

study; because it describes the thesis in its own definition.

The workshops will implement SbM into a lesson, so that the thesis can be explored

and possibly concluded. However, several aspects had to be considered before partaking in this

research method, such as lesson plans, resources and accessibility in terms of gaining access to

a school.

A lesson plan is essential, so that a lesson has a structure, and also so that the teacher

has a well-defined plan of what they are going to teach. Most importantly, the lesson plan

created for this particular piece of action research had to be engaging and effective, so, similar

to the observation a list of objectives coexisted:

Objectives within Lesson

 Students will be able to understand and identify SbM

 Students will develop advanced listening skills by describing sounds

 Students can use a range of innovative technology (SoundPlant, Field Recorder)

 Students should engage within the lesson at a high level

24
 The objectives are subject to change, as the lesson plans created may be altered as further

research ensues.

According to Carr and Kemmis (1986, p.7) typical research within education is ‘focusing

on recent developments in ‘curriculum’ as a field of study and research’. The reason for

focusing on the sector of education, is because it tends to be more problematic than ‘other

established forms of educational enquiry’ Carr and Kemmis (1986, p.7). Consequently, the

problems within the curriculum allow for action research to be done, so that a hypothetical, or

broad issue can be explained and answered.

Similar research by Pound and Harrison (2003, p.65) (see Figure 2:4) provided the author

will the ability to assess and evaluate the action research to make sure it was in-line with the

current curriculum. In addition, this would hopefully emphasise to the students that this should

not be treated as an extra=curricular activity.

(i) Ethics, Reliability, Validity and Limitations

Ethical approval is an initial and essential authorisation, and is remarkably important when

dealing with children, because of their age and the legalities (Disclosure and Barring Service

Check (DBS), Health and Safety Report). Although in this particular study, the approach taken

to obtain consent from the children, is termed loco parentis, which is a phrase used to describe

the ‘legal responsibility’ of a teacher and/or school. Likewise, a letter to the parent(s) or

guardian(s) with a valid signature could have been an alternative, but loco parentis is the

simplest and legal method which was practical.

25
For the interviews conducted, a consent agreement was necessary, as the responses would be

used within the study to conduct debates and examine conflicting opinions. Both the

interviewees received a disclaimer stating:

“Primarily just for ethical approval I would just like to confirm you are happy to take part in

this interview, and the questions being asked are appropriate to my study and your answers

will greatly assist my arguments”

By agreeing to the terms and conditions above, the interviewees have given the author a right

to use their opinions within this study.

Reliability, especially within this case, is precarious due to the unforeseen future of specific

interviewees, health and safety procedures and school approval. Joppe (2000 p.1) defines

reliability as ‘the extent of which results are consistent overtime’, likewise, the results I

obtained could be used under a similar methodology and would produce similar conclusions.

In terms of the interviewees, the author had to respect that answers would not come

instantly, and relying on interviewees to respond in good time was precarious. Although, there

was more certainty that they would reply, since a verbal agreement, as well as the email

approval, was agreed. Overall, unless there was an unexpected hindrance, it was apparent that

reliability was not as much of an issue in this part of the research. Additionally, reliability

within the interviews, in the context of qualitative research, was still not a valid concept that

was considered. Moreover, the concept was not considered due to the results being the

interviewees opinion, and the probability of their opinion changing is small, and therefore does

not need to be considered as a hindrance, or a validity to the study.

26
Within qualitative research, reliability is considered as the way in which results are consistent

after being re-tested (Golafshani, 2003, p. 598-599); specifically, when using a questionnaire.

Although it is difficult to validate the certainty of the results being the same if done again, the

questions within the questionnaire have been devised to reinforce the reliability and validity

of this study.

Validity within this study will be assumed according to the approach made by Creswell &

Miller (2000, 124-131), which suggests that ‘the validity is affected by the researcher’s

perception of validity in the study and his/her choice of paradigm assumption’. Moreover,

providing that there are mixed paradigms to suit the appropriate method of research, validity

to the author is considered, more appropriately as quality, rigor and trustworthiness (Davies

& Dodd, 2002; Miller, 2000; Stenbacka, 2001).

