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The review of related literature will help the researchers in further understanding the
problem and what causes it. This can also greatly affect the knowledge of the researchers
with the concept of Permeable Interlocking Concrete Pavement and how to properly
Manila is the capital of the Philippines, and the second largest of the 16 cities that comprise
Metro Manila. It has an overall population of around 12.8 million per the 2015 census. The
city of Manila has a population of 1.78 million, according to census data. Manila is the
world’s most densely populated city which has 42,857 people per square kilometer or
111,002 people per square mile. The density of manila is much higher than that of Mumbai
(23,000 sq/km), Paris (20,150 sq/km), and Tokyo (10,100 sq/km). In the most recent
census, Tondo has been found to be the most populous district, accounting for 38% of the
total population, followed by Sampaloc with 20.7% and Santa Ana with 10.7% [5].
Manila is bisected by the Pasig River. The city is divided into six administrative divisions
and make up by 17 districts. Four of the districts is developed from the original fortress
city of Intramuros and the other 13 are located outside the walls. In the north side of the
river lies about two-thirds of the districts and the remaining one-third lies on the south [5].
Figure 2. Tertiary Roads in Manila [5]
One of the districts in Manila is Sampaloc, the 4th district of the city. Sampaloc is parish-
district of the city of Manila. It is known as Metropolitan Manila’s “University Belt”, where
prominent higher educational institutions are located. Among the universities in Sampaloc
are the University of Santo Tomas, a by-product of the 333-year Hispanic colonization of
the Philippines; National University (Philippines), as the first private non-sectarian and
coeducational institution in the Philippines. The Far Eastern University, known for its Art
Deco campus awarded as a cultural heritage site of the Philippines; and the University of
the East, once known as the largest university in Asia in terms of enrolment. The district
bounded in the south by Quiapo and San Miguel districts. In the south and east is Santa
Mesa district, in the west and north is Santa Cruz district, and in the northeast is Quezon
City [6].
Manila city is bounded by Navotas and Caloocan city on the north, Quezon City and San
Juan Del Monte on the northeast, Mandaluyong and Makati city on the southeast, and Pasay
city on the south. On the west Manila faces the beautiful Manila bay. The city is bounded
by the hills of Sierra Madre and the mountains of Bataan Peninsula which protects it from
extreme weather conditions. The tropical climate in Manila is divided into two, the wet
season that lasts from June to November and the dry season lasting from December to May.
The wettest months are July, August, and September, which thunderstorms are usually
Wet season is the time where Manila faces the yearly problem of flooding. There are many
reasons that promotes flood in Manila, it floods because of climate change. Due to climate
change rains and typhoons have increased in magnitude. Urbanization and increase in
population is also a factor many open grounds are now build into establishments that used
to absorb the storm water from rainfall. Deforestation in elevated areas like Sierra Madre
causes water runoff to flow freely into the city. Also Manila have less drainage than before,
it used to have 40 kilometers of them and now it only have 20 that have been lost to
development. Many of this drainage systems are filled with informal settlers that causes
improper solid waste disposal and causes blockage in the canals. There are also flood
control system like Manggahan floodway and Paranaque spillway that started in the late
‘70s but unfortunately never been completed. Urban development is unplanned and
unfettered, these mega structures that are surrounded by hectares of parking causes lack of
planning for the drainage, and road and traffic infrastructure is useless to carry the
In July 2001, thousands of workers and students were stranded in the flood-prone Sampaloc
and University belt districts [7]. The government summoned coast guard rubber boats to
give transportation for the people that were stranded for hours waiting for public utility
vehicles that brave the flood. Recently in August 2016 continuous rains brought by the
southwest monsoon resulted floods across Manila, suspending classes and causing traffic
congestion [8].
