Ingredients

Introduction to Ingredients

Success in baking depends on finding the right balance of structure, hydration, leavening, fats,

sugars, and flavors. Understanding the role each ingredient plays in creating this balance

provides the baker with the tools needed to troubleshoot problems, successfully modify existing

products, and create new ones. To maintain control over the end product, bakers must

understand the characteristic properties of each ingredient, how they work in combination with

others, and how they react to different techniques and temperatures.

Flour

Flour is a finely ground powder milled from a variety of sources, including grains, nuts, and

seeds. In North America, where the most commonly used flour is produced from wheat, the term

“flour” generally refers to wheat flour. Other varieties of flour discussed in this chapter are

identified as such.

Because flour is responsible for providing structure to baked goods, it is the fundamental

building block in baking. The type of flour used and the manner in which it is manipulated have a

direct effect on the texture of the final product. For example, wheat flour is superior in its ability

to form gluten because it contains a high percentage of glutenin and gliaden, the proteins that

create gluten structure when mixed with water. As a result, wheat flour is able to produce the

chewy honeycomb structure essential to artisan breads. Conversely, working with low-gluten

flour or using techniques that discourage development of the gluten network allows the baker to

create fine-textured cakes and flaky pastries.

Wheat Kernel Description

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A wheat kernel contains three distinct parts: the germ, the bran, and the endosperm.

Wheat germ, the smallest component of the berry, represents only 2 to 3 percent of the kernel.

The germ contains all the genetic information needed for a new plant, as well as some nutrients

that are available when the plant begins to sprout. Millers remove the germ to comply with white

flour requirements and to improve flour shelf life. The germ’s richness in vitamins and minerals

makes it ideal for use in other industries and products like cosmetics, health food, and

pharmaceuticals.

The bran represents about 13 to 15 percent of the kernel. It serves as the kernel’s protection

against bugs, weather, disease contamination, and more. To obtain regular white flour, most of

the bran layers are removed during the milling process. The bran contains a few vitamins,

traces of minerals, and some dietary fibers that are primarily insoluble. Most of the bran is used

in animal feeds.

The endosperm represents approximately 83 percent of the kernel and is the primary source of

white flour. Its main components are carbohydrates and proteins, but it is also rich in vitamins,

minerals, and soluble fiber.

Milling Process

Before wheat can be milled, it is first evaluated, stored, cleaned, and conditioned. The process

itself occurs when the miller separates the wheat kernels into germ, bran, and endosperm

through a succession of mechanical transformations. Specific pieces of equipment are used for

each step of the process.

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It is important to note that the miller cannot completely separate the three parts of a wheat

kernel. Flour always contains some germ particles, as well as a certain level of bran, classified

by the ash content, that is important for dough extensibility and fermentation.

Product Control

When wheat arrives at the mill, a series of laboratory tests are performed to evaluate its quality.

The results of these scientific and baking analyses allow the miller to classify each batch into

different categories and to determine the best use of the sampled wheat.

Storage

Grain is stored at the mill in huge storage bins, an operation that has to be done under specific

conditions. The right moisture, temperature, and amount of air must be taken into consideration

to avoid damage that can affect wheat quality, including sprouting, mildew, or other diseases,

and even fermentation activity.

Cleaning Process

Before and after tempering, wheat is cleaned by equipment that separates the wheat from

foreign materials such as weed seeds, seeds of other grains, stones, pieces of metal, straw, and

more.

Conditioning

After cleaning, wheat goes through one more step before milling: tempering. When farmers

harvest wheat, its moisture content can vary depending on the climate in the harvested area. It

is very important for the miller to homogenize the moisture content in the grain, or the milling

process can be inconsistent and good results more difficult to achieve. In some cases, this can

result in a higher level of starch damage and/or higher bran content in the flour.

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In general, tempering makes separation of the kernel’s different parts more efficient. It is

achieved by adding moisture in accurate amounts to strengthen the bran and mellow the

kernel’s interior. Tempering can last from approximately 8 to 24 hours, depending on the type of

wheat, with longer tempering times necessary to ensure slow and regular absorption of water.

Wheat can be blended at this time to gain specific flour characteristics.

Grinding

At this stage, wheat berries are ready to be transformed into flour. The first piece of equipment

involved in this process is a break roll that is fed with a continuing flow of grain. Its corrugated

rolls are paired and rotate inward against each other, moving at different speeds and creating a

shearing action.

After the first grinding, several coarse particles of endosperm are produced and then graded

and processed in different ways, depending on the composition. Sieves and purifiers separate

the bran, and each size returns to another set of rolls with an adapted setting. The same

process is repeated until the whole kernel has been processed to obtain the desired flour.

Sifting

After grinding, broken particles are directed to sifters, which are big boxes containing frames

covered with nylon or stainless steel screens. The square openings of these screens become

successively smaller from top to bottom. A rotating movement shakes the sifters, causing larger

particles to separate from smaller ones. Larger particles are removed from the top sifters and

sent to another roll passage, while smaller particles of endosperm are graded by size and

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directed to the next step of the process, purification. Finer flour is collected at the bottom of the

sifter and directed to the final flour bin.

Purifying

In this process, a controlled airflow is used to achieve selection by density. The particles of

endosperm that contain less dense portions of bran are held in suspension by the airflow. Then,

they are sent to another series of rolls with gradually finer corrugations, each followed by a

sifting process that reduces particle granulation and removes as much bran as possible.

The heavier particles of endosperm without bran fall below and are sent to smooth reduction

rolls to be gradually transformed into flour. These smooth rollers flatten particles that contain

some germ. As this happens, the fat in the germ causes it to form “flour flakes” that are easily

separated from the rest of the flour.

This process of reducing, sifting, and purifying is repeated over and over until the maximum

amount of flour is obtained.

Blending

Blending is where all the main flour streams that come from different parts of the milling process

are joined to create the final flour. If the miller desires, one specific stream can be isolated to

create a specific flour, like patent flour, which is primarily made from the inside of the wheat

kernel, or clear flour from the outside of the kernel. If the final flour is made up from a variety of

different streams, it is carefully blended for optimum homogenization.

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Treatments

If treatments are to be added to the flour, they are typically incorporated at this point in the

process. This is done in a precise way to ensure a perfect blend of flour. The main treatments,

as well as their action in dough, are described in detail in Chapter 9.

Packaging

Finally, the flour is sent to the packing room, or into hoppers for bulk storage. The packaging

process has recently become predominantly computerized. A reference code assigned to each

batch contains information like milling date codes, treatments, batch number, and more. For

retail or family use, the flour is packaged in 5- or 10-pound bags. Bakery flour can be packaged

in 25-, 50-, or 100-pound bags, or delivered in bulk by trucks or rail cars.

Types of Flour

The three main types are short patent flour, straight grade flour, and clear flour.

Short Patent Flour

This low-extraction flour, which is made with finer, whiter millstreams, is often associated with

higher quality due to its low bran content. Short patent flour is not used very often in artisan

baking, because there is less bran to interfere with gluten formation. This leads to dough with

stronger gluten and less extensibility. In addition, long fermentation times require a certain

amount of bran to nourish yeast and ensure consistent activity during the fermentation process.

Patent flour grades range from extra short to long, depending on flour extraction or blends.

Short patent flour, for example, is produced using the very inside of a wheat kernel and contains

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a low ash content. Long patent flour, which has higher ash content, requires the miller to get

closer to the bran to use more endosperm.

Straight Grade Flour

Straight grade flour is created when the maximum amount of endosperm is separated from the

bran and germ through a gradual grinding and sifting of the wheat kernel. This flour, which

typically contains 72 to 75 percent of the wheat kernel, can be divided into patent flour and clear

flour.

Clear Flour

This type of flour is obtained by using the remaining flour after the patent flour millstreams have

been diverted. It has higher ash content and is generally used to reinforce the strength of rye or

whole-wheat dough.

Flour Considerations

Millers do their best to provide bakers with consistent flours. Unfortunately, the wheat

distribution process is so complex that this is sometimes difficult to achieve. This is when the

baker’s technical knowledge and skills are needed to obtain products of optimum quality.

Because bakers face many choices, it is essential to obtain a good understanding of the flour

specification sheet before making decisions. In general, straight grade flours provide dough with

the strength of patent flour and the extensibility and fermentation of clear flour. For these

reasons, they perform well in artisan baking.

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Selection of Commercially Available Flours

A number of commercially available flour blends are formulated for specific purposes. The

distinction between them is primarily based on protein content. Most are available in white or

whole wheat, as well as bleached or unbleached versions.

Cake Flour

Cake flour is finely milled, low-extraction flour made from soft wheat. Its protein level is in the

range of 5 to 8 percent, which makes it ideal for producing tender cakes and pastries. Equally

important to the final texture is chlorine bleaching that gives cake flour its pure white color and

increases the liquid absorption capabilities of the starch. This creates cakes that contain a high

ratio of sugar, relative to flour, and that rise higher without collapse. In cookies, cake flour can

be used to limit spread.

Pastry Flour

Pastry flour contains a slightly higher protein content than cake flour, in the range of 8 to 9

percent. It is available bleached or unbleached, and in whole wheat or white options.

All-Purpose Flour

All-purpose flour has a mid-range protein content of 9 to 10.5 percent. It is available bleached or

unbleached, and is intended to be versatile and suitable for a wide range of applications. All-

purpose flour is a mixture of soft and hard wheat flours that can vary dramatically in different

regions of the country. For example, the prevalence of softer wheat flour in the South is

reflected in the lower-protein all-purpose blends sold there.

As with any one-size-fits-all product, results with all-purpose flour will be reasonable but

generally inferior to those of products made with flour tailored to the specific purpose. Cakes

made with low-protein flour will be more tender than those made with all-purpose flour, whereas
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breads made with high-protein flour will have better volume and texture than those made with

this blend.

High-Gluten Flour

As the name implies, high-gluten flour is a high-protein, low-starch product. It is often used in

combination with other low-gluten grain flours, or to increase the chewy texture characteristics

of breads like bagels and pizza crust. The protein level is usually around 14 percent.

Specialty Flours

In addition to bread flour, a variety of other types of wheat or grain flours can be used to

diversify production lines and offer customers a variety of flavors and added nutritional value.

Some specialty flours have different baking performance than wheat flour, due to the nature of

the grains, depending on where they are milled from. Higher bran content, particle size, and

different protein quality and/or quantity are just a few factors that affect dough characteristics.

The following sections describe the main specialty flours available to bakers, as well as how to

adjust the baking process for optimal results.

Whole Wheat Flour

Whole wheat flour is obtained by milling hard wheat. Typically, hard spring wheat is used,

because its higher protein level compensates for the weakness created when bran interferes

with gluten formation. Good-quality red or white hard winter wheat can also be used.

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By definition, whole wheat flour is made by milling 100 percent of the wheat kernel. Because no

component is discarded, all vitamins, minerals, fibers, and other important nutrients are retained

in the finished product. When using whole wheat flour, the baker must consider the high fat

content in the germ. These fats can, over time, oxidize and turn rancid, creating unpleasant

flavors. Due to its limited shelf life of two to three weeks after milling, whole wheat flour should

be used as quickly as possible, and should be kept in the freezer in hot climates to limit

oxidation.