Previously, this particular study has been branded with using a post-positivism

paradigm, which essentially covers both interpretivist and positivist approaches, yet does not

cover a lot of quantitative data, as that is not necessary within this study. Therefore, the

validity, in the context of ‘quality, rigor and trustworthiness’ is ‘defensible’ (Johnson, 1997,

p. 282), and ‘establishes confidence in the findings’ Golafshani (2003, p.602).

Conclusively, all the sections within this chapter not only structure the study, but also

add to the rationale by validating the use of research methods. In addition, defining the main

paradigms within research has allowed this study to be crafted around triangulation, and the

use of two opposing perspectives. However, the use of triangulation does not make this study’s

intentions ambiguous. Moreover, it does the exact opposite by proving that the experiments

done are rigorously tested, meaning the results will be trustworthy. The justifications stopped

any potential controversy that could have arisen when explaining the process of my research

methods; such as action research.

27
 Chapter 3: Discussion

Within this chapter the key findings and results will be discussed. Moreover, comparing the

findings with similar secondary research, will present a correlation between the primary and

secondary research. All methods of primary research will be discussed with the appropriate

approach so that the analysis covers the entirety of the results.

Observation

Ironically, many of the current issues within music education (see c.1) were being

demonstrated within this primary school. One of the issues being that music was not a core

subject and therefore was not compulsory for all students. This issue links with Russel Bowie’s

(2004 p.2) survey that states ‘43% of students’ felt that music education was of importance in

their schools. With mandatory music lessons being non-existent, students were still encouraged

to learn a musical instrument, and therefore, the observation would take place in a group lesson.

Specifically, this lesson was a guitar lesson in which 8 students participated. From the

beginning of the lesson, there were palpable indications that students felt disinterested.

Although this is only from the authors perspective, the body language of the students presented

gestures of disengagement, therefore it was clear that the teaching was ineffective. Whilst

observing the class, the music specialist (wind instrument being the speciality) derived and

presented a direct method of teaching. The direct method of teaching is referred to in Grasha

(1996 p.143) which is used explain that there are five different styles of ‘expert, formal

authority, personal model, facilitator and delegator’. Moreover, from (Grasha’s, 1996) study,

this observation became a critical analysis of the teaching style, as well as student engagement,

so that it also observed the teacher’s impact on the lack of or rise in engagement.

28
 The activities within the class were hindered by the lack of technology and basic

knowledge of troubleshooting (fixing issues on a computer). Although music tutoring may not

need technology, in the modern age, teachers need to take advantage of the creative software

and interactive ideas that are available on the internet. In addition, using internet based

activities would undoubtedly attract student’s attention more; with figure 3.1 showing that 85%

of children aged 3-17 having a computer at home, and use the internet at home. Figure 3.1

proves that future generations are becoming addicted to technology because they are being

born in a world that depends on it. Therefore, methods of teaching need to adapt to this change

in ideology and step out of the ‘analogue’ approach (requiring physical objects; manual

activities that require no technology).

From an alternative perspective, using triangulation within the observation would have

provided a larger scope of respondents meaning results are more accurate. However, the results

obtained provide an intriguing analysis of the student’s engagement within a music class.

Table 4 – Key Findings during Observation.

 The student’s lack of engagement towards the activities suggested a lack of confidence
in the ability of the teacher.

 Too much focus on written activities, rather than practical, which at the age of 9-11
can cause serious engagement issues.

 Not enough evidence to suggest there is a lack of subject knowledge, but

undoubtedly a lack in confidence; possibly due to lack of technological resources to
assist learning.

 The methods of teaching were satisfactory, as suggestively, when using a direct

approach is necessary rather than the opposite or alternative (Student Centered
Learning; Inquiry Based Learning)

29
Questionnaire 1 (Post-Observation – Pre-Workshop)

Table 1 – Questionnaire result (post-observation) regarding the enjoyment of the student’s

current music lessons.

