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Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The review of related literature will help the researchers in further understanding the

problem and what causes it. This can also greatly affect the knowledge of the researchers

with the concept of Permeable Interlocking Concrete Pavement and how to properly

manipulate the program Permeable Design Pro.

Manila is the capital of the Philippines, and the second largest of the 16 cities that comprise

Metro Manila. It has an overall population of around 12.8 million per the 2015 census. The

city of Manila has a population of 1.78 million, according to census data. Manila is the

world’s most densely populated city which has 42,857 people per square kilometer or

111,002 people per square mile. The density of manila is much higher than that of Mumbai

(23,000 sq/km), Paris (20,150 sq/km), and Tokyo (10,100 sq/km). In the most recent

census, Tondo has been found to be the most populous district, accounting for 38% of the

total population, followed by Sampaloc with 20.7% and Santa Ana with 10.7% [5].

Manila is bisected by the Pasig River. The city is divided into six administrative divisions

and make up by 17 districts. Four of the districts is developed from the original fortress

city of Intramuros and the other 13 are located outside the walls. In the north side of the

river lies about two-thirds of the districts and the remaining one-third lies on the south [5].
Figure 2. Tertiary Roads in Manila [5]

One of the districts in Manila is Sampaloc, the 4th district of the city. Sampaloc is parish-

district of the city of Manila. It is known as Metropolitan Manila’s “University Belt”, where

prominent higher educational institutions are located. Among the universities in Sampaloc

are the University of Santo Tomas, a by-product of the 333-year Hispanic colonization of

the Philippines; National University (Philippines), as the first private non-sectarian and

coeducational institution in the Philippines. The Far Eastern University, known for its Art
Deco campus awarded as a cultural heritage site of the Philippines; and the University of

the East, once known as the largest university in Asia in terms of enrolment. The district

bounded in the south by Quiapo and San Miguel districts. In the south and east is Santa

Mesa district, in the west and north is Santa Cruz district, and in the northeast is Quezon

City [6].

Figure 3. Sampaloc, Manila [5]

2.1 Geography and Weather Conditions

Manila city is bounded by Navotas and Caloocan city on the north, Quezon City and San

Juan Del Monte on the northeast, Mandaluyong and Makati city on the southeast, and Pasay

city on the south. On the west Manila faces the beautiful Manila bay. The city is bounded
by the hills of Sierra Madre and the mountains of Bataan Peninsula which protects it from

extreme weather conditions. The tropical climate in Manila is divided into two, the wet

season that lasts from June to November and the dry season lasting from December to May.

The wettest months are July, August, and September, which thunderstorms are usually

common during this times [5].

Wet season is the time where Manila faces the yearly problem of flooding. There are many

reasons that promotes flood in Manila, it floods because of climate change. Due to climate

change rains and typhoons have increased in magnitude. Urbanization and increase in

population is also a factor many open grounds are now build into establishments that used

to absorb the storm water from rainfall. Deforestation in elevated areas like Sierra Madre

causes water runoff to flow freely into the city. Also Manila have less drainage than before,

it used to have 40 kilometers of them and now it only have 20 that have been lost to

development. Many of this drainage systems are filled with informal settlers that causes

improper solid waste disposal and causes blockage in the canals. There are also flood

control system like Manggahan floodway and Paranaque spillway that started in the late

‘70s but unfortunately never been completed. Urban development is unplanned and

unfettered, these mega structures that are surrounded by hectares of parking causes lack of

planning for the drainage, and road and traffic infrastructure is useless to carry the

additional load [1].

In July 2001, thousands of workers and students were stranded in the flood-prone Sampaloc

and University belt districts [7]. The government summoned coast guard rubber boats to

give transportation for the people that were stranded for hours waiting for public utility

vehicles that brave the flood. Recently in August 2016 continuous rains brought by the
southwest monsoon resulted floods across Manila, suspending classes and causing traffic

congestion [8].