The different granulations (or particle sizes) of whole wheat flour available to the baker are extra

fine, fine, medium, coarse, and extra coarse. Each has a direct effect on the texture of the

finished product. Products made with coarse granulation have a tendency to be denser, with an

earthier, unrefined crumb texture, whereas fine granulation produces more refined crumb

texture with a smoother mouthfeel. Occasionally, a small percentage of extra-fine whole wheat

flour is used in a formula to give a slightly darker, more traditional crumb color to the finished

product.

Cracked whole wheat is not technically considered whole wheat flour, but is sometimes used to

add a touch of crunchiness to the finished product. Before mixing, it is best to soak cracked

whole wheat in water until it becomes tender, a process that typically takes three to four hours.

Longer soaking time should be avoided, because the soaking water can trigger some enzymatic

activity that can negatively affect the final dough. If soaking times must be longer, the soaker

should be placed in the refrigerator to slow down the chemical reaction, or 0.5 to 1 percent salt

should be added to control enzymatic activity. If salt is added, the amount should to be taken

into consideration when calculating the amount needed for the final dough.

Rye Flour

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Rye flours are obtained by milling kernels of rye, a darker, more fibrous grain that yields darker,

stronger flavored flour. A technical particularity of rye is its lower baking performance. Even

though the proteins are gluten forming, their quantity, quality, and ability to form a good structure

is highly inferior to wheat. As a result, dough produced with a high level of rye will be weaker,

will be less tolerant to fermentation, and will produce denser breads.

Like whole wheat, different types of rye flour can be used in baking. Medium rye is comparable

to straight grade regular wheat flour. It is multipurpose and can be used in formulas where good

texture and rye flavor are desired. White rye, which is obtained with the center part of the rye

kernel, can be compared to patent wheat flour. It is used when a milder rye flavor and lighter

crumb color are desired. Dark rye is what is left after the miller sifts the medium rye to obtain the

white rye. Dark rye is rich in bran and creates bread with strong rye flavor and darker crumb

color.

Rye meal consists of whole, milled kernels of rye. As with whole wheat, no components are

sifted away during the milling process. Rye meal is available in extra fine, fine, medium, coarse,

and extra coarse granulations that are selected according to the texture and flavor desired in the

final product.

Cracked rye is sometimes used to reinforce the rye flavor of bread and should also be soaked

before it is added to a formula. The same soaking precautions should be observed as for whole

wheat. To reinforce rye flavor without affecting the texture of the crumb, rye flakes can be

soaked and then incorporated into the dough.

Semolina Flour

Semolina flour is obtained by milling durum wheat. The kernels of this wheat class are amber-

colored with a yellowish endosperm that gives a golden color to the finished flour. The hardest

of all wheat, durum is primarily used by the pasta industry due to its higher density, higher
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protein content, and gluten strength. It forms dough that is easily extruded from the pasta

production line and provides the best eating quality. In addition to pasta, semolina flour is

sometimes used as specialty flour in bread baking.

Two different types of flour are obtained from durum wheat: semolina and durum. Whereas both

of these flours can be used in baking, durum flour is coarser in granulation and creates products

with a coarser texture. Semolina flour, which is ground an additional time to achieve finer

particle size, generates products with smoother cell structure. Although somewhat rare, it is

possible to find whole wheat durum flour. When it is used for specialty bread, the same

precautions should be taken as for whole wheat flour.

Spelt Flour

Spelt—also known as farro in Italy, epautre in France, and dinkle in Germany—can be

described as an ancestor and distant cousin of modern wheat. Its origin can be traced to

approximately 5000 years BCE in the area now know as Iran. Once commonly grown in North

America, spelt was replaced at the beginning of the 20th century by modern wheat varieties that

were more suited to high-volume production techniques. Whereas modern wheat has a higher

yield and higher protein content, spelt that is cultivated using more natural processes and less

chemicals has retained much of its original character.

Spelt’s nutritional value is very similar to wheat, and its flavor is sweeter and nuttier. Regular

white spelt flour is similar to straight grade wheat flour, and whole spelt flour, milled from the

whole kernel, can also be found. Its gluten is more easily digested than wheat gluten and is

generally better tolerated by people with wheat allergies.

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Other Grains

Quinoa flour, soy flour, amaranth flour, millet flour, buckwheat flour, oat meal, flax meal, and

sunflower meal are just a few examples of other options available to the baker. When working

with these specialty flours, bakers should take care in how much they incorporate into the final

dough, because although they are rich in proteins, they are usually soluble in water and won’t

form any gluten structure. A good starting point for specialty flour is approximately 20 percent of

the total flour. Even so, only a good deal of experimentation will determine the exact amount

necessary to achieve the best balance between optimum dough characteristics and desired

appearance and flavor.

Yeast

Yeast is used to ferment flour and leaven dough. In order to achieve optimum results in finished

goods, bakers should understand how it is produced, the different types, and its functions in the

dough.

Yeast has been used for the fermentation of cereal grains for about 4,000 years. It is

responsible for the first leavened breads and the evolution of modern baking. The scientific

discovery of yeast as the microorganism responsible for fermentation occurred in the mid-19th

century, when Louis Pasteur, a French scientist studying the production of wine, was able to

prove that yeast is responsible for fermentation. It wasn’t until later that methods were

developed for isolating and culturing pure strains of yeast.

In bread production, there are two general categories of yeast. The first, wild yeast used in the

sourdough process, is explained in detail in the text discussion of fermentation. The second is

commercial yeast, which is manufactured in factories and is the focus of this section.

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Description of Yeast

Yeast is a single-cell microscopic organism that is elliptical or circular in shape. It can be

classified as a fungus. Yeast consists of a permeable cell wall and a nucleus that controls that

activity of the organism. The rest of the cell is made up of cytoplasm, a nutrient-rich liquid

component, and food storage.

The yeast cell

• Daughter Cell (Bud)

• Vacuole
• Cytoplasm
• Cell Wall
• Glycogen Granule
• Fat Body
• Nucleus

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One gram of fresh yeast contains approximately 25 billion cells. If lined up end to end, there are

approximately 300 yeast cells per inch. As small as it is, yeast is the sole ingredient responsible

for the fermentation that gives a good loaf of bread its complex taste and aroma. Without it,

there would be no artisan bread as we know it today.

Baker’s yeast is one species of yeast from the family Saccharomyces cerevisae, a strain that is

especially well suited for the baking process. The name is an indication of how it functions:

sacchar means sugar loving or feeding, myces means mold, and cerevisae is a word once used

for beer. Baker’s yeast is the same species used for the production of alcoholic beverages and

flavor extracts. When given moisture, food, and the proper environment or medium, it will

function well.

The Role of Yeast

In the bread-making process, yeast is responsible for fermentation of sugar, which is important

for the production of gas, alcohol, and organic acids in the dough.

Yeast can survive in two environments: aerobic (with oxygen) and anaerobic (without oxygen).

When oxygen is present, yeast consumes the sugar and reproduces.

In the baking process, there is a small amount of oxygen in the dough from the time mixing

starts until about 15 minutes into the first fermentation. There is a small chance that during this

time, the yeast will complete one budding cycle, a process that takes about 20 minutes. Though

there is a small window of opportunity for reproduction, the environment will probably become

anaerobic before this happens. With no oxygen, yeast has approximately 20 times less energy

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than when in the presence of oxygen. Instead of using the sugar to multiply, it converts it into

carbon dioxide and ethanol (alcohol) that generate fermentation.

From 100 parts of sugar, yeast produces approximately equal parts of alcohol and carbon

dioxide, as well as additional products that contribute to the flavor and aroma of bread during

and after baking, including glycerol, organic acids, and aldehyde. In total, over 200 aromas are

produced in bread as a result of fermentation, assuming fermentation time is long enough. Many

of these dispel during baking, but enough of them stay in the crust and crumb to produce

complex characteristics in the bread.

In addition to producing gas and alcohol, fermentation plays an important role in dough

maturation. One benefit of this is the strengthening of the dough’s gluten structure as a result of

a chemical reaction between the gluten bonds and organic acids.

Another aid in dough maturation or development is the stretching of the gluten strands under the

pressure of the continuously produced carbon dioxide. During the later stages of handling, such

as dividing and preshaping, the gluten will also be stretched and folded, processes that

strengthen its structure. This maturation has a direct influence on mixing and fermentation

times. If dough is mixed very little, it will need to ferment longer to develop or mature, and vice

versa.

How Yeast Is Produced

Commercial yeast was relatively new and hard to find until the late 19th and early 20th century,

leaving most bakers to rely on wild yeast or natural sourdough for fermentation. Before long,

commercial yeast production grew, and bakers realized that both the process and resulting

bread would benefit greatly from the ability to add a known quantity of yeast to the dough.

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Commercial production of yeast is possible because of its natural aerobic cycle. It can

reproduce at a remarkable rate under the proper conditions by a process called budding. During

budding, a “mother” yeast cell forms a small growth that eventually splits into an identical

“daughter” cell with the ability to reproduce on its own. In just 5 days, yeast can reproduce by

100 times its quantity. In 10 days, one ounce of yeast can multiply to over 600,000 pounds.

Yeast is grown on a medium of molasses and water. Upon delivery to the factory, the molasses

is cleaned through sterilization to become food grade. Containing 50 percent fermentable sugar

and many essential yeast nutrients, it is mixed with water to form a mixture called wort, which is

the medium for commercial yeast production.

Yeast production begins in a sterile lab with a small, pure culture of an isolated strain of yeast

chosen by the manufacturer. The beginning amount is no more than would fit on the head of a

pin. This culture is used to inoculate a mixture of water, sugar and nutrients. As it multiplies, it is

transferred to progressively larger and larger vessels called fermenters, the largest of which can

hold 50,000 gallons or more.

Although different companies have their own proprietary strains of yeast, the general process is

the same. It takes place in a very controlled environment, where computers programmed to

create specific types of yeast constantly regulate levels of sugar, oxygen, nitrogen,

phosphorous, and nutrients. For example, reproduction is regulated by the amount of food given

to the yeast cells, whereas gas production is determined by the ratio of nitrogen to phosphate.

Sugar content creates stability, and a high quantity of purified air creates vital oxygen for the

reproduction cycle. Special attention is also paid to the temperature and pH of the growth

medium.

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As it grows, the yeast medium is transferred to larger and larger tanks that are aggressively

aerated to keep the mixture moving, as opposed to using mechanical methods such as paddles

or stirrers. In the later stages of the manufacturing process, the amount of air pumped through

the tank per minute is equal to the volume of the tank itself. Once the yeast reaches the largest

and final tank, and the concentration is determined to be at the proper level for processing and

packaging, it is separated from the mixture and manufactured into a number of forms. Finished

yeast should possess all the qualities desirable for baking, including good production of gas and

alcohol.

Different Types of Yeast

Wet (or fresh) and dried yeast are the two types that are generally available to the baker. Within

these two categories, there are a number of different forms that all perform equally well when

used properly. The main types of yeast used in bakeries are:

 Cream yeast

 Compressed yeast

 Active dry yeast

 Protected active dry yeast

 Instant dry yeast

 Deactivated yeast

 Frozen yeast

The type used will generally depend on the formula and process, the size of the bakery, and

availability through local suppliers.