A pavement is commonly classified as rigid and flexible, these two classification differs
from the behavior of the pavement under loads and the underlying materials needed for
roadbed. It is generally used for its ability to hold shape under heavy traffic and its
durability in withstanding loads. In a rigid pavement the loads influence large area
for the slab to hold. The Design controls for a rigid pavement consists of: design
life, width of pavement, soil properties (CBR), material properties of concrete and
steel, and also the loadings for traffic. As per DPWH standards the slab length of a
rigid pavement is 4.50m. As per AASHTO Pavement Design Guide, page II-49
and environment. Expansion joints and construction joints depends on layout and
construction capabilities. On the other hand the contraction joint spacing depends
base, base and bituminous surface course to support the pavement. Its behavior
under loads is the loads are distributed onto a small area which is supported by the
multi layers of the pavement. The prepared roadbed is usually a compacted soil or
The second layer is the sub-base layer, usually consists of a compacted granular
material either treated or untreated or maybe a layer of soil treated with the required
admixture. The sub-base material should be in better quality than the roadbed soil.
The base layer of the flexible pavement is usually consists of crushed stone, crushed
slag, crushed gravel and sand or the combination of all of these materials. The base
The porous pavement was proposed in 1960s by the United States and was submitted to
the Office of Research and Monitoring Environmental Protection Agency to test a sample
for reducing flood, replenishing aquifers, and raising water tables. The first review of
porous pavement technology and application was in North America by Bruce K. Ferguson
and performance levels. Permeable concrete was used in different parts of U.S and grown
open-graded aggregate choker course and reservoir bed. Porous asphalt systems
storage and frost depth requirements. Permeable pavement systems are usually
pavement typically has a 15% to 25% interconnected viod space that allows rapid
infiltration of stormwater to the underlying soil and/or aggregate storage layer [11].
concrete units that reduce stormwater runoff volume, rate and pollutants. The
impervious units are designed with small permeable joints. The openings typically
comprise 5% to 15% of the paver surface area and are filled with highly permeable,
small-sized aggregate. The joints allow stormwater to flow into a crushed stone
aggregate bedding layer and base/subbase that supports the pavers, while providing
water storage and runoff quantity and quality treatment. PICP is visually attractive,
durable, easily repaired, requires low maintenance, and can withstand heavy traffic
loads [11].
Table 1. Interlocking Concrete Pavement Institute, base/subbase thickness design chart
Grid pavements are comprised of concrete or plastic open-celled paving units. The
aggregate or topsoil and grass. Concrete and plastic grids are intended for light
aggregate base. Both types of grids are often used for emergency access drives and
parking or drive lanes with occasional use where a natural turf appearance and
infiltration are desired and where high intensity uses or loads are not expected. In
some cases, open-graded aggregate within the grid openings and an open-graded
base are used with these products for additional stormwater storage and infiltration
[11].
Reduces the total storm water runoff and spreads the volume over a longer
Subbase materials filters the water and removes heavy metals, oils and
nutrient loads.
iv. Reduced storm water temperature and heat island effects from pavement
Reduces the need of manholes, storm drains for a pipe drainage system.
vii. Pavement surface benefits
walkways.
Table 2. Potential Applications for Permaeble Pavement Systems
Permeable
Potential Porous Pervious Grid
Interlocking Concrete
Applications Asphalt Concrete Pavement
Pavement
Primary Parking
YES YES LIMITED YES
Areas
Sidewalks /
YES YES YES YES
Pathways
Roads /
LIMITED LIMITED LIMITED LIMITED
Highways
Access Drives /
NO YES YES YES