Quantative data normally uses graphs to display a large series of results, however, this study is

primarily qualitative, which means graphs are not essential. Nevertheless, displaying the results

in a graph form provides clarity for the reader, and therefore graphs will be used. Table 1 above

is a graphical representation of the responses for the question ‘How Much Do You Enjoy Your

Music Lessons?’. The X axis corresponds to the students rating out of ten, and the Y axis shows

the number of respondents. When referring to Table 1, only two (40%) of the eight students

involved in lesson expressed that the lesson was enjoyable. Moreover, Table 1 shows the

majority (60%) of students rated their lessons less than five on a scale of one to ten, meaning

the earlier observation on the student’s body language was correct; the majority are not

enjoying their music lessons.

30
Compared to secondary research, there is a positive correlation between Table 1 and Ofsted’s

(2012 p.6) statement exploiting that ‘too much music teaching continued to be dominant by the

spoken or written word, rather than by musical sounds’. Moreover, it was apparent from the

observation that the lesson was inexplicably unpractical for a guitar lesson, which causes the

students to become disengaged quicker than a practical activity would.

Suggestively, the class size (eight students) was too big when compared to one-to-one

tuition lessons that normally occur at primary and secondary schools. In fact, the music

specialist looked under pressure to deliver a lesson that satisfied the needs of all the students

in terms of their musical ability.

Furthermore, a question about the student’s attentiveness was needed. The question asked was

‘how easily distracted are you?’ and a rating of 1 (not very) -10 (very easily) like the previous

question in Table 1. The data collected from this question allowed a firm grasp of the student’s

overall attentiveness, from their own perspective. Moreover, since the students were asked to

be one-hundred percent honest when answering, this could be seen as the truest form of

validation; so that the data is useable.

Although slightly ambiguous, it is not out of the question to suggest that students who are easily

distracted are influenced by the lack of confidence they have in the teaching. However,

although it was confirmed that the teacher leading the class was a music specialist, Mills (1997)

in (Hennessey, 2005, p. 3) states that ‘there is no evidence of a general link between ‘specialist’

teaching and the quality’ of primary music classes.

31
Workshops (Action Research)

The workshops were devised to answer the thesis for this study, however, it also allowed the

author to witness the issues in music education from a personal perspective. The workshops

(four sessions, two-per day) lasted an approximate duration of two-hours, with a ten-minute

break in-between, which allowed enough time to cover a sufficient amount on SBM.

The workshops began with a brief introduction on the specific topic within SBM being

discussed, the first being Sound-Walks, then an introduction to acousmatic music and finally

recording ‘found’ sound (see Figure 3:2).

Glover (2004, p.2) indicates that ‘all music has its roots in activities of ordinary daily human

living’, which can be used as a simplified explanation for what a sound-walk is. By plotting a

map of where to walk in the school, it was clear that the students were already using skills from

other disciplines (geography). Further, the students were given a sheet of paper where they

would write what they heard inside the school, and outside. This activity would then develop

listening skills as they were later asked to describe the sounds they heard; as well as state what

they think they are.

Although this paragraph would be suggestively relevant in Chapter 2, the lesson plans were

not devised until the results of the observation were made, and also had an impact on the results

of the study. John Henrik Clarke in Call (2003) state that ‘a good teacher, like a good

entertainer, first must hold his audience’s attention, then he can teach his lesson’ this statement

provided the author with the idea of devising lesson plans so that a structure was formed.

Additionally, the main reason for creating lesson plans was the need for co-ordination in the

32
class, and to try and replicate the student’s normal lessons in terms of structure. Figure 3.2

shows one of two lesson plans created for the workshops, from this, the lessons had a solid

structure that meant preparation for the workshops was simpler than if they were

unpremeditated.

Within the workshops it was important to focus on both genders within the class, this would

prevent an imbalance of attention to one specific gender, causing the other gender(s) to feel

neglected and lose attention on the lesson. The most important finding in the workshops that

related to gender, was that the girls tended to focus more and were polite towards their peers

and the author. In addition, the findings on gender within this study have a positive correlation

with Chen’s (2007, p.1) research which states ‘boys tend to be more active in the early period

of class, while in contrast, girls are getting more attention from their teacher in the later period

of the class’.