Cream Yeast

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At the end of the yeast-manufacturing process, the growing medium or solution contains 4 to 8

percent yeast solids. These solids are separated in a liquid form and repeatedly washed and

centrifuged to concentrate them. The first result of this process, called the cream, has a

moisture content of approximately 80 percent and a solid content of 18 to 20 percent.

Cream yeast can be added to the bowl at the beginning of the mixing process. Because of its

liquid form, it disperses very quickly and evenly in the dough and is therefore preferred by large

industrial bakeries that use a short, high-speed mixing process.

This form of yeast is the least processed form available to bakers. It is used by large wholesale

bakeries located within 700 to 1,000 miles of the yeast factory, because it is difficult to deliver at

its optimum level of freshness to distances farther away. Because it is extremely perishable,

cream yeast is delivered to the bakery and held on site in very sterile refrigerated tanks. In

addition, a pumping system is required to deliver the yeast to the mixer.

One gallon of cream yeast is equivalent of five pounds of fresh compressed yeast. Using an

automated measuring system, bakeries usually use the equivalent of 25,000 pounds of

compressed yeast per week. Shelf life is two weeks.

Compressed Yeast

If cream yeast is further processed, it passes through a rotating vacuum filter that creates a

compressed form. Moisture content is reduced to 70 percent, and the yeast is extruded in a

semisolid sheet that is packaged in a crumbled form or pressed into blocks. This type of yeast

has been popular among bakers for many years, but is increasingly being replaced by dry forms

that are more shelf-stable and consistent.

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Crumbled compressed yeast is sold in 50-pound bags and is preferred by larger bakeries for

easy scaling. It must be handled carefully, with the bag tightly closed and refrigerated within 30

minutes of each use.

Compressed yeast is also sold in one-pound blocks that are individually wrapped or packaged

in packs of five. Both block and crumbled fresh yeast can be added to the bowl at the beginning

of the mixing process.

The shelf life for compressed yeast is three to four weeks from the manufacturing date, which

makes it necessary for the bakery to have a reliable source that can ensure freshness. Fresh

compressed yeast should be an even, light brown or almost white color, should crumble very

easily, and have a pleasant, mild smell. Although color will vary among brands as a result of

contact with the pigments in the molasses medium, dark brown may be an indication of old or

improperly stored yeast. Softness, gumminess, and molding are also indications that the yeast

is not fresh or has been stored at too warm a temperature.

Active Dry Yeast

The oldest form of dry yeast is active dry yeast, which was developed so that fresh bread could

be baked in military field bakeries where fresh yeast was nonexistent. Active dry yeast, which is

dried on a conveyer dryer, has a moisture content of 7.3 to 8.5 percent. Prior to drying, the

compressed yeast can be treated with processing aids or antioxidants to improve shelf life. It is

extruded in thin strands before being dried into dense, nonporous particles of yeast in the shape

of tiny granule spheres. The yeast cells that survive the drying process are protected by an

outer coat of dead yeast. For this reason, the dry yeast has to be rehydrated in approximately

four to five times its weight of 100° –115°F water for 10 to 15 minutes without agitation. This

washes away the dead yeast and reactivates the dried cells.

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It is important to observe the target temperature range to achieve maximum results. Some

brands of active dry yeast can be rehydrated in water as low as 90°F, but a temperature much

lower than that will reduce yeast activity in the dough. If the water is slightly below 70°F, there

will be 30 to 40 percent less activity from the yeast, and the yeast cells may leach out some of

their contents, including glutathione. This natural component of the yeast cell has a natural

reducing property that can produce slack dough and only becomes accessible once the yeast

has died. Because active dry yeast has a high content of dead yeast cells, its relaxing properties

are sometimes preferred for the production of pizza dough or pan bread, where the effect of the

glutathione in the dough allows for easier shaping and less shrinkage.

If the water used to rehydrate the yeast is lower than 40°F, many of the yeast cells will die. The

same amount of care must be taken to avoid temperatures above those recommended by the

manufacturer or the yeast will be damaged and less effective. Once the yeast has been

reactivated, it can be added to the mixing bowl at any time during the mixing process.

There are not many benefits to using active dry yeast, with the exception of a slight reducing or

relaxing effect on the gluten; a more yeasty flavor to the bread, if that characteristic is desired;

and better shelf life. Active dry yeast has a shelf life of two years unopened in a vacuum-sealed

package at room temperature. Once it is opened, it has a shelf life of three months under

refrigeration and six months in the freezer. Stored at room temperature in an unprotected

container, it can lose up to 10 percent of its power per month.

The one disadvantage of using active dry yeast is that it requires the extra step of rehydration,

which takes time and effort and presents opportunity for error. When calculating the amount to

use in a formula, the weight of the active dried yeast should be equal to 50 percent of the weight

of fresh compressed yeast. The difference in weight must be replaced by water.

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Protected Active Dry Yeast

Protected active dry yeast is a form of active dry yeast that has been treated with an emulsifier

and antioxidant and has been dried to a level of 5 to 6 percent moisture to create better stability.

It is used in the manufacturing of dry mix products like pizza dough mixes. Because of its

stability, protected active dry yeast can be exposed to air and other ingredients with no loss of

effectiveness.

When using protected active dry yeast, dry ingredients should not exceed a moisture level of 8

to 9 percent, as this will affect the stability of the yeast.

Instant Dry Yeast

This more recent form of dry yeast is called instant because it can be mixed with flour or added

to the bowl after the water and flour have been mixed without any previous rehydration in water.

Instant dry yeast is more rod-shaped and is dried more rapidly than active dry yeast. The drying

is done on what is called a fluid bed dryer, with a continuous stream of air, to a level of 5 percent

moisture.

Strains of yeast are specially chosen for their ability to survive this fast drying process, which

creates very porous particles that are sensitive to oxygen and moisture. This is why instant

yeast is packaged in specially designed, vacuum-sealed bags. Like active dry yeast, it has a

shelf life of two years unopened at room temperature. After it has been opened, it can be kept in

the refrigerator for three months or in the freezer for six months in a sealed container.

Because less yeast cells die during this process, approximately 25 percent less instant dry

yeast is needed than active dry yeast. The manufacturer generally recommends that the weight

used be equal to 33 percent of the weight of compressed yeast. The difference in weight should
22
be replaced with water. Forty percent of the weight of fresh yeast has been shown to perform

better for artisan baking, where dough temperatures are generally lower than the manufacturer

recommends and fermentation time is longer.

One precaution for instant dry yeast is that it should not be placed in direct content with water

that is below approximately 70°F. At these lower temperatures, the yeast cells may release

some of their contents, including glutathione. Additionally, the yeast cells may be shocked,

causing them to focus on maintaining energy and heat instead of fermentation. If cold water is

needed for the dough, it is a good practice to add the yeast to the bowl after the water and flour

have been blended.

Instant dry yeast is extremely shelf-stable, which makes it a good alternative if there is not a

reliable source of fresh yeast. Instant dry yeast can also be left out at room temperature longer

than fresh yeast with no loss of activity. This allows the baker to scale the yeast one day before

use and leave it at room temperature without hurting the final product.

Deactivated and Frozen Yeast

Frozen yeast is a free-flowing, frozen form of instant yeast designed to be used when the shelf

life of the frozen dough is intended to be longer than two weeks. It is used at 40 percent of the

weight of compressed yeast and should be kept out of the freezer as little as possible during

use.

The other form of dry yeast is deactivated yeast, which is a dead yeast in which the glutathione

has been made easily accessible. It provides no fermentation and is used solely as a reducing

agent that makes dough easier to shape and machine. Deactivated yeast is very powerful and is

generally used at a level of .1 percent based on the weight of the flour. Because different kinds
23
of deactivated yeast behave differently, the baker should check with the manufacturer for

precise dosage.

Specialty Yeast

Osmotolerant yeast is resistant to changes in the osmotic pressure of dough and is

manufactured for use in dough that is high in acid or sugar. This yeast is available in fresh and

dried forms and is made of strains that perform well in these conditions.

Conclusion

There are many important factors to consider when choosing the type of yeast to use. They

include frequency of delivery, availability, storage conditions, storage space, and production

schedules. Although fresh compressed yeast has the most romantic appeal for the baker, it

performs no better than newer forms of yeast that have been developed to ease production

challenges and produce more consistent breads.

Dough Conditioners

A complete description of dough conditioners and their ingredients is found in Chapter 6 of the

text.

Water

Although it is as important as flour for baking, water is often taken for granted. Three factors

must be taken into consideration regarding water quality: taste, chemical content, and mineral

content. Each of these will affect dough and bread characteristics, as well as the functionality of

24
certain pieces of equipment. In addition, regardless of its origin, the water used in baking must

be drinkable.

Taste

Regular tap water can be used to elaborate dough. Before doing so, the baker should check for

unusual or bad tastes and smells that can occur after strong rains or during a change of season.

Both will have a negative effect on the flavor of the final product. In order to ensure good-tasting

tap water, some commercial bakeries install filters on the water line that supplies the mixer.

Chemical Content

Water companies typically add various chemicals to make water safe and drinkable.

Of these, chlorine has the most noticeable effect on dough, because yeast is a chlorine-

sensitive microorganism. Tests have shown that at a level of 10 PPM of chlorine in water,

fermentation performance suffers. Chlorine can also have a negative effect on flour

components, particularly on enzymes. These problems can also be minimized with water filters.

Mineral Content

The presence of minerals—particularly calcium, magnesium, and sodium—determines the

hardness or softness of water. Hard water contains a large amount of minerals, whereas soft

water contains more limited quantities. Because minerals are used as nutrients by yeast, hard

water speeds fermentation and creates dough with a tendency towards excessive strength. Soft

water generates slower fermentation and weaker dough.

25
When water is hard, a water softener can be used to remove some mineral content. However, a

certain amount is necessary for good fermentation activity, which is why distilled water is not

suitable for bread baking. The problem is more complex when water is soft. Special equipment

that adds minerals is available, but it is very expensive, and its effect is typically insufficient for

very soft water. In this case, adjustments should be made to the baking process to compensate

for the missing minerals.

Some bakeries address water-quality issues by installing reverse osmosis systems that use a

natural process of hyperfiltration to reduce chemical content and impurities and balance the

mineral content in tap water. These systems ensure consistent quality and reduce the factors

that can negatively affect dough characteristics.

Salt

Salt is a basic ingredient that bears a great deal of responsibility. As soon as it is introduced into
dough, salt begins to reinforce gluten structure, regulate fermentation, and greatly
enhance flavor.

Although salt is used today to produce even the simplest of breads, its use was very limited, if

not absent, for many years. This was because salt was subject to high taxes, making it simply

too expensive for European bakers. Even after it became more affordable, its tendency to hide

the natural flavor of bread kept it from widespread use. Exceptions to this were a poor wheat

crop, or wheat that was stored poorly. The salt used as a natural conditioner in these situations

resulted in a higher amount used in dough.

During the 1780s, some French baking books reported that the quantity of salt used in dough

was from .45 to .60 percent of the total flour weight. This amount varied depending on the

26
region of France, and could reach .80 to 1.0 percent in some areas. As time progressed, the

level of salt in dough increased further, and some formulas from the 1950s mention a level of

salt as high as 1.60 percent.