Ring Roads
Frequent Truck
LIMITED LIMITED LIMITED YES
Traffic
These main roads form the backbone of the road network in the Philippines. Typical
Secondary roads connect cities less than 100,000 population. These roads connect
ports, ferry terminals, Airports, Tourist service centre, and other National
have as many connecting roads as the primary roads. Typical surfaces of these roads
Tertiary roads are other existing roads under the jurisdiction of Department of
Public Works and Highways (DPWH) which perform a local function. Provincial,
municipal, city and barangay roads are classified as tertiary roads. Typical surfaces
Road Name Functional Classification Section Length (m) AADT Road Number
Concrete 1,410
A Maceda St 11360 A
Asphalt 269
Concrete 1,565
Alfonso Mendoza St 12346 C
Asphalt 335
Concrete 2,083
Algeciras St 646 D
Concrete 258
Buenos Aires St 9060 I
Asphalt 281
Asphalt 193
Bustillos St 11325 J
Concrete 1,654
Dapitan St 9486 Q
Asphalt 680
Domingo Santiago St. 10137 V
Concrete 2,223
E Quintos St 3361 W
Concrete 794
F Cayco St 9042 Y
Concrete 428
G Tuazon St 5557 A-1
Asphalt 1,416
Concrete 985
J Fajardo St 8789 F-1
Asphalt 1,336
JP Laurel St 16386 K-1
Concrete 350
Laon-Laan St 4852 O-1
Concrete 2,232
M Dela Fuente 8879 Q-1
Concrete 115
M. Earnshaw St 10605 S-1
Asphalt 650
Concrete 1,253
Ma. Clara 5969 T-1
Concrete 162
Manga St. 8348 W-1
Asphalt 578
Mendiola St 14072 Y-1
Asphalt 351
Nicanor Reyes St 6718 D-2
Concrete 600
P Florentino 523 H-2
Asphalt 396
Concrete 662
Paltok St 3363 I-2
Asphalt 225
Retiro St 11556 V-2
Concrete 1,772
SH Loyola 14127 Y-2
Concrete 2070
VG Cruz 6334 N-3
Asphalt 305
Table 3. Forecasted 2016 List of Tertiary Roads in Sampaloc, Manila [19]
Tertiary Roads
Road Name Functional Classification Section Length (m) AADT Road Number
Concrete 1,410
A Maceda St 13289.593 A
Asphalt 269
Concrete 1,565
Alfonso Mendoza St 14443.074 C
Asphalt 335
Concrete 2,083
Algeciras St 755.729 D
Concrete 258
Buenos Aires St 10598.919 I
Asphalt 281
Asphalt 193
Bustillos St 13248.648 J
Concrete 1,654
Dapitan St 11097.278 Q
Asphalt 680
Domingo Santiago St. 11858.856 V
Concrete 2,223
E Quintos St 3931.895 W
Concrete 794
F Cayco St 10577.861 Y
Concrete 428
G Tuazon St 6500.904 A-1
Asphalt 1,416
Concrete 985
J Fajardo St 10281.887 F-1
Asphalt 1,336
JP Laurel St 4248.926 K-1
Concrete 350
Laon-Laan St 19169.302 O-1
Concrete 2,232
M Dela Fuente 5676.154 Q-1
Concrete 115
M. Earnshaw St 10387.174 S-1
Asphalt 650
Concrete 1,253
Ma. Clara 12406.350 T-1
Concrete 162
Manga St. 6982.886 W-1
Asphalt 578
Mendiola St 9765.979 Y-1
Asphalt 351
Nicanor Reyes St 16462.250 D-2
Concrete 600
P Florentino 7859.110 H-2
Asphalt 396
Concrete 662
Paltok St 611.836 I-2
Asphalt 225
Retiro St 13518.886 V-2
Concrete 1,772
SH Loyola 16526.592 Y-2
Concrete 2070
VG Cruz 7409.884 N-3
Asphalt 305
2.7 Materials
Typically 6 to 8 in. (150 – 450 mm) thick stone layer which is used for the sub-base
of the pavement, the thickness depends on the amount of water storage required, as
well as the amount of traffic loads and soil type. The water storage capacity of the
layer is normally 40% of the total base volume [11]. (See Figure 6.)
A 4 in. (200 mm) thick stone layer used for the base and has a water storage capacity
A 2in. (50 mm) thick stone layer that functions as the bedding layer and jointing
materials. The no. 8 stone has about 20% void space between particles. Concrete
pavers are outdoor flooring option that is similar to tiles, it offers permeable
surfaces that allows water to pass through. Concrete pavers have a minimum
1
thickness of 3 8 in. (80 mm) for PICP [11]. (See Figure 8.)
Figure 5. ASTM Sieve Sizes for ASTM NO. 2, NO. 57 and NO. 8 [11]
RESEARCH AVAILABILITY
2.8 Software
Due to high demands for porous pavement, designers develop a software that they
can depend on like Permeable Design Pro and create a Hydrological and Structural
solutions for Permeable Interlocking Concrete Pavement (PICP). The said program
(ICPI) it was integrated into two areas of civil engineering; structural and
hydrological. Structural analysis includes sub-base thickness tables that will design
a permeable aggregate layer and validated using full-scale accelerated load testing.