There are a lot of things to consider when discussing the findings within the workshops, more

importantly, the impact SBM would have had if a specialist teacher, or a qualified teacher had

been teaching these workshops rather that the author, who has little teaching experience. With

the positive effect that SBM has had on the students, there is no doubt that if taught by someone

with more teaching experience, the results may have been even more positive. However, it

could be argued that the author’s extensive knowledge of SBM could provide an equally or

more engaging lesson than a qualified teacher; in a way, the author is acting as a specialist

teacher for this specific role.

As it became apparent that Acousmatic music is difficult topic to explain to a young

age, the activity was short and involved listening to examples of acousmatic music.

Furthermore, the students would then describe the pieces of music using adjectives and/or

33
anything they could relate the sounds too. As an example, the students were shown Jonty

Harrison’s (1996) piece Klang, which also includes found sounds, meaning that both

acousmatic and found sound could be covered in one fell swoop. Therefore, when condensing

two topics into a two-hour lesson it was important to be clear with the students, and clarification

of what topic was being taught was essential so that it did not have a negative effect on the

overall results.

When it came to describing Klang, it was apparent that the students felt alienated by

their body language and lack of concentration. This reaction correlates to Dyson’s (2001, p.30)

study whereby a student brands ‘teen-a-ger’ music the music that she listens too, and that the

teacher would not understand or recognise it. The fixed mind-set of student was challenged

within the topic, and towards the end it became apparent that the student began to appreciate

acousmatic music a lot more. One student described it as ‘alien music’, whilst another

described it is ‘non-musical and crazy’, this reaction corresponds to Therapontos’ (2012, p.3)

explanation of how SbM ‘is clearer for young students to distinguish that it is the music of

sounds not the music of notes’.

Table 5 – Key Findings within Workshops

 The students lack of engagement towards the activities shifted when given practical
activities rather than theory based.

 Sound based music (SBM) is advanced, but can be simplified for Key Stage 2 without
losing vital content.

 The lack of technology within the school became problematic and restricted the
author from several independent activities.

 The methods of teaching used constructed a well-structured lesson by using the less
of a direct approach for the majority of the lessons. (Student Centered Learning;
Inquiry Based Learning)

 Students find that given time, and freedom, music becomes more interesting and
Questionnaire 2 – Post Workshop
therefore students are more confident to get creative and engage with the task at
hand.

34
Table 6 – Referring to the teaching methods and activities done within the workshops,

compared to the normal style of teaching music; within that school.

Within Table 3, the students were asked to rate the style of teaching by giving it five stars or

less depending on their opinion. The reason for using a stars as a rating measurement was

simply because the author felt it was a more creative and relatable approach than just asking

yes or no. This question was so important to ask as it would evaluate the use of SBM workshops

and if they are considered a ‘good’ way of teaching music. In comparison with the post-

observation questionnaire, Table 3 shows that the post-workshop questionnaire provides a

much more positive account on music lessons. In addition, the positive response is highlighted

in Table 3 when compared to Table 1, where students are clearly enjoying the SBM content

compared to their normal music lessons.

35
Conversely, it can be suggested that the SBM lessons could have been perceived as extra-

curricular to the students, extracurricular referring to activities that occur out of normal school

time. If the students had the mind-set that these workshops were extra-curricular then the data

have been corrupted due to the students being in a mind-set that these lessons are aimed to be

“new curricular activities”. Fortunately, the students were briefed before the workshop and

explained that the author was trailing new activities for music education, and that this would

require students to behave in the manner they would in their other lessons. By getting students

to behave naturally, the responses would be reliable, resulting in the study being trustworthy.

Interviews

The interviews with H and D both took place via email. Additionally, the interviewees were

sent five identical questions, which covered both SBM and the current status of music

education.

The responses from H were far more in-depth (when compared to D) and focused

around education, which may be because the respondent has an interesting in that field rather

than just SBM. When asked about their view on SBM in general, H responded with an answer

which was largely in the context of education uses (see figure 3:3), whereas D spoke more on

the sensory experience that SBM can bring. In addition, D promotes the idea of sensory

experiences being the gateway for SBM to integrate into music education.