During the 1960s, drastic changes began to occur due to the application of intensive mixing

methods and no-time dough processes that increase oxidation and decrease or eliminate

fermentation time. These new techniques have forced bakers to compensate for the absence of

natural aromas and flavors by increasing salt levels to as much as 2.2 to 2.5 percent. In artisan

or traditional baking, the average level of salt used in the dough is approximately 2.0 percent.

Health Issues

The international scientific community has identified that a minimum of two grams of salt per day

are required for humans to function properly. However, high consumption of salt can lead to the

development of several health issues, and heart disease in particular. According to a Finnish

study, reduced salt levels associated with other dietary changes have dramatically decreased

the number of health problems related to heart disease. Some European bakers are using this

information to market their low-salt products as better nutritional choices, and customers are

responding positively.

Types of Salt

Types of salt include common table salt, kosher salt, fine sea salt, Celtic Grey salt, Fleur de Sel,

and Hawaiian sea salt. Though they all contain sodium and chlorine, their differences

outnumber their similarities. Chemically, they differ in sodium and chlorine levels, as well as

mineral content. Physically, they are different in color, crystal size, and texture.

27
Refined Table Salt

Table salt is readily available around the United States—it has been estimated that 70 percent

of all salt today falls under this classification. It is most often harvested from land deposits that

have been flooded with water and allowed to evaporate until the salt is in a crystal form. Refined

table salt is made up of approximately 40 percent sodium and 60 percent chlorine, with iodine

as a common additive due to a mid-20th-century plan to eliminate iodine deficiency in the United

States. Most often it is made of very fine crystals.

Among artisan bakers, table salt has the most negative image of all the salts for a variety of

reasons. Highly refined, it contains no minerals or organic substances other than sodium and

chlorine. It does, however, contain chemical additives that serve many purposes, including

bleaching, preventing water absorption, stabilizing iodine additives, and preventing lumping.

Kosher Salt

Kosher salt is harvested using the same methods used for table salt. The difference is that the

salt is raked during the process to produce a larger crystal and flakier texture. The name of this

salt refers to its use in the koshering process, where it is preferred for its tendency to adhere to

meats. Kosher salt is also the salt of choice for many cooks and bakers because it is free of

additives, is considered to be more pure, and is often described as having a cleaner taste. It

consists of sodium and chlorine.

Fine Sea Salt

After refined salt, sea salt is one of the most commonly used varieties for bread. It is available in

large and small crystals, and it contains more minerals than refined salt. Many bakers feel that it

is more pure and creates better flavor, which can be true if the salt has been harvested from
28
seawater that has evaporated from the heat of the sun. However, sea salt is often processed

through an industrial system that includes alternative heating and added bleaching agents, free

flowing chemicals, and iodine. This version of so-called sea salt is actually refined salt that has

lost its mineral content.

Celtic Grey Salt

Celtic Grey salt is a true sea salt that is harvested by hand in the north of France using

traditional Celtic methods. Its source is seawater off the coast of Brittany, which is evaporated

by sun and wind. Harvesters rake this salt from mineral-rich clay basins and leave it completely

unrefined.

Celtic salt is generally sold in large crystals and maintains a gray color that is indicative of

numerous minerals. It is composed of approximately 84 percent sodium and chlorine, as

opposed to nearly 100 percent for refined salt. Celtic salt can contain more than 80 additional

minerals and elements, which are said to add to its flavor and healthful benefits. Because many

of its nutrients are also found in the human body, this salt is also believed to be more easily

absorbed. It is widely used for culinary purposes around the world.

Fleur de Sel

Fleur de Sel is premium-quality Celtic salt that is hand-harvested from the same basins in the

north of France. The difference is that Fleur de Sel is made up of fine salt crystals of salt that

are skimmed from the top of the basins. They are lighter in color than grey salt because they

have less contact with the mineral-rich clay in the basin. Fleur de Sel is favored for its texture

and clean taste. It may be the purest salt available, and because of the labor-intensive

harvesting process, it is usually the most expensive.

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Hawaiian Sea Salt

Once reserved only for Hawaiian royalty, Hawaiian sea salt, also known as Hawaiian pink salt,

has gained popularity inside and outside of Hawaii. It is a coarse salt from the Pacific waters

around Hawaii that is mixed with baked Hawaiian clay called Alaea. The clay adds no flavor to

the salt, but it does contribute trace minerals, and its high concentration of iron oxide gives the

salt a pink or sienna color. Some favor this salt for its more mellow quality.

Sugar

Sweeteners are essential ingredients in pastries and desserts. A wide range of syrups and

sugars are available, each with its own effect on the texture, appearance, flavor, and shelf life of

finished products.

Sweetness is just one of sugar’s contributions to the baking process. It also:

 Produces color and deeper, more complex flavors by caramelizing in the presence of heat

and joining with proteins or amino acids to create a chemical process known as the Maillard

Reaction.

 Adds a tender texture by inhibiting gluten from forming dense structures.

 Assists in the leavening of certain cakes by incorporating air into the batter during the

creaming stage.

 Stabilizes egg foams, which makes it an invaluable addition to meringues.

 Helps to extend shelf life by retaining moisture; liquid sugars, which are especially

hydroscopic, are especially effective.

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Sugar is produced in all fruits and vegetables through the process of photosynthesis, in which

water, carbon dioxide, and sunlight are converted into glucose, a simple sugar that is used for

energy. Surplus glucose is stored for future use in the form of either starch or sucrose. The

primary sources of culinary sugar are sugar cane and sugar beets, plants that store a high

quantity of sucrose. Sugar cane stores a high concentration of sucrose in its stalks, and sugar

beets store it in their bulbous roots.

There are three major classes of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and

polysaccharides. The first two classes are of interest to the baker. The glucose and fructose

found in fruits and honey are monosaccharides, or simple sugars composed of one molecule.

Sugars that are comprised of two joined sugar molecules are disaccharides. Examples of

disaccharides are ordinary table sugar, a sucrose that is a combination of fructose and glucose;

maltose, which is produced during the malting of barley; and lactose, the sugar in milk.

White Sugars

Sugar cane originated in New Guinea. Its use as a sweetener began in Asia and slowly spread

throughout the world. Europeans first encountered sugar cane during the Crusades in the 11th

century. Because it is grown exclusively in tropical climates, sugar cane remained a luxury item

for hundreds of years. It was initially reserved for medical use, but it gradually increased in

popularity as the wealthy discovered the pleasures of sugar in confections. The 18th century

brought a dramatic rise in sugar consumption due to the colonial rule in the West Indies and the

increase of African slave labor.

Sugar cane is processed in two stages. The first converts the cane stalk into raw sugar.

Harvested sugar cane is very perishable and requires immediate processing; for this reason,

factories near plantations perform the initial steps of crushing the stalk, extracting the juice, and

boiling off the water. The end product has increased stability and can be transported to the
31
country of consumption for refining. The second stage involves further purification and

controlled crystallization to produce uniform crystals of desired size.

The sugar beet is the other primary source of granulated sugar. Its popularity began to rise in

the mid-18th-century, when a reliable extraction method was developed to isolate its sugar

crystals. Its popularity was fueled by high taxes levied on sugar from the tropics and the

abolition movement. Unlike sugar cane, sugar beets can be grown in a temperate climate,

mainly in Europe and North America, and can be stored for a short time prior to processing. This

allows all processing to be done at a single location, generally close to the growing site. Today,

beet sugar accounts for 30 percent of production, with the remainder produced from sugar cane.

Due to physical differences in processing plants, the extraction method differs slightly between

sugar cane and sugar beets. However, the refining process is very similar once raw sugar is

obtained, with both sugar sources undergoing a series of steps that include dissolving, impurity

removal, recrystallization, and washing. At various stages in this cycle, molasses is removed by

centrifuge. Molasses produced during the refining of sugar cane can be used for human

consumption, whereas molasses produced from sugar beets has a strong, unpleasant odor and

is sold as animal feed. The white sugar that is produced after completion of refinement is highly

pure, 99.9 percent sucrose. Although the composition of impurities remaining in beet sugar is

different from that of cane sugar, the two can be used interchangeably. White sugars are

generally categorized based on crystal size.

Powdered or Confectioners’ Sugar

Confectioners’ sugar is granulated sugar that is finely milled into a powder and mixed with about

1 to 3 percent calcium phosphate or cornstarch to prevent clumping. There are a number of

degrees of fineness available, indicated by a number followed by the letter “X”. Larger numbers

32
are associated with finer grains. Powdered sugars dissolve very easily and are used primarily in

icings, fillings, and confections; for dusting; and in other decorative work.

Baker’s or Superfine Sugar

This fine-grained granulated sugar is also referred to as caster or castor sugar. It is comprised

of very small crystals that dissolve easily, making it particularly well-suited for fine-textured

baked items, meringues, and syrups. The smaller crystal size also means an increased number

of sharp sides per volume compared to larger-grained sugars, which leads to improved aeration

when creaming with fat.

Granulated Sugar

Otherwise known as table sugar, this is the most common and one of the purest forms of

sucrose available. The small, uniform crystal size and clean sweet taste of granulated sugar

make it suitable for most applications.

Crystal Sugar

Large-grained sugar, such as sanding sugar, does not dissolve easily. Available in either clear or

colored crystals, it is used to provide texture and decoration to sweet items. The coarser pearl

sugar has large rounded crystals that are often used for decorating sweet breads.

Brown Sugar

Brown sugar is a combination of sucrose crystals and molasses. When made from cane sugar,

it is produced by dissolving and recrystallizing raw sugar. Beet sugar, however, must be refined
33
into the pure, white end product and then coated in cane sugar molasses due to the fact that

beet sugar molasses is inedible. The amount of sucrose in brown sugar can vary between 85

and 98 percent (Larousse, p. 1157). Darker varieties contain more molasses and have a deeper

flavor.

The molasses content in brown sugar creates a noticeably softer and wetter texture with

moisture variability that can cause difficulties for larger operations. For this reason, substitutes

like brown sugar liquid, granular dried brown sugar, flavorings, or a combination of white

granular sugar and molasses may be preferable.

Whereas the flavor differences among conventional brown sugars are minimal, specialty sugars

offer a broader range of tastes. Many are organic and unrefined and retain distinctive flavor

characteristics. Varieties come in different crystal sizes and a range of colors from pale gold to

deep, dark brown. Flavors can be subtle or intense and complex.

Demerara

Demerara is a large-grained, light brown sugar that is primarily used for decoration and texture.

More commonly found in Great Britain than in the United States, its name originates from the

Demerara region of Guyana.

Turbinado

Turbinado is very similar to Demerara, but is more refined and lighter in color and flavor. Small

packets of this raw sugar are commonly offered with coffee in cafés and restaurants in the

United States.

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Muscavado

Also known as Barbados sugar, this raw cane sugar comes in light and dark versions. The

crystals are larger than conventional brown sugar but are smaller than Demerara and

Turbinado. Barbados sugar is very moist, with flavors that range from subtle in the light version

to the intense molasses character of dark Muscavado.

Palm or Coconut Sugar

This sugar is produced from the sweet, sugary sap that is extracted from the blossoms of sugar

palm or coconut palm trees of Southeast Asia. It is minimally processed and sold in a variety of

forms, including crystallized, solid, and soft. Palm sugar has a creamy, caramel flavor.