Since permeable pavement has a greater exposure to saturated soil than the usual
pavement that we are using, the program estimates the infiltration rate of the soil
subgrade and by the use of rainfall intensity data it can determine the average
number of days per year with rainfall greater than the 24 hours’ infiltration rate of
the subgrade. The debilitated condition must be considered in planning the base
The software allows the user to design for the critical condition due to saturated
soils. This helps to lessen the risk of rutting due to traffic by calculating the
thickness of sub-base layer. The calculation of the thickness for sub-base layer are
The software design soil infiltration at saturation and estimate the number of hours
or days required to drain that soil given a rainstorm depth. If the soil drainage is
slow, the user can present perforated drain pipes and the software will recalculate
the required time to completely drain the water in soil, limiting the number of hours
the soil is saturated, and rutting risk. This is the unique feature of Permeable Design
Pro Software. It is very useful since most permeable pavement projects are built on
ESALS.
Like other softwares, Permeable Design Pro also has its disadvantages. Some of
those includes:
2.8.2 PerviousPave
pavements, the American Concrete Pavement Association (ACPA) has adapted its
pavements. Structural and hydrological design methods have been combined into
software called PerviousPave, a user-friendly tool that provides results optimized
requirements.
Like other software, PerviousPave also has its disadvantages. Some of those
includes:
1. Design criteria are assumptions based on current knowledge and may change if
new standards are released and if future research disproves the assumptions.
code which the founder Jeremy Lea had written, in the hopes that the community
applications can be developed, allowing people to use these rather than being forced
to use windows. Open source software allows the user to access source code for
your software so that you can both see how it works and change it to better perform
1. Free
3. Source code can be accessed and edited to suite more specialize projects.
develop one.
4. The source codes are open source and are made only by the community.
Permeable Design
Criteria PerviousPave OpenPave
Pro
Free Software
Independent Software
Structural Design
Hydrological Design
Easily
Available/Accessible
Conducting outflow
sensitivity analysis
Calculating storage
volume and outflow
rates
Provides summary,
reports and
recommendation for the
output
Considers different
types of axle loads
Output hydrographs,
PICP cross-section
design
Conforms to the
AASHTO 1993 Design
of Pavement Structures
Based on the study “Long Term storm-water quantity and quality performance of
permeable pavement systems”, the pervious pavement still gave positive reports after 6
years of daily usage. The project site is a parking lot at Renton, Washington. They have
observed that the performance of pervious pavement is much more effective than the
asphalt surface. To name a few, the infiltration due to precipitation is said to be very good
and the water quality after the infiltration is much better than the asphalt surface [16].
With the use of the program, Permeable Design Pro, PICP design is approached as a
Pavement materials are typically placed within layers to support the incoming loads. The
PICP typically uses high permeability and open-graded crushed stone materials for the
layers between the paving units and for the bedding of the pavement. This type of materials
maximizes the water storage of the pavement system. On the other hand, Dense-graded
materials are not recommended to be used for the layers and bedding in PICP because these
type of materials lack the ability and the capacity to store storm-water. Designing using
PICP, one must understand that it still need to be designed through traditional structural
design to ensure traffic load support and the need for the hydrological design requirements
satisfaction. Within the Permeable Design Pro, the structural capacity of PICP is derived
from the thicknesses of sub-base, base and the pavement surface and it is determined
through the methodology of flexible pavement design in the American Association of State
Highway and transportation Officials (AASHTO) 1993 Guide for Design of Pavement
Structures [AASHTO, 1993]. This methodology was adopted because its underlying
concepts are transferrable to the PICP. With the use of the program, a designer can provide
an adequate PICP design systems that has sufficient structural capacity to accommodate
vehicular traffic and hydrological properties to accommodate and release the incoming
storm-water [2].
Based on the study of David R. Smith, “Integrating Structural and Hydrologic Design
determines the adequacy of the pavement base to store and release. The considerations for
the hydrologic design are user defined parameters, this determines how much water
infiltrates the soil base and subbase and/or the water is carried away by drains or flows off
the pavement surface. Structural capacity is determined using the 1993 American
term soil infiltration rate and the base/subbase reservoir thicknesses and the stormwater
storage capacity. For the structural analysis the design method relies on the inputs such as
vehicular traffic information, soil and pavement material information and the reliability