Further, H suggests that ‘many pupils’ music education just involves a few lessons

learning the recorder or some singing practice’. In addition, H’s response is both positive and

negative when compared with Ofsted’s (2012, p.6) report on music education that suggests

music teaching has been ‘dominated by the spoken word, rather than by music sounds’.

Moreover, H suggests that music still remains a practical based subject, but students are not

36
 being introduced to new activities and are being taught traditional (standard curricular)

methods that have been used since music education was created; such as the recorder and choir

singing. Hennessy (2005 p.3) recognises ‘the importance of an inclusive approach to teaching

music’, which can be seen as an opposite and less inviting approach as it is focusing on the

subject rather than how it can develop skills for other disciplines like H claims.

Table 7 - Key Findings within Interview with H and D:

 The interview with D provided an alternative insight due to his cultural

background being different to both H and also education in the UK (D
originating from a different part of Europe).

 ‘It is not necessary for children to have learnt musical theory or achieved a
certain grade on an instrument through hours of practice in order to be
creative with SBM’

 ‘Music education is undervalued and under resourced in the primary sector’

 H believes ‘the best approach to education is a holistic one, where different

disciplines complement each other while also emphasising and developing
different skills and types of learning’

 ‘SBM has the potential to be a valued and established subject’, because

children can find the experience ‘very rewarding and engaging’. ‘There is
growing evidence that SBM has much to contribute to the music curriculum’.

 D states that some cultures are not considering music as Art anymore, but as
entertainment. ‘This may be because of the introduction of Music Technology
as it is putting emphasis on technical skills rather than artistic creation’.
Conclusi

37
 Conclusion

It is clear that music education has several issues such as funding and the argument between

specialist and non-specialist music teachers. In addition, it could be suggested that the issues

are causing the subject to be ‘undervalued and under resourced’ (see figure 3:4). Because of

this, music education may be subjected to expulsion from many schools across the UK, which

may affect student’s development in other disciplines, particularly Literacy (when developing

scores, themes or narratives for compositions) which triggers a casual sequence of events.

The hindrances that music technology such as keyboards, digital audio workstations

(DAW) bring has left copious amounts of negative comments on it being integrated into

education. Although, as highlighted in Chapter 1, the ability to ‘innovate oneself’ is dependent

on how much the teacher integrates technology that will simplify approaches and activities. In

addition, the music technology that is currently used in education may not be as effective as it

could be due to the lack of confidence in the teachers that are using it. Further, this study may

have helped benefit the introduction of training programs in the future for those who aspire to

use music technology resources, but do not have the funds or knowledge to obtain and

understand it.

Funding seems to be a large issue within every section of Chapter 1, this suggesting

that budgets in schools are not efficient enough in the arts sector, or the budget is not being

handled in an appropriate enough manor that positively changes the stance of music in

education. However, it is important to recognise H’s interview in Chapter 3 where he explains

that extra-curricular classes within a university have attracted the attention of government

funding bodies. Undoubtedly, this because of the impact that SBM can have on humans and

requires ‘no prior cultural knowledge’ (see interview with D in Figure 3:5).

38
 When discussing the importance of music education, the author came to the conclusion

that it is not plausible to argue that music is a better subject, as other subjects, such as ‘maths

are an essential part of learning’ (H interview see figure 3.4), it is just a different subject. The

interview from H in Figure 3.4 highlights the best approach to education is a ‘holistic one’,

meaning different subjects complement each other in a casual sequence in the attempt to

develop different skills. The holistic approach is highly undervalued and overlooked by the

education system. If it were in place, music education may be taken more seriously, and used

as a tool to develop skills in other disciplines.

There is a distinct change in attitude towards music education in those who took part in

both the observation and workshops. There was also a rise in both engagement and creativity

levels. This shows that SbM could be integrated as a topic in music education without the need

for exorbitant, expensive resources; but schools may need specialist training for teachers to

gain an understanding of the topic.

Music education may be in peril, but the positive responses obtained from

implementing SBM proves that it could be used as a suitable alternative in the current climate

to utilise the cross-curricular benefits (see H in chapter 3) and show the importance of music

in education.