Liquid Sugars

Many of the white and brown sugars described here are also available in a liquid form that may

be desirable for ease of use in large-scale operations. The benefits of liquid sugars include

simplified and efficient scaling, elimination of issues related to dissolving of granules, and

uniform distribution in batters.

Other liquid sugars are found naturally in liquid form. They include molasses, maple syrup, and

honey. These sugars are valued by bakers for their distinctive flavors and because consumers

tend to perceive them as healthier sweeteners.

Molasses

Molasses is a by-product of cane sugar processing. In order to maximize the amount of sucrose

extracted from cane syrup, crystallization occurs in multiple steps. Centrifuging at each phase

35
results in syrups that contain progressively less sucrose and more minerals and impurities. The

first run produces a light molasses, then dark, and lastly blackstrap, the strongest of the grades

(McGee, p. 675).

Honey

Honeybees gather nectar from flowers and store it internally in their honey sacs until they

transport it to the hive. Enzymes that are secreted into the sac serve to break down the starches

into sugars, and then break down sucrose into its two components, fructose and glucose

(McGee, p. 665).

The color and flavor of honey varies widely, depending on the type of nectar gathered. Though

most honeys are produced from a mixture of different flowers, many are made from a distinctive

single type and can range from a lightly flavored orange blossom honey to a heavier, stronger-

flavored buckwheat or sage flower honey. In general, honey that is intended for baking should

be fairly mild-flavored.

Maple Syrup

Sap extracted from maple trees is boiled and concentrated to create maple syrup, which is

enjoyed for its unique, complex flavor. North American colonists learned the procedure from

native Indian tribes, and for many years, it was a less-expensive alternative to tropical cane

sugar. Today, the opposite it true.

Maple syrup production is concentrated in the northeastern United States and Canada,

especially Quebec. Maple syrup is graded according to color and quality. In the United States,

Fancy and Grade A syrups are the lightest in color and most delicate in flavor; grades B and C

36
are progressively darker and stronger flavored. The intense flavors of the lower grades make

them well-suited to baking. Inexpensive versions of maple syrup are typically corn syrup with

added real or imitation maple flavor.

Corn Syrup

Relatively new additions to the group of commercially viable sweeteners are made from starch.

In the 19th century, a Russian scientist discovered that the application of heat and certain acids

or enzymes to potato starch would produce sweet syrup and crystals, a process that is used

today to convert cornstarch granules to corn syrup. This product has become very popular in

food manufacturing, because the level of sweetness and viscosity can be easily controlled

during the conversion process. Corn syrup has a clean, neutral flavor and is considerably less

expensive than other sweeteners (McGee, p. 677–678).

Available in light and dark formulas, corn syrup is a solution that primarily consists of glucose

and water. The dark version contains caramel coloring and flavor. High-fructose corn syrup is

produced when a high percentage of corn syrup’s glucose is converted to fructose. The result is

a liquid with sweetening power roughly equal to that of sucrose. High-fructose corn syrup has

gained widespread use in soft drinks and food manufacturing, but is used less frequently in

baking.

Invert Sugar

Invert sugar is created when heat and a mild acid or the yeast enzyme invertase are applied to

sucrose. The chemical reaction that occurs causes the sucrose molecule to invert or break apart

into its two subsugars, fructose and glucose. Invert sugar is valued for its ability to prevent

37
crystallization, a property that makes it indispensable to confectioners. Highly hydroscopic, it is

also used to extend shelf life in baking.

Most invert sugars are manufactured, although there are some exceptions, including honey. In

this case, sugar is naturally inverted when enzymes excreted from honeybee glands separate

sucrose into glucose and fructose molecules.

Glucose Syrup

Glucose is a thick, clear, neutral-flavored syrup made from either corn, potato, or wheat starch.

It has a sweetness level similar to corn syrup and is widely used in the ice cream and confection

industries to prevent the formation of sugar crystals.

Eggs

Eggs are one of the most versatile and nutritious foods available. Indispensable in baking, they

contribute a number of functions, including leavening, emulsifying, thickening, and glazing. In

addition, they contribute richness, color, and flavor to baked goods.

Composition of Fresh Eggs

The three main components of eggs are the shell, egg white, and yolk. Eggs are essentially

packages designed to sustain the first days of a chick’s life. As such, they contain a rich supply

of proteins, vitamins, and fats, all enclosed in a protective hard covering. The exact composition

of each egg depends on an individual hen’s breed, diet, environmental conditions, age, and the

storage and freshness of the egg itself.

38
On average, a large egg weighs 50 grams. Its shell, which weighs approximately 2 grams, is a

porous surface composed primarily of calcium carbonate that permits evaporation of moisture

from the inside. The shell also allows for the absorption of flavors and odors. Both issues should

be considered when storing eggs. Eggshells are typically white or brown, and are sometimes

green or blue. The color is merely indicative of the hen’s breed, and is no indication of nutritional

value.

The egg white comprises the largest portion of an egg’s weight and contains the majority of its

proteins. The average weight of an egg white is 30 grams in a large egg. Of this, 86 percent is

composed of water, and 13 percent is albumen protein. The remaining 1 percent is made up of

minerals, vitamins, fats, and glucose. The white is structured in alternating layers of thin and

thick material that serve to cushion and protect the yolk. Thick, twisted strands called chalazae

attach to the yolk to secure it in the middle of the egg.

The yolk is the yellow center of the egg and is the repository of a concentrated mixture of

vitamins, minerals, and fats. In a large egg, an average 18-gram yolk consists of 50 percent

water, 16 percent protein, and 34 percent lipids or fatty acids. It is a popular misconception that

yolk color is an indicator of an egg’s nutrient content. Ranging from pale yellow to intense

yellow-orange, its intensity depends instead on the quality of plant pigments in the chicken feed

and the hen’s genetically determined ability to absorb them. In baking, the yolk is particularly

valued for its richness in fats and vitamins and for the emulsifying properties that are contributed

largely by the fatty acid lecithin.

Size and Grading

Eggs are marketed according to size and grade standards as defined by the U.S. Department of

Agriculture or individual state agriculture departments. The two classifications are separate and

unrelated. Size is defined by the minimum net weight per dozen, measured in ounces. There
39
are six size categories: jumbo (30 oz.), extra large (27 oz.), large (24 oz.), medium (21 oz.),

small (18 oz.), and peewee (15 oz.). In general, only the larger sizes are sold as fresh eggs.

Grade is determined by the interior and exterior quality of the egg at packing time. Whereas it is

relatively easy to judge the condition of the exterior shell, it is much more difficult to inspect the

contents without breaking the egg. The most commonly used process is candling, in which the

egg is passed it in front of a strong light that illuminates the interior and allows for quality

assessment. As the name suggests, the original light source was a candle, and grading was

done by human eye. In modern egg production, electric lights and scanners are used.

Among the factors that determine grade are egg white thickness, air pocket size, yolk position,

blood spots, and any other minor defects. The three grades are AA, A, and B, although those

graded B are generally not directly available to consumers. A visual examination of each grade

broken on a flat surface will demonstrate that AA grade eggs cover the smallest surface area,

due to a round firm yolk surrounded by thick egg white. Lower grades are flatter and have a

higher proportion of thin egg white and a wider spread. These are the same characteristics that

develop as eggs age.

Baking Properties

The complex composition of the egg is the basis for its magical properties in the kitchen. Its

components possess distinct properties that allow bakers to use the yolk and white separately

or in combination to produce different effects. Eggs are responsible for adding richness and

color to batters, producing a golden sheen when used as a wash, emulsifying disparate

ingredients, thickening custards and creams, and leavening baked items such as cakes,

soufflés, and meringues. Eggs also thicken liquids with heat and leaven batters with foam,

which are especially important properties in baking.

40
Egg Foam

The simple act of whipping an egg white is enough to transform it from a liquid into a semisolid

state. Although many liquids are able to trap air, the collection of proteins in egg whites makes

them especially adept at building very stable foams. The stresses of agitation and air

incorporation cause these otherwise compact proteins to unfold and build new bonds until a

solid protein network has been constructed around the tiny air bubbles.

Unfortunately, this can go too far when excessive whipping causes the bonds to tighten and

increase to the point that they squeeze out all the liquid held in the foam structure. The resulting

foam will appear dry and lumpy, and will no longer adhere to the sides of the bowl. To prevent

overwhipping, acid in the form of 1/8 teaspoon (0.5 g) cream of tarter or 1/2 teaspoon (2 ml)

lemon juice per egg are added. Using a copper bowl has similar effects, because copper reacts

with some of the albumen proteins and prevents the tight bonds from forming (McGee, p. 101–

103).

Sugar can also aid in stabilizing egg foams. If added too soon, it can destabilize them,

considerably increasing whipping time and decreasing volume. Sugar produces dense, fine-

textured foam when added early, and softens foam texture when added after whipping.

Depending on a formula’s needs, either technique may be desirable.

Fats, including egg yolks, are detrimental to foam formation. For this reason, it is important to

make sure that no yolk ends up in the egg whites when separating eggs. Even a small amount

will increase whipping time and lower foam volume. Plastic bowls should be avoided, because

they often retain oily deposits, even after repeated washing. Copper or stainless steel bowls

produce the best results. To ensure the absence of fat, it is a good idea to clean the bowl and

beaters with an acid such as vinegar or lemon juice.

41
Egg temperature will also have an effect on foam quality. Egg whites will beat to their full volume

at 60°F. Because eggs separate most easily when they are cold, it is common to separate them

and then bring them to room temperature prior to whipping.

The stability of egg white foams is temporary. Left to sit, they will eventually collapse and

separate, which is why thickening ingredients are often added to give long-term support to their

structure. For example, gelatin or chocolate provide reinforcement to mousses and similar

desserts; starches such as flour and cornstarch assist in soufflés and cake batters.

The last factor that builds a more stable egg foam structure is heat, which causes the proteins to

coagulate and preserve the structure. Coagulation can occur between 145°–180°F/63°–82°C.

More specifically, egg whites coagulate from 144°–149°F/62°–65°C and egg yolks from 149°–

158°F/65°–70°C. Forming this protein structure through heat is essential for meringues and

flourless soufflés and cakes. It is also required for foams that incorporate egg yolk, which

typically have low volume and high levels of instability due to their high fat content. These foams

are called for less frequently, but are used in cakes such as genoise. In addition, both yolk foam

and egg white foam leaven American sponge cakes.

Custard and Cream Thickening

Custards and creams depend on eggs to convert their liquid bases into thick sauces,

spreadable creams, or custards that can stand on their own. Custards are generally baked in a

mold or crust and have a somewhat solid texture. Examples are crème brûlée, flan, and quiche.

Creams are cooked in a saucepan with constant stirring. Pastry cream, crème Anglaise, and

lemon curd are examples made from this method.

42
Whereas foam depends on agitation to reconstruct protein structure, custards and creams rely

on heat to unfold the egg proteins. Once this is accomplished, they reconnect in a delicate web

that thickens the liquid. Heat also induces the proteins to coagulate and secure the new

structure. However, as with whipping egg whites, there is danger in going too far. Loosely bound

proteins hold and thicken the liquid, but excessive heat creates tight protein bonds that collapse

the structure and curdle the cream or custard. The resulting graininess is formed by bits of

cooked egg that separate from the mixture.