Figure 4. ESPAÑA BOULEVARD, MANILA (AUGUST 2016) [8]

2.2 Types of Pavement

A pavement is commonly classified as rigid and flexible, these two classification differs

from the behavior of the pavement under loads and the underlying materials needed for

each type of pavement.


2.2.1 Rigid Pavement

A Rigid pavement is usually consists of a layer of pavement slab with an underlying

roadbed. It is generally used for its ability to hold shape under heavy traffic and its

durability in withstanding loads. In a rigid pavement the loads influence large area

for the slab to hold. The Design controls for a rigid pavement consists of: design

life, width of pavement, soil properties (CBR), material properties of concrete and

steel, and also the loadings for traffic. As per DPWH standards the slab length of a

rigid pavement is 4.50m. As per AASHTO Pavement Design Guide, page II-49

joint spacing (transverse and longitudinal) depends on local conditions of materials

and environment. Expansion joints and construction joints depends on layout and

construction capabilities. On the other hand the contraction joint spacing depends

on thermal coefficient, temperature change, sub-base frictional resistance and

concrete tensile strength [9].

2.2.2 Flexible Pavement

A Flexible pavement consists of prepared roadbed with underlying layers of sub-

base, base and bituminous surface course to support the pavement. Its behavior

under loads is the loads are distributed onto a small area which is supported by the

multi layers of the pavement. The prepared roadbed is usually a compacted soil or

a select borrow material which is compacted to reach a specified density needed.

The second layer is the sub-base layer, usually consists of a compacted granular

material either treated or untreated or maybe a layer of soil treated with the required
admixture. The sub-base material should be in better quality than the roadbed soil.

The base layer of the flexible pavement is usually consists of crushed stone, crushed

slag, crushed gravel and sand or the combination of all of these materials. The base

layer major function is to support the pavement structurally [9].

2.3 Porous Pavement

The porous pavement was proposed in 1960s by the United States and was submitted to

the Office of Research and Monitoring Environmental Protection Agency to test a sample

for reducing flood, replenishing aquifers, and raising water tables. The first review of

porous pavement technology and application was in North America by Bruce K. Ferguson

wherein it defines a porous paving material, required maintenance, costs of installation,

advantages and disadvantages of application, installation methods, source of specifications,

and performance levels. Permeable concrete was used in different parts of U.S and grown

extremely over 11 years for sidewalks and roads [10].

2.4 Types of Porous Pavement

2.4.1 Porous Asphalt

Porous asphalt pavements include a permeable asphalt surface underlain by an

open-graded aggregate choker course and reservoir bed. Porous asphalt systems

allow for stormwater filtration/infiltration and storage as well as a structural


pavement in a single system. The bed depth is based on structural load, desired

storage and frost depth requirements. Permeable pavement systems are usually

placed on uncompacted subgrade to facilitate infiltration, but may include an

underdrain and liner if necessary [11].

2.4.2 Pervious Concrete

Pervious concrete consists of a hydraulic cementitious binding system combined

with an open-graded aggregate to produce a rigid, durable pavement. This

pavement typically has a 15% to 25% interconnected viod space that allows rapid

infiltration of stormwater to the underlying soil and/or aggregate storage layer [11].

2.4.3 Permeable Interlocking Concrete Pavement

Permeable interlocking concrete pavement (PICP) consists of manufactured

concrete units that reduce stormwater runoff volume, rate and pollutants. The

impervious units are designed with small permeable joints. The openings typically

comprise 5% to 15% of the paver surface area and are filled with highly permeable,

small-sized aggregate. The joints allow stormwater to flow into a crushed stone

aggregate bedding layer and base/subbase that supports the pavers, while providing

water storage and runoff quantity and quality treatment. PICP is visually attractive,

durable, easily repaired, requires low maintenance, and can withstand heavy traffic

loads [11].
Table 1. Interlocking Concrete Pavement Institute, base/subbase thickness design chart

for PICP [11]

2.4.4 Grid Pavement

Grid pavements are comprised of concrete or plastic open-celled paving units. The

“cells” or openings penetrate their entire thickness so they can accommodate

aggregate or topsoil and grass. Concrete and plastic grids are intended for light

vehicular loading applications and are typically constructed over dense-graded

aggregate base. Both types of grids are often used for emergency access drives and

parking or drive lanes with occasional use where a natural turf appearance and

infiltration are desired and where high intensity uses or loads are not expected. In

some cases, open-graded aggregate within the grid openings and an open-graded
base are used with these products for additional stormwater storage and infiltration

[11].