To conclude, this study has focused on the current status of music education in UK

primary schools and using sound based music (SbM) to provide more appealing pedagogy;

which evidently enhanced creativity and engagement levels. Therefore, action could be taken

to implement some of the pedagogy used within this study, or SbM overall such as sound-

walks, ambient music and found sound. The impact could lead to further success in SbM

whereby it is integrated as a topic in KS3 and KS4. This is advocated by H when he states ‘it

can also be taught at different levels of complexity and sophistication to suit the abilities’.

39
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KING, N and HORROCKS, C. (2010) Interviews in Qualitative Research. London: Sage
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POUND, L. and HARRISON, C. (2003) Supporting Musical Development in the Early Years.
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WEBSITES:

http://ears.pierrecouprie.fr - EARS 2 PROJECT, DE-MONTFORT.

https://www.schoolcuts.org.uk - SCHOOL’S PROJECTED CUTS BY 2020.

gov.co.uk – UK GOVERNMENT.

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Appendix 1:

Figure 1.1 – Holden, H. and Button, S. W. (2006, p.30) – ‘Table 3, Confidence by

Qualifications.

44
Appendix 2:

Figure 2:1

Kemmis and McTaggart’s (1988) depiction of action research.

Figure 2:3

Pound and Harrison (2003, p.65) – ‘Evaluating approaches to the music curriculum’

45
Appendix 3:

Figure 3.1 – Child Trends (2013) Home Computer Access and Internet Use. Available from:
https://www.childtrends.org/indicators/home-computer-access [Accessed 20/03/2017].

Figure 3.3 – Completed Activity Sheets from Sound-Walk Activity (Action Research)

46
Figure 3.2 – Lesson plan example

Lesson Plan – Workshop 1

 Introduction – Learning Objectives (5-10 Minutes)

Learners will understand that there is no definitive answer for what ‘sound’ is.
Learners will interpret sound within their own perspective and be able to
explain what they believe sound is.
Learners can create several different sounds using inanimate objects to prove
a diversity within sound.
Learners will perform a ‘sound-walk’ successfully and be able to define its
purpose.

 Explanation (5 Minutes)
What is sound?
Where do we hear sound?

 Activity 1 – Different ways of making sound (15 Minutes)

Learners begin by being given a piece of A3 paper, which they will then proceed to
make as many sounds as possible with. This will show an interesting skill that will
determine their ability to think creatively, thus enhancing their creativity levels.

 Activity 2 – Duncan Chapman Technique (15 Minutes)

Using some string and a metal wire coat hanger, the learner will listen to the drastic
change of sound when the coat hanger hits an object.

 Listen to Hildegard Westerkamp’s ‘Kit’s Beach’ as an introduction and better

understanding of Activity 3.

 Activity 3 – Sound-Walk (45 Minutes)

The learners will use their listening skills to endeavour into the world of sound-walks.
Students will be given an activity sheet so that they have the opportunity to describe
the sounds that they hear during the sound-walk.

 Questionnaire (5-10 Minutes)

 Recap – Conclusive Commentary (10 Minutes)

Learners will recap on the lesson today and ask themselves if they know what sound
is again. By doing this, it will enhance their self-reflective ability and hopefully raise
their awareness of the sounds around them in the future.

47
Figure 3.4 – Transcript of Interview with D.

Hello James,

Sorry for the delay, here are my (short) answers:

> Question 1 -
>
> What are your opinions on sound based music (SBM) being integrated into
> education?

This is an important issue. SBM requires no prior cultural knowledge and

gives the opportunity to train a primary sense- hearing. It is the
opportunity to create a neutral time and space for students to work in
and collaborate on what is primarily a sensory experience. It can also
act as a gateway for more 'traditional' music form (gradually
discovering constraints) while keeping an open-minded approach to
perception. It also promotes a structuring approach to technology: using
computer and electr(on)ic devices to actually /create/ something, rather
than being passive with technology- if done correctly, that helps
structuring a critical view on modern technology, which is pervasive and
often misunderstood and misused.

>
> Question 2 -
>
> Although you deal with higher education, do you have any opinion on
> music education prior to post 16+?