The amount of sugar in an egg-based liquid will have an effect on its sensitivity to heat. Those

that contain a small amount of sugar require gentle heating and constant attention, whereas

those with a higher level of sugar are more heat tolerant and less apt to curdle. This is due to

the fact that the relatively large sugar molecules present in the liquid block the proteins’ access

to one another and slow down their bonding.

Egg Storage and Handling

Proper storage and handling are essential to maintaining egg quality. Fresh eggs should be

refrigerated at a temperature of 45°F or below and should be allowed to sit at room temperature

for a maximum of two hours. This will prevent quality deterioration due to moisture loss through

the porous shell. In addition, dangerous bacteria such as Salmonella can multiply quickly at

room temperature, especially in eggs that have been removed from the shell. If stored at the

proper temperature, whole eggs retain their quality for four to five weeks beyond the pack date.

This is usually noted on the carton, along with a sell date that will not be more than 30 days

later. The pack date is specified as a single number that corresponds to the day of the year. As

an example, MAY 17 109 indicates that the eggs were packed on the 109th day of the year, and

should not be sold after May 17.

43
When using separated eggs, it is common to have leftover whites or yolks. These should be

used promptly, because eggs are much more prone to spoilage once removed from the shell.

Egg whites can be refrigerated in a covered container for up to four days, whereas yolks should

be covered with water, stored in a covered container in the refrigerator and used within two

days.

When extended storage time is necessary, freezing is an option for separated or blended whole

eggs. They must first be removed from the shell, and then frozen in airtight containers. Egg

whites survive freezing quite well, with only a minor loss of foaming power when thawed. Egg

yolks, however, become gelatinous when frozen, making them difficult to incorporate into other

ingredients. This condition can be prevented with the addition of a small amount of salt, sugar,

or an acid. Typically, 1 pint (or 0.5 liter) of yolks are mixed with 1 teaspoon of salt (5 g), 1

tablespoon of sugar (15 g), or 4 tablespoons of lemon juice (60 ml). When freezing whole eggs,

these amounts can be halved. Either way, containers should be labeled appropriately so that the

additional ingredients are considered when the eggs are used in a formula.

Egg Products

Fresh eggs provide optimal nutrition and flavor, but for large operations, storage, labor. and

convenience may be issues. Alternative egg products are available in liquid, dried. or frozen

forms. All are pasteurized and can be purchased as whole eggs, whites. or yolks. These

products require less storage space and have a longer shelf life than fresh eggs. Convenience

is also a big advantage, because breaking and separating are unnecessary. Commercially

available frozen egg products that contain yolks will also usually contain either salt or corn syrup

to prevent gelatinization.

44
Milk and Its Derivatives

Milk products are generally used as a source of moisture in baking, but they offer equally

important contributions to flavor, texture, appearance, and nutrition. When used in a batter or

dough, milk hydrates the starch and protein in flour, allowing the glutens to form and a structure

to build. The fat and acidity in dairy products have an effect on flavor. For example, a biscuit

made with milk lacks the richness of one made with cream and the tang of one made with

buttermilk. Texture is also affected by fat and acidity, as well as protein content of the chosen

dairy product.

Because a browned crust is generally more appealing than a pale one, milk and cream are used

in batters and washes to improve coloration. When they are exposed to heat, their

carbohydrates and proteins undergo the Maillard Reaction, producing a brown color and fuller

flavors. The final benefit of dairy products in baking is their high level of nutrition. When they are

added to baked goods, their vitamin, mineral, and protein content increases.

Although milk products from several species of animals are commercially available, in the

United States, the word “milk” generally refers to cow’s milk. Other countries may depend on

different mammals as their source of milk products, but for the purposes of this text and most

formulas the baker will encounter, the species will be indicated if something other than cow’s

milk is intended.

Processing

If left undisturbed, fresh milk will separate, and a thick layer of cream will form on top. This layer

is composed of fat molecules that rise because they are lighter than the water that makes up a

large percentage of milk. Historically, gravity was the tool used to separate cream from milk. In

modern dairy processing, a centrifuge performs this task more quickly and efficiently.

45
A certain amount of butterfat is left in milk after creaming. In order to prevent this fat from

eventually separating, the milk is homogenized using a process developed in France at the turn

of the 20th century. Homogenization occurs when heated milk is forced through a small orifice at

high pressure. This causes the large fat globules to break up into many smaller ones and

creates a stable, even dispersion of fat throughout the milk.

In the 18th and 19th centuries, the population growth in larger cities caused milk to be

transported longer distances. Tainted milk was common, and was often to blame for the spread

of serious disease. In the 1860s, French chemist Louis Pasteur developed pasteurization, a

method of heating wine that deactivated spoilage-causing bacteria and had a minimal effect on

flavor. Eventually, pasteurization was successfully applied to milk and cream. It became a

requirement for most dairy products when government regulation of the dairy industry began

early in the 20th century (McGee, p. 22).

There are a number of methods for pasteurizing milk:

 Batch pasteurization requires milk to be held at 145°F/62°C for 30 to 35 minutes.

 High-temperature, short-time (HTST) pasteurization holds milk at 162°F/72°C for 15

seconds. Although the higher temperature produces a noticeable cooked flavor, consumers

have adapted and now associate this flavor with the taste of milk.

 Ultra-high temperature (UHT) pasteurization is a procedure that heats milk to 265°–

300°F/130°–150°C for up to three seconds. When packaged under sterile conditions, this

product requires no refrigeration and has a shelf life of several months. This type of milk is

commonly found in Europe.

46
When higher temperatures are used in pasteurization, they extend shelf life but also impact

taste. In cream, the effect is less noticeable due to its lower levels of lactose and proteins

(McGee, p. 23).

Unfermented Milk Products

Milk and cream products are some of baking’s basic ingredients. They provide fresh, clean

flavor, high nutrition, and richness. Unfortunately, they are also some of the more perishable

items. Although UHT pasteurization helps to extend shelf life for fresh cream and milk,

condensed or dry products may provide a reasonable alternative if longer storage times are

essential. Freezing is not a good storage option. The milk fat globules suffer damage from the

sharp ice crystals, and once thawed, they clump and separate from the rest of the liquid.

Fresh Liquid Milk

Liquid milk is readily available in a variety of milk fat percentages, ranging from skim or nonfat

(less than 0.5 percent), to low fat (1 or 2 percent), to whole milk (minimum 3.5 percent). Unless

a formula specifies a particular fat level, it can be assumed that whole milk is intended.

Composition of fresh milk:

 Proteins: casein (3%), whey proteins (0.7%)

 Carbohydrates: lactose (4 to 5%), principal carbohydrate

 Fat: butterfat varies by product

 Minerals: calcium, phosphorus, along with long list of minerals present in trace amounts

 Vitamins: A,D,E

 Water (87%)

(Pyler, p. 498–503)

47
Cream

After separation, cream is pasteurized at higher temperatures than milk. Cream that contains 20

percent or less milk fat is held for 30 minutes at 155°F/68°C. Higher fat creams are heated to

165°F/74°C. Like UHT-treated milk, ultra-pasteurized creams are processed for 2 seconds at

280°F/140°C, but are not packed under the same strict sterile requirements and must be

refrigerated. This treatment extends the shelf life beyond the typical 15 days for cream, but also

contributes a stronger cooked flavor.

Homogenization is not typically necessary for cream, but there are a couple of exceptions. They

include half and half, which is homogenized due to its lower fat content, and ultrapasteurized

cream, which is homogenized to ensure stability over the course of its potentially long storage.

Homogenized cream takes considerably longer to whip but will produce a finer textured foam as

a result of the smaller fat globules produced by the process (McGee, p. 32).

Like milk, fat content differentiates cream. Lighter creams have very different characteristics

than heavier ones, which makes it very important to use the proper type for the desired

application. The minimum fat content necessary for whipping is 30 percent, although 38 to 40

percent fat will form a denser, more stable foam.

Typical cream fat content:

 Heavy cream 36 to 38 percent

 Whipping cream 35 to 36 percent

 Light cream 20 percent

 Half and half 12 percent

48
Concentrated Milks

Milk products that have some or all of their water removed fall into the category of concentrated

milks. They provide a shortcut to increase milk proteins and sugars in a formula while

minimizing the amount of added liquid. Both the liquid and dried forms of concentrated milk are

considerably less perishable than fresh milk. They are also easier to store, because refrigeration

is typically not necessary and space requirements are smaller.

Evaporated and Condensed Milk

Evaporated milk is made from sweet whole milk that has had its water partially removed through

evaporation. It contains a minimum of 6.5 percent milk fat and 23 percent total milk solids.

Evaporated milk is homogenized, canned, and sterilized because it is highly perishable. The

cooking of the milk and concentration of lactose and proteins add a light tan color and subtle

caramel flavors.

Although plain condensed milk is produced in a manner similar to evaporated milk, its water

content is reduced to a lower level and it is not sterilized, which gives it a limited shelf life. It is

generally sold in bulk to bakeries.

Sweetened Condensed Milk

Sweetened condensed milk is similar to evaporated and unsweetened condensed milk. The

difference is that sugar has been added at a level concentrated enough to prevent spoilage, and

sterilization is not necessary. Milk fat is at a minimum of 8 percent by weight, and total milk

solids are at a minimum of 28 percent. Sweetened condensed milk has a milder, less-cooked

flavor than evaporated milk, and its color is lighter as well. At times, lactose crystallization may

cause the texture to feel sandy or gritty.

49
Dried Milk

Most dried milk is a powdered form of pasteurized nonfat milk. It reconstitutes easily in water

and is valued for its convenience and long shelf life. Versions of dry whole milk and dry cream

also exist, but due to higher fat content, they are more susceptible to rancidity. For this reason,

they have a shorter shelf life and must be refrigerated after opening.

Dried milk is categorized into high-heat, medium-heat, and low-heat products, which refers to

the temperature and length of cooking time applied prior to drying. Just as it is necessary to

scald fresh milk in order to denature the whey proteins that will weaken gluten structure, high-

heat dried milk should be chosen when there are similar considerations in dough or batter.

Cultured Milk Products

When allowed to sit at moderate temperatures, milk will ferment. It is a hospitable environment

to a group of microbes that digest lactose, milk’s primary sugar, and create lactic acid as a

waste product. As the sugar levels decrease and acid levels rise, milk proteins coagulate and

the result is a thick, tart product. Several factors determine the nature of the end product,

including control over fermentation, type of bacteria, and fat content in the milk.

The acidic condition in cultured milk also makes it less desirable to other harmful bacteria, and

preserves its nutritional value. The bacteria consume much of the lactose, making these

products easier to digest by those who suffer from lactose intolerance.

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Buttermilk

Originally, buttermilk was the liquid that remained in the churn during butter production. During

the butter-making process, the liquid fermented, thickening and developing flavor complexity.

Today’s commercial product is an imitation made by adding cultures to pasteurized nonfat or low

fat milk, which convert lactose to lactic acid and produce a thick, smooth, tart liquid. Some

manufacturers add butter flakes or granules to approximate the flavor of true buttermilk.