2.5 Benefits of Permeable Pavement Systems

i. Reduces runoff volumes and peak discharge rates

Reduces the total storm water runoff and spreads the volume over a longer

time that can help reduce flooding impacts.

ii. Increase infiltration / recharge

Increases groundwater recharge that supports natural stream base flow.

iii. Improved water quality

Subbase materials filters the water and removes heavy metals, oils and

nutrient loads.

iv. Reduced storm water temperature and heat island effects from pavement

By infiltration through subbases runoff cools down.

v. Better site design

Can be used in preservation of the natural landscape.

vi. Reduces drainage system infrastructure and costs

Reduces the need of manholes, storm drains for a pipe drainage system.
vii. Pavement surface benefits

Increase in tire skid resistance on roadways as well in pedestrian

walkways.
Table 2. Potential Applications for Permaeble Pavement Systems

TYPES OF PERMEABLE PAVEMENT

Permeable
Potential Porous Pervious Grid
Interlocking Concrete
Applications Asphalt Concrete Pavement
Pavement

Overflow Parking YES YES YES YES

Primary Parking
YES YES LIMITED YES
Areas

Sidewalks /
YES YES YES YES
Pathways

Drive / Aisles YES YES YES YES

Roads /
LIMITED LIMITED LIMITED LIMITED
Highways

Access Drives /
NO YES YES YES
Ring Roads

Loading Areas NO LIMITED NO YES

Frequent Truck
LIMITED LIMITED LIMITED YES
Traffic

Performance GOOD MEDIUM LOW HIGH


2.6 Road Classification in the Philippines

2.6.1 Primary Roads

Primary/National/Arterial roads connect cities greater than 100,000 population.

These main roads form the backbone of the road network in the Philippines. Typical

surfaces of these roads can be concrete, asphalt, gravel or earth [12].

2.6.2 Secondary Roads

Secondary roads connect cities less than 100,000 population. These roads connect

ports, ferry terminals, Airports, Tourist service centre, and other National

Government Infrastructures to the primary network [13]. Secondary roads do not

have as many connecting roads as the primary roads. Typical surfaces of these roads

can be concrete, asphalt, gravel or earth [12].

2.6.3 Tertiary Roads

Tertiary roads are other existing roads under the jurisdiction of Department of

Public Works and Highways (DPWH) which perform a local function. Provincial,

municipal, city and barangay roads are classified as tertiary roads. Typical surfaces

of these roads can be concrete, asphalt, gravel or earth [13].


Table 3. 2012 List of Tertiary Roads in Sampaloc, Manila [19]

Tertiary Roads 2012

Road Name Functional Classification Section Length (m) AADT Road Number

Concrete 1,410
A Maceda St 11360 A
Asphalt 269
Concrete 1,565
Alfonso Mendoza St 12346 C
Asphalt 335
Concrete 2,083
Algeciras St 646 D

Concrete 258
Buenos Aires St 9060 I
Asphalt 281
Asphalt 193
Bustillos St 11325 J

Concrete 1,654
Dapitan St 9486 Q

Asphalt 680
Domingo Santiago St. 10137 V
Concrete 2,223
E Quintos St 3361 W

Concrete 794
F Cayco St 9042 Y

Concrete 428
G Tuazon St 5557 A-1
Asphalt 1,416
Concrete 985
J Fajardo St 8789 F-1