My cultural background may be a bit different than what's happening in

the UK. In France, music education (pre-16) hasn't yet really integrated
technology properly (it is still based on having students trying to make
sounds with a recorder or sing 1960s folk songs!) and this creates a
real gap between what's happening inside and outside of schools. That
said, there are specific curricula there (from 6yo onwards) to
specialise in classical instrument playing while at school (typically 6+
teaching hours per week devoted to instrument practice and music theory).

> Question 3 -
>
> Robinson (2010) suggests that music is stuck in an 'aesthetic' field,
> meaning answers are less direct and have more freedom. Rather than maths
> and English which require the correct answer, do you think the aesthetic
> nature is more influential and overall, better?

I'm not so sure about that. Even in maths and physics, there is actually
room for interpretation: it all depends on the framework you're
considering, say, geometric rules (valid in Euclidean space, but not in
Riemann's). In music, and particularly since after WW2, you need to take
into account the specific 'space' (or set of rules or constraints or
techniques...) in which works are composed- note that in some extent
this was also true before tonality became the norm for Western Music ca.
1600. You can make aesthetic mistakes, and as a matter of fact, this is
quite common in music! The main difference here is that in music people
(usually) judge only the results (i.e. craft and technical limitations
intervene)- that would be like judging 'applied' maths vs. mathematics

48
demonstration or poetry over structural grammar for a language...

> Question 4 -
>
> During research, I have found that one in five schools in 1999 were
> dropping music as a subject. Although obviously this is incredibly
> disheartening, as a music teacher, do you believe this figure will have
> increased drastically since then, and do you believe music subjects will
> be extinct by a certain year?

There is a tendency to consider music not as Art anymore, but as

entertainment- this is a cultural (hopefully momentary) bias that has
obvious roots (consumerism). In a certain way, the introduction of Music
Technology has accelerated this tendency by putting emphasis on
technical skills rather than artistic creation. At the same time most
users do not try to go beyond the readily available set of sounds,
presets and plugins (not to mention learning basic audio theory...) -
again consumerism... If we go down this route, then we will replace
works of Art by technical mimicries (e.g. Google music AI experiments).
So- proper music and music technology education is essential (I speak
for our field, but this is clearly similar for other cultural forms).
There is a quote by Rabelais (French humanist, 17th century) that
applies quite well to the current tension between culture and
technology: 'Science sans conscience n'est que ruine de l'âme' - roughly
translates to 'science without conscience is the soul's perdition'

>
> Question 5 -
>
> Finally, the process of organising a lesson must be incredibly stressful
> and requires planning. Since at Demontfort University, I have noticed
> that Electroacoustic, acousmatic music is widespread and encouraged
> throughout the music, innovation department. Do you believe SBM can be
> influential enough to promote an 'attractive' enough subject, to gain
> stability for music's place in education.
>

Of course. It responds to several aspirations and trends found in our

societies: (a) reconnection to the senses- while mediated by technology,
the most important aspect of SBM learning is 'getting to know your ear';
(b) openness- trying to forget cultural biases (e.g. tonality in music,
the use of metric systems...); (c) neutral space- you don't need to know
music theory to start learning SBM and knowing some might actually be
detrimental to start with; (d) practical, 'hands-on' approach. I think
that's four pivotal elements that plead for the use of SBM in music
education.

Hope that helps,

D.

49
Figure 3.5 – Transcript of Interview with H.

Yes, I can confirm I am happy to take part.

1. I think that SBM offers a unique opportunity for pupils of all abilities to communicate through
sound. It is not necessary for children to have learnt musical theory or achieved a certain grade on an
instrument through hours of practice in order to be creative with SBM. It can also be taught at
different levels of complexity and sophistication to suit the abilities, understanding and experience of
pupils across KS2, KS3 and KS4. There is also evidence from my own research to suggest that it can
have benefits for other disciplines. It can help with listening and composing in conventional music,
but also help develop skills in subjects such as ICT and geography (e.g. going on sound walks,
producing sound maps) as well as numeracy (particularly when using plug ins) and literacy skills
(when developing scores, themes or narratives for compositions). Additionally, in the current climate
when funding is sparse, many of the resources needed for teaching SBM are free (e.g. Audacity,
Soundplant).