Yogurt

Yogurt is a tart, smooth, semisolid product produced from fermented milk. In the United States, it

is most commonly made from cow’s milk, but versions made with sheep’s or goat’s milk are also

available. To make yogurt, milk is cooked at 185°F/85°C for 30 minutes or at 195°F/90°C for 10

minutes and then cooled to a chosen fermentation temperature. Higher temperatures promote

faster gelling of the milk proteins and a firmer texture. Lower temperatures slow the fermentation

and result in a more delicate consistency that is less likely to separate.

Traditional, spontaneously fermented yogurt contains numerous active cultures that are

beneficial to the human digestive tract and strengthen the immune system. Industrial yogurts, on

the other hand, are generally inoculated with two standard cultures, S. thermophilus and L.

bulgaricus, both of which are especially efficient at fermenting milk but cannot survive within the

human body. Some manufacturers include additional active cultures, which are noted on the

packaging (McGee, p. 47–48).

Crème Fraiche

Widely available in Europe, crème fraiche is starting to make a widespread appearance in

American supermarkets. It is a thick, cultured cream that has a tangy, nutty flavor. Crème

51
fraiche is a highly versatile ingredient that is used in many savory and sweet preparations, and

also as a condiment. Crème fraiche can be cooked without fear of curdling due to its high fat (30

percent) and low protein content.

Sour Cream

Sour cream is similar to crème fraiche, but with a considerably lower milk fat content of 20

percent. Protein levels are higher, the texture is firmer, and the taste is sharper. In baking, it is

often used to enrich cake batters. To be labeled as cultured sour cream, pasteurized cream is

inoculated with lactic acid, and bacteria fermentation is allowed to continue until a specific acid

level is reached. Alternatively, acidified sour cream is produced by adding vinegar or another

acid to cream and allowing it to curdle.

Cheese

Cheese is a highly condensed version of milk that has much or most of its water removed.

Although there are thousands of varieties of cheese throughout the world, the basic process is

the same. The lactose in milk is converted to lactic acid with the aid of starter bacteria. Next, an

enzyme is added to coagulate the casein proteins, and the liquid, or whey, is removed. The third

step is ripening, during which the enzymes in the cheese continue to break down fats, proteins,

and carbohydrates. During this part of the process, the cheese develops a range of flavors.

Cheese is frequently used in baked goods. Fresh, soft cheeses are used to enrich batter or

serve as the base for a filling. Mature cheeses have stronger, more distinct flavors. They may be

incorporated into a batter or dough or melted inside or on the surface.

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Fats

In the context of baking, the most commonly used fats are butter, margarine, shortening, and

oils. Fats are derived from either plant or animal sources and can be liquid or solid at room

temperature. They are a major contributor to a baked item’s flavor, color, texture, and richness.

In batter or dough, they inhibit the formation of long gluten chains, which results in a tender

product. Solid fats assist in leavening batters by trapping air bubbles, which then expand when

subjected to oven heat. In addition, the emulsifying properties in fats enable baked items to

retain moisture and resist staling, increasing shelf life.

The wide variety of characteristics in fats makes each suitable for different applications. Among

the factors that should be taken into consideration when choosing a particular fat are flavor,

melting point, and its ability to form emulsions. For example:

 Any fat or oil can produce a crumbly pastry, but laminated and flaky pastries require a fat

that is solid at room temperature to prevent it from bonding with the flour proteins.

 Cakes require a fat that is able to incorporate a maximum amount of air when creaming and

can emulsify sugar and moisture.

 Cookies made with butter will spread more than those made with shortening, due to butter’s

low melting point. Cookies made with shortening will have a plumper shape, because they

set before the fat reaches its melting point.

Butter

In the baker’s kitchen, the most prized of all fats is butter. Butter is a solid fat that is produced by

agitating cream to the point where its fat globules rupture and the fat collects into a larger mass.

A mixture of liquid and crystallized fat, butter contributes superior flavor and richness to baked

goods, but is also one of the most expensive options. Its structure makes it especially adept at
53
trapping air bubbles when creamed. When exposed to heat, these air bubbles expand and help

to leaven cakes, cookies, muffins, and more. Because maximum results are achieved at 65°F,

butter should always be brought to room temperature prior to creaming.

Butter composition standards are determined by the dairy division of the U.S. Department of

Agriculture, the organization that is also responsible for grading according to flavor, texture, and

consistency. The two highest grades of butter, AA and A, are available to consumers.

Butter must contain a minimum of 80 percent butterfat, not more than 16 percent water, and 2 to

4 percent milk solids. No other fat can be included. Although cows that are allowed to graze in

flower-filled pastures naturally produce rich yellow butter, coloring additives are allowed. Most

commonly, carotene or annatto seed are chosen to produce a pleasing pale yellow color. Butter

is available salted or unsalted. Unsalted is preferred for baking applications, because it allows

the baker to maintain better control over the amount of salt in a formula. Salted butter generally

contains 1 to 2 percent salt, but can have as much as 6 percent. European butters typically

have a higher amount of butterfat, at 82 to 86 percent, and contain little or no salt. They are

traditionally produced from cultured cream, which lends a fuller, sharper flavor.

Prior to modern refrigeration, cream was collected to produce butter. Over the period of a few

days, it would naturally ferment and develop intense flavors that are still valued by pastry chefs

for the production of puff pastry, croissants, and other items that depend on butter for their

dominant flavor. Conversely, the higher water content of American-style butter is appreciated for

its ability to produce flakier crusts. In the oven, this water turns to steam and expands the

dough, then evaporates, leaving crisp layers separated by air.

54
Margarine

Margarine is a butter substitute made from vegetable or animal fat churned with milk or cream.

Flavoring, coloring, emulsifiers, and preservatives can also be present. Although its richness

and flavor complexity is inferior to that of butter, it is quite popular due to its lower cost and

advantageous qualities for baking. The fat-to-water ratio in margarine is comparable to butter, at

80 percent fat and 16 percent water. However, the melting point is 6 to 8 degrees higher, which

makes it easier to work with, especially for rolled-in dough like puff pastry, croissant, and

Danish. The disadvantage of this higher melting point is the greasy mouthfeel that occurs when

something prepared with margarine is eaten.

Shortening

Shortening is the general term used to describe any fat used in baking. The name is derived

from fat’s ability to shorten the gluten chains in dough, which adds tenderness to the baked

item. More specifically, the term is used to refer to a solid white, flavorless fat that is formulated

specifically for baking. Shortening is most commonly made from vegetable oils that undergo

hydrogenation, a process that converts the liquid fat to fat that is solid at room temperature. This

occurs when purified oil is heated and injected with hydrogen gas. Higher levels of gas create a

firmer product and extend its shelf life.

Shortening has excellent aeration properties. Due to the small size of its fat crystals, it is

capable of trapping many tiny air bubbles that result in a pleasing, fine-grained texture in baked

goods. The optimal temperature for maximum aeration is 75° to 80°F (McGee, p. 557). To

increase their leavening properties, some shortenings are enhanced with nitrogen bubbles.

Unlike butter and margarine, shortening is 100 percent fat, which makes it more difficult to

combine with other ingredients. Manufacturers have responded to this challenge by offering

emulsified shortenings that assist in creaming and also contribute to better moisture retention
55
and longer shelf life in baked items. These shortenings, which are also referred to as cake,

icing, or high-ratio, cannot be used interchangeably with other types of shortening.

In recent years, studies have revealed that the high levels of trans fatty acids produced by the

hydrogenation process are unhealthy and contribute to heart disease. As a result,

nonhydrogenated shortenings based on tropical coconut or palm oil alternatives are now

available. These fats are naturally solid at room temperature, and as with other shortenings, are

more shelf-stable and have a higher melting point than butter. Other manufacturers have

devised an alternative method for eliminating trans fats by producing fully hydrogenated oil that

is free of trans fats, but has a consistency that is too hard for baking. Manufacturers blend this

shortening with other vegetable oils to create a softer product that is nearly identical to standard

shortening.

Oil

Oils are liquid vegetable shortenings that can be produced from a variety of plant sources. They

blend easily and thoroughly in batters, coating more of the proteins than solid shortenings. The

result is a batter that contains very short gluten strands, and, when baked, produces a very fine-

textured crumb. Oil is often used in cakes and muffins, where a fine crumb is highly desirable.

Due to the variety of sources used to produce oils, a wide range of flavors is available. Neutral,

flavorless oil should be chosen for baking unless the distinctive taste of olive or nuts is desired.

Thickening/Gelling Agents

Thickening and gelling agents are food additives that can be added to liquid to increase

viscosity or to radically change consistency to a jelly-like solid. These characteristics are

essential for improving texture and stability in many sauces, puddings, pie fillings, icings, glazes,

56
and other products. Starches are frequently used as thickeners, due to their ability to absorb

moisture and swell, which in turn thickens the liquid. Gelling agents such as gelatin or plant

gums dissolve readily in warm liquid and firm up as they cool.

Agar-Agar

Agar-agar is a gelatinous substance that is extracted from certain species of seaweed and red

algae native to the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Its name is derived from a Malaysian word

meaning jelly, but it is also known as isinglass, Japanese or Ceylon moss, agal-agal, and

kanten. It is sold in a variety of forms, including strands, blocks, flakes, and powder. Its most

useful forms for baking are flaked and powdered. Agar-agar is valued as a vegetarian

replacement for gelatin, and for its ability to set and hold without refrigeration. It is commonly

used in Asian desserts.

Powdered agar-agar can be substituted for an equal measure of powdered gelatin, although it

generally sets firmer. It is simmered in a liquid to dissolve; then, as the mixture cools, it

becomes gelatinous. Unlike gelatin, which eventually melts, an agar-gelled substance will

remain solid at room temperature. Agar-agar’s gelling abilities can be hampered by foods that

are high in oxalic acid, such as rhubarb, chocolate, and spinach.

Arrowroot

Arrowroot is a fine, starchy powder extracted from the rhizomes of a tropical plant. Its name is

derived from the fact that American Indians once used the plant as a treatment for arrow

wounds. Today it is valued as a clear, neutral thickener for glazes, sauces, and syrups.

Arrowroot powder should be dissolved in a small amount of cold liquid before being added to

anything warm. Then, in order to achieve maximum thickening results, the mixture should be

57
brought just to the boiling point and removed from the heat. Unlike flour and cornstarch,

arrowroot does not require cooking to eliminate a raw flavor; in fact, boiling will cause the

mixture to thin slightly.

Cornstarch

Cornstarch is a white powder that is produced from the starch of corn kernels. It is often used to

thicken sauces, puddings, and syrups. Cornstarch should be cooked gently to eliminate its raw

flavor. However, a cornstarch-thickened mixture will separate if it is boiled too long.

Gelatin

Gelatin is an animal protein product that is produced from the bones, cartilage, skin, and

connective tissue of animals, primarily pigs and cows. It is frequently used as a thickener or

stabilizer due to its lack of taste, odor, and color. Gelatin is available in powdered form or as leaf

gelatin, pressed into thin, clear sheets.

A common guideline for use is that 1 tablespoon, or 1 packet, of powdered gelatin is equal to

four sheets of leaf gelatin. This amount will set two cups of liquid. This is just a guideline and is

highly variable based on the brand of gelatin used and the desired consistency of the gelled

mixture.