Asphalt 1,336
JP Laurel St 16386 K-1

Concrete 350
Laon-Laan St 4852 O-1

Concrete 2,232
M Dela Fuente 8879 Q-1

Concrete 115
M. Earnshaw St 10605 S-1
Asphalt 650
Concrete 1,253
Ma. Clara 5969 T-1

Concrete 162
Manga St. 8348 W-1

Asphalt 578
Mendiola St 14072 Y-1

Asphalt 351
Nicanor Reyes St 6718 D-2

Concrete 600
P Florentino 523 H-2
Asphalt 396
Concrete 662
Paltok St 3363 I-2

Asphalt 225
Retiro St 11556 V-2

Concrete 1,772
SH Loyola 14127 Y-2

Concrete 2070
VG Cruz 6334 N-3
Asphalt 305
Table 3. Forecasted 2016 List of Tertiary Roads in Sampaloc, Manila [19]

Tertiary Roads

Road Name Functional Classification Section Length (m) AADT Road Number

Concrete 1,410
A Maceda St 13289.593 A
Asphalt 269
Concrete 1,565
Alfonso Mendoza St 14443.074 C
Asphalt 335
Concrete 2,083
Algeciras St 755.729 D

Concrete 258
Buenos Aires St 10598.919 I
Asphalt 281
Asphalt 193
Bustillos St 13248.648 J

Concrete 1,654
Dapitan St 11097.278 Q

Asphalt 680
Domingo Santiago St. 11858.856 V

Concrete 2,223
E Quintos St 3931.895 W

Concrete 794
F Cayco St 10577.861 Y

Concrete 428
G Tuazon St 6500.904 A-1
Asphalt 1,416
Concrete 985
J Fajardo St 10281.887 F-1

Asphalt 1,336
JP Laurel St 4248.926 K-1

Concrete 350
Laon-Laan St 19169.302 O-1

Concrete 2,232
M Dela Fuente 5676.154 Q-1

Concrete 115
M. Earnshaw St 10387.174 S-1
Asphalt 650
Concrete 1,253
Ma. Clara 12406.350 T-1

Concrete 162
Manga St. 6982.886 W-1

Asphalt 578
Mendiola St 9765.979 Y-1

Asphalt 351
Nicanor Reyes St 16462.250 D-2

Concrete 600
P Florentino 7859.110 H-2
Asphalt 396
Concrete 662
Paltok St 611.836 I-2

Asphalt 225
Retiro St 13518.886 V-2

Concrete 1,772
SH Loyola 16526.592 Y-2

Concrete 2070
VG Cruz 7409.884 N-3
Asphalt 305
2.7 Materials

2.7.1 ASTM NO. 2

Typically 6 to 8 in. (150 – 450 mm) thick stone layer which is used for the sub-base

of the pavement, the thickness depends on the amount of water storage required, as

well as the amount of traffic loads and soil type. The water storage capacity of the

layer is normally 40% of the total base volume [11]. (See Figure 6.)

2.7.2 ASTM no. 57

A 4 in. (200 mm) thick stone layer used for the base and has a water storage capacity

that ranges 30% to 35% [11]. (See Figure 7.)

2.7.3 ASTM no. 8

A 2in. (50 mm) thick stone layer that functions as the bedding layer and jointing

materials. The no. 8 stone has about 20% void space between particles. Concrete

pavers are outdoor flooring option that is similar to tiles, it offers permeable

surfaces that allows water to pass through. Concrete pavers have a minimum
1
thickness of 3 8 in. (80 mm) for PICP [11]. (See Figure 8.)
Figure 5. ASTM Sieve Sizes for ASTM NO. 2, NO. 57 and NO. 8 [11]

Figure 6. ASTM No. 2 Stone [11]

Figure 7. ASTM No. 57 Stone [11]


Figure 8. ASTM No.8 Stone [11]

RESEARCH AVAILABILITY

2.8 Software

2.8.1 Permeable Design Pro

Due to high demands for porous pavement, designers develop a software that they

can depend on like Permeable Design Pro and create a Hydrological and Structural

solutions for Permeable Interlocking Concrete Pavement (PICP). The said program

was originally released in 2008 by the Interlocking Concrete Pavement Institute

(ICPI) it was integrated into two areas of civil engineering; structural and

hydrological. Structural analysis includes sub-base thickness tables that will design

a permeable aggregate layer and validated using full-scale accelerated load testing.