2. My feeling is that currently music education is undervalued and under resourced in the primary
sector. Schools are under such pressure to focus on literacy and numeracy that music inevitably falls
down the list of priorities. As a result many pupils' music education just involves a few lessons
learning the recorder or some singing practice. The creative opportunities afforded by music
education are frequently not utilised to their full potential and the cross curricular benefits of
developing such creativity not fully recognised. This is not usually down to teachers but I think is
more due to government policy. There are many great music teachers out there and many non-
specialist music teachers who recognise the value of introducing more music and creativity into the
curriculum, it's just that they often don't have the necessary support or resources.

3. I don't think you can argue it is 'better' as it is a different subject. I think the best approach to
education is a holistic one, where different disciplines complement each other while also emphasising
and developing different skills and types of learning. Different disciplines are interrelated - they can
support each other. Mathematicians, scientists and engineers also need to use creativity. I do think
that creative freedom is a very important aspect of composing SBM, while boundaries are necessary
the more freedom allowed can help to increase a pupil's intrinsic motivation. Yes there is a distinction
in that a composition cannot be necessarily right or wrong - but it might need to fulfil certain criteria
set by the teacher. However, I don't think you can argue that makes it better than a subject such as
maths (which is an essential part of learning), it's just different.

4. I'm not sure it will have increased drastically and I think there are enough music teachers and
people in education who value music for it to survive as a subject in some form. Even the
government recognised its importance in the National Music Plan, although their actions have not
really supported the rhetoric.

5. I think it has the potential to be a valued and established subject. There is much work happening
at DMU to try to promote this in schools (for example EARS2) and the responses from teachers as
well as funding bodies has been very positive to these initiatives. My own research has indicated that
children can find the experience of composing SBM very rewarding and engaging. I think there is
growing evidence that SBM has much to contribute to the music curriculum.

Hope that's all Ok, let me know if you need anything else.

Best wishes

H.

50
Figure 3.6 – Physical copy of post-observation workshop questionnaire.

51
Figure 3.7 – Ethics and Health form - Head teacher of Bilton Junior School.

PRE-PLACEMENT HEALTH & SAFETY CHECKLIST

Company: Bilton C of E Junior School Type of Industry: Primary School

Address:
Plantagenet Drive
Rugby
CV22 6LB
Contact Name: Mrs Alex Norton Tel. No. 01788 810675 Fax No:

Yes No

1 Do you have a written Health and Safety policy? x

2 Do you have a policy regarding health and safety training for people working in your x
undertaking, including use of vehicles, plant and equipment, and will you provide all
necessary health and safety training for the placement student?
3 Is the organisation registered with Health and Safety Executive or the Local Authority x
Environmental Health Department?
4 Insurance
Is Employer and Public Liability Insurance held? x
Will your insurance cover any liability incurred by a placement student as a result of x
his/her duties as an employee?
5 Risk Assessment
Have you carried out risk assessment of your work practices to identify possible risks x
whether to your own employees or to others within your undertaking?
Are risk assessments kept under regular review? x
Are the results of risk assessment implemented? x
6 Accidents and Incidents
Is there a formal procedure for reporting and recording accidents and incidents in x
accordance with RIDDOR?
Have you procedures to be followed in the event of serious and imminent danger to x
people at work in your undertaking?
Will you report to the university all recorded accidents involving placement x
students?
Will you report to the university any sickness involving placement students which may x
be attributable to the work?
7 Number of accidents reported to HSE/EHO in the past year 0
Total number of staff employed 32

52
Contact Personnel and Ethics
Who is your nominated contact for compliance with the requirements of health and safety
legislation?

Name and position: Mrs Alex Norton / Head Teacher Tel: 01788 812893

I give consent for James A Cane to conduct 4 workshops that will aid his dissertation. All
information obtained from the workshops will be contained with the discretion of the students
and you. In the act of loco parentis, you are the liable guardian for the students and therefore
are liable to sign on their behalf. If they wish to take part and this can be confirmed, please
sign/print below.

The above statements are true to the best of my knowledge and belief.

Signed: A J Norton

Position: Head-teacher Date: 24/2/17

53