Leaf gelatin must be softened in cool water prior to using. Soaking time will vary, depending on

the brand. Once softened, the sheets are drained and dissolved in hot liquid. Powdered gelatin

should be sprinkled over a small amount of cold liquid and left, unstirred, for about three

minutes until it swells. Then, it is stirred to dissolve and placed over boiling water to warm. If

liquids that contain gelatin are boiled, gelling ability is destroyed.

58
It is important to note that a number of fruits, including pineapple, kiwi, melons, and papaya

contain protein-digesting enzymes that interfere with gelatin’s ability to gel. These enzymes are

easily deactivated by heat, so cooked or canned fruit should be used to avert the problem.

Acidic ingredients and salt can also impair gel strength, making it sometimes necessary to

increase the concentration of gelatin.

Pectin

Pectin is a carbohydrate that is formed from substances found in the cell walls of plants. It is

most highly concentrated in the skins, seeds, and cores of ripe fruits and some root vegetables.

Under acidic conditions, and in combination with an ample amount of sugar, pectin will form a

gelatinous structure that is the basis for most jams and jellies. Some fruits that are naturally high

in pectin are apples, cranberries, plums, quince, and most citrus. Commercially produced pectin

is commonly made from apples and orange peels.

Pectin also has the ability to bond with the calcium and whey proteins in milk, which makes it a

good choice as a stabilizer for yogurts and other acidified dairy products. Customers perceive

pectin as a nutritious food additive because it is natural and considered to be a beneficial dietary

fiber.

Tapioca

Tapioca is a flavorless, starchy ingredient produced from the cassava root, a plant native to the

West Indies and South America. The root is heated, dried, and then processed into fine flakes or

small white spheres, known as pearl tapioca. It is frequently used as a thickener for puddings

and sauces.

59
Leaveners

Baked products achieve lightness and volume as a result of gases incorporated into dough or

batter. When exposed to oven heat, the gas bubbles expand. At the same time, starches gel

and proteins coagulate around them and preserve the open structure.

A number of methods and ingredients assist in this process. For example, some light batters are

leavened solely by air that is introduced when foaming eggs or creaming fat and sugar; others

rely on chemical leaveners to expand air bubbles by releasing carbon dioxide into the mixture.

In addition, yeasted doughs depend on natural organisms to produce gas bubbles into the

gluten structure.

Chemical Leaveners

Many baked items, including quick breads, cookies, and certain cakes depend on chemical

leaveners for their lightness. Unlike yeast, which is a living organism and produces carbon

dioxide as a waste product, these leaveners create a chemical reaction that produces leavening

gases. Chemical leaveners are valued for their consistent results and fast response times.

When used appropriately, there should be no detectable residual flavor in the baked item.

Baking Soda

Baking soda is also known as sodium bicarbonate or bicarbonate of soda. When it comes into

contact with moisture and acid, a reaction occurs that produces carbon dioxide gas. Bakers take

advantage of this fact by using baking soda to neutralize acidic ingredients while inducing gas

bubbles that leaven the dough or batter. Because the chemical reaction occurs immediately

upon mixing, it is necessary to get the baked item into the oven quickly before the bubbles

overexpand and the benefits are lost. It is also important to keep the ratio of acid to baking soda
60
balanced, because an excessive amount of baking soda can contribute to a chemical, soapy

flavor.

Acidic ingredients that are commonly used in baking are fermented milks such as buttermilk,

sour cream and yogurt, molasses, brown sugar, fruit juices, vinegar, chocolate, and cocoa. A

general guideline suggests that 1/2 teaspoon of baking soda be used to neutralize 1 cup of

fermented milk or 1 teaspoon of vinegar or lemon juice (McGee, p. 534). It is also advisable to

keep the baking soda amount to 0.5 to 1.5 percent of the flour weight. The baker should keep in

mind that the inclusion of heavy ingredients such as nuts, chocolate chips, or fruit may require

increased leavening power.

An excessive amount of baking soda can also affect the color of the crumb or other added

ingredients. Browning is enhanced, which may be desirable, but blueberries can turn green,

chocolate may appear reddish, and walnut skins can turn purple, to name a few unappealing

examples.

Baking Powder

Baking powder is a combination of baking soda, acidic salts, and a small amount of starch for

stabilization. No additional acid ingredients are required in the batter. In this case, a portion of

the acidic salts dissolves easily in liquid, causing the chemical reaction to occur immediately, as

with baking soda. Most commercially available baking powders are double-acting, which means

that there is a second set of acids that require heat to dissolve. During baking, this second stage

of gas production creates bubbles just prior to batter setup and results in a finer texture.

Typically, baking powder amounts will be in the range of 1 to 4 percent of a formula’s flour

weight. An excessive amount can adversely affect the flavor of the baked product.

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Ammonium Bicarbonate

Ammonium bicarbonate is an old-world leavener that is also referred to as hartshorn because at

one time, it was produced from ground deer horns. Unlike baking soda and baking powder, it

does not rely on an acid-based reaction to produce carbon dioxide. In the presence of moisture

and heat, it reacts rapidly to produce carbon dioxide and ammonia gas that leavens the batter or

dough and then dissipates as the item dries out. This leavener is most appropriate for thin, dry

cookies and crackers or pâte à choux items, because products with too high a moisture content

are apt to retain some of the offensive smelling ammonia gas, making them inedible.

Cream of Tartar

Cream of tartar is the common name for tartaric acid, a substance that is naturally produced as

grape juice ferments into wine. The crystals that form on the sides of wine barrels are refined

into a white powder that is used in baking. Although this acid has no leavening power on its

own, it is often called for in combination with baking soda. It is also frequently used to stabilize

egg white foams.

Fruits and Nuts

Fruit

Fruits are the primary tools used by cooks, pastry chefs, and bakers to provide a range of

flavors, colors, textures, and visual appeal. In this text, fruits are divided into six categories:

berries, citrus, melons, stone fruits, pomes, and tropicals/exotics.

Berries

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Berries are small, thin-skinned fruits that grow on bushes and vines throughout the world.

Berries are fully ripened on the bush or vine before being harvested, and will not ripen further

once picked. Berries should be plump with full, rich color, and any miscolored, damaged, or

moldy fruit should be avoided, because just one moldy berry will quickly affect an entire batch.

Berries should be kept refrigerated and washed just prior to use.

Strawberries

Strawberries are vibrant red, heart-shaped berries with tiny black seeds on the exterior.

Strawberries are sweet in flavor, especially smaller ones with deeper red color. Though

available all year long, the peak growing season is late spring through summer.

Raspberries

The most common raspberries are red, but black, purple, and golden varieties are also

available. Raspberries are characterized by having a cluster of many tiny fruits called drupes,

each containing a seed. Raspberries are extremely delicate and mold easily. Intense in flavor,

they range from sweet to tart. Peak season is late May until November.

Blackberries

Blackberries are similar to raspberries in that they are clusters of many tiny fruits, but are larger,

are deep purple in color, and have a shine. These fruits are mostly tart with a sweet finish. Peak

season is June through August.

Blueberries

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Blueberries have a small, firm, deep purple skin with a silvery blue bloom. They are tart to sweet

in flavor, with peak season from June through August.

Cranberries

These berries are firm, shiny red, with a dappled skin. Cranberries have a very intense tart to

sour flavor, with peak season beginning in late August through October.

Currants

Currants are small, round, smooth-skinned berries. Red and/or white varieties are available,

ranging from sweet to a bit tart. Peak season is from late summer to early autumn.

Grapes

Grapes have a thin shiny skin with some bloom, and a broad range of colors. The most common

eating grapes are red flame, Thompson seedless, and concord, and flavors are rather sour with

some sweetness. Because several varieties have different seasons, grapes are grown all year

long.

Citrus

Citrus fruits are characterized by a thick, pithy rind and a thin aromatic skin. All citrus have juicy

segmented flesh with flavors that vary from tart to sweet. Oranges, grapefruits, lemons, and

limes constitute the majority of all citrus fruits, which are grown on trees and bushes in tropical

and subtropical regions throughout the world. Citrus are fully ripened before harvesting and

should be chosen when vibrant in color with little or no blemishes.

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Oranges

Oranges may be divided into four basic groups: eating, juicing, bitter, and mandarin.

Eating oranges include Valencia and navel varieties. They are very sweet, and may or may not

have seeds. They are also rather large and easy to peel. Blood oranges are distinguished by

having a dark orange skin with a deep burgundy flesh and few seeds. They have a rich orange

flavor with a hint of raspberry. Valencia’s are harvested from February until October, with the

peak season from May through July. Navel oranges are harvested from November until May,

and blood oranges are harvested during the winter months.

Juicing oranges have a smoother skin than the other varieties, have seeds, and are difficult to

peel. The Hamlin variety is most commonly used for juicing, but the Valencia variety also juices

well. This variety is harvested from mid-November through January.

Bitter oranges include the burgamont and Seville varieties. The oils of these oranges are used

to make a wide variety of products, such as Grand Marnier, Earl Grey tea, and curaçao. Due to

the rather bitter or tart flavor, the flesh of these oranges is most commonly used to make

marmalade.

Mandarin oranges are rather small with thin, loose skins that are easy to peel. Satsuma, honey,

and royal varieties are seedless and available mostly during the Christmas season. Tangerines

and clementines may be considered in the mandarin category. Tangerines have seeds and are a

bit more tart than mandarins. Clementines are less acidic and very fragrant.

Grapefruits

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Grapefruits are large, round, yellow-skinned fruits with a thick rind and white, pink, or red flesh.

All are similar in flavor, but vary between tart and sweet. Grapefruits can be grown virtually all

year.

Lemons

Lemons are small to medium in size, with smooth, firm, yellow skins. Most varieties are very tart

and highly acidic. Meyer lemons are not true lemons, but instead are probably a hybrid between

a lemon and an orange, giving them a sweeter, less acidic flavor. Lemons are grown virtually all

year, but peak during the summer months.

Limes

Limes are small, thin-skinned fruits that range in color from dark to light green. The Persian

variety has a dark green skin and is very juicy with few seeds. The Florida key lime is smaller,

less juicy, and more acidic. Limes are grown all year and peak during the summer months.

Melons

Melons are members of the gourd family, as are cucumbers and squashes. Because their

season is limited to the summer months, melons are known as a refreshing and delightful

summer treat. Cooking will destroy the fruit, which consists of 90 percent water, so melons are

mostly served fresh, sliced, or pureed. How to determine the ripeness of melon is varied, but in

general, pleasant aroma and heaviness are good determining factors.

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Cantaloupe

Cantaloupes are sweet aromatic melons with a yellow-green netted skin and sweet, juicy

orange flesh. Cantaloupes should be chosen when there is a smooth scar on the stem end,

which shows that the melon was fully ripened while still on the vine. Peak season is during the

mid-summer months.

Winter melons

Winter melons consist of casaba, crenshaw, honeydew, and Persian, canary, and Santa Claus

varieties.

Casaba

The casaba variety has a bright yellow, smooth yet mottled skin, with a creamy greenish white

flesh. This melon has a thick rind that makes it less aromatic and less flavorful, but it has a

longer shelf life. Casaba melons are ripe when the blossom end yields to slight pressure.

Persian

The