Since permeable pavement has a greater exposure to saturated soil than the usual

pavement that we are using, the program estimates the infiltration rate of the soil

subgrade and by the use of rainfall intensity data it can determine the average
number of days per year with rainfall greater than the 24 hours’ infiltration rate of

the subgrade. The debilitated condition must be considered in planning the base

thickness particularly when the pavement supports traffic loadings because it

weakened the state of the soil subgrade.

The software allows the user to design for the critical condition due to saturated

soils. This helps to lessen the risk of rutting due to traffic by calculating the

thickness of sub-base layer. The calculation of the thickness for sub-base layer are

based on AASHTO flexible pavement design method.

The software design soil infiltration at saturation and estimate the number of hours

or days required to drain that soil given a rainstorm depth. If the soil drainage is

slow, the user can present perforated drain pipes and the software will recalculate

the required time to completely drain the water in soil, limiting the number of hours

the soil is saturated, and rutting risk. This is the unique feature of Permeable Design

Pro Software. It is very useful since most permeable pavement projects are built on

clay soils, slow-draining [4].

Advantages of using this software include:

1. Conforms to the 1993 Guide for Design of Pavement Structures by AASHTO

for the structural design.

2. Hydrologic Design is generated from a non-proprietary program DRIP.

3. Have an extensive library of 24-hour rainfall depths up to 100 year events.


4. Analyzing base/subbase thickness for vehicular applications up to 1 million

ESALS.

5. Outputs CAD drawing (dwg.) of PICP cross section designs.

6. Generates charts illustrating the required base/subbase thickness to store and

infiltrate water for desired storms.

7. Uses time steps to generate inflow and outflow hydrographs.

8. Developed by Applied Research Associates, Inc. (ARA) for Interlocking

Concrete Pavement Institute (ICPI).

Like other softwares, Permeable Design Pro also has its disadvantages. Some of

those includes:

1. Not free (commercially offered software).

2. Only runs on specified operating systems (Windows Vista, 7 or 8).

3. Can be a little hard to access.

4. Rainfall depth library only for U.S and Canadian cities.

2.8.2 PerviousPave

Building on StreetPave, a thickness design methodology for jointed plain concrete

pavements, the American Concrete Pavement Association (ACPA) has adapted its

design methodology for use in the Structural design of pervious concrete

pavements. Structural and hydrological design methods have been combined into
software called PerviousPave, a user-friendly tool that provides results optimized

for both the structural and storm-water management requirements. PerviousPave’s

hydrological design method is based primarily on modifications to the Los Angeles

County method [14].

Advantages of using this software include:

1. Provides results optimized for structural and storm-water management

requirements.

2. No erosion failure criterion

3. No surface distress failure criterion.

4. Adapted Los Angeles County Method for the hydrological design.

5. Developed by American Concrete Pavement Association.

6. Software is easily available and accessible.

7. Compatible to all Windows version and architecture types.

Like other software, PerviousPave also has its disadvantages. Some of those

includes:

1. Design criteria are assumptions based on current knowledge and may change if

new standards are released and if future research disproves the assumptions.

2. Not free (commercially offered software)


2.8.3 OpenPave

OpenPave.org was conceived as a vehicle to distribute the pavement engineering

code which the founder Jeremy Lea had written, in the hopes that the community

would participate. In addition, there are no programs for Linux/FreeBSD/MacOS

X for pavement engineering, and it is hoped that through OpenPave.org these

applications can be developed, allowing people to use these rather than being forced

to use windows. Open source software allows the user to access source code for

your software so that you can both see how it works and change it to better perform

the tasks for which you are using it [15].

Advantages of using this software include:

1. Free

2. Excel based program

3. Source code can be accessed and edited to suite more specialize projects.

4. Have different source codes made by different developers.

5. Valuable for students wishing to explore new algorithms.

6. Valuable for researchers looking to calibrate models without having to

develop one.

7. Very light program, in terms of required specifications.


Like other software, OpenPave also has its disadvantages. Some of those includes:

1. The application need to be coded from scratch.

2. Proper knowledge about coding needed

3. Not intended to compete with commercially offered programs.

4. The source codes are open source and are made only by the community.

5. Not enough codes at the moment


2.8.4 Comparison of Software

Permeable Design
Criteria PerviousPave OpenPave
Pro

Free Software 

Usable to all Operating


Systems/Architecture  
types

Low system requirement   

Independent Software  

Structural Design   

Hydrological Design   

Easily
 
Available/Accessible

Conducting outflow

sensitivity analysis

Designing for full,


partial and no infiltration 
on subgrade material

Calculating storage
volume and outflow 
rates

Calculates Rut dept 

Provides summary,
reports and
 
recommendation for the
output

Considers different
 
types of axle loads
Output hydrographs,
PICP cross-section 
design

Conforms to the
AASHTO 1993 Design 
of Pavement Structures

Table 4. Software Comparison

2.9 Long Term Analysis of Permeable Pavement

Based on the study “Long Term storm-water quantity and quality performance of

permeable pavement systems”, the pervious pavement still gave positive reports after 6

years of daily usage. The project site is a parking lot at Renton, Washington. They have

observed that the performance of pervious pavement is much more effective than the

asphalt surface. To name a few, the infiltration due to precipitation is said to be very good

and the water quality after the infiltration is much better than the asphalt surface [16].

2.10 PICP Design System

With the use of the program, Permeable Design Pro, PICP design is approached as a

flexible pavement. Just like an asphalt pavement, Permeable Interlocking Concrete

Pavement materials are typically placed within layers to support the incoming loads. The

PICP typically uses high permeability and open-graded crushed stone materials for the

layers between the paving units and for the bedding of the pavement. This type of materials
maximizes the water storage of the pavement system. On the other hand, Dense-graded

materials are not recommended to be used for the layers and bedding in PICP because these

type of materials lack the ability and the capacity to store storm-water. Designing using

PICP, one must understand that it still need to be designed through traditional structural

design to ensure traffic load support and the need for the hydrological design requirements

satisfaction. Within the Permeable Design Pro, the structural capacity of PICP is derived

from the thicknesses of sub-base, base and the pavement surface and it is determined

through the methodology of flexible pavement design in the American Association of State

Highway and transportation Officials (AASHTO) 1993 Guide for Design of Pavement

Structures [AASHTO, 1993]. This methodology was adopted because its underlying

concepts are transferrable to the PICP. With the use of the program, a designer can provide

an adequate PICP design systems that has sufficient structural capacity to accommodate

vehicular traffic and hydrological properties to accommodate and release the incoming

storm-water [2].

2.11 Structural and Hydrological Design Considerations

Based on the study of David R. Smith, “Integrating Structural and Hydrologic Design

Considerations in Permeable Pavement”, using a software program the hydrologic analysis

determines the adequacy of the pavement base to store and release. The considerations for

the hydrologic design are user defined parameters, this determines how much water

infiltrates the soil base and subbase and/or the water is carried away by drains or flows off

the pavement surface. Structural capacity is determined using the 1993 American

Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Structural Design


equations. The PICP hydrological design generally relies on the design storms, the long

term soil infiltration rate and the base/subbase reservoir thicknesses and the stormwater

storage capacity. For the structural analysis the design method relies on the inputs such as

vehicular traffic information, soil and pavement material information and the reliability

and serviceability levels [17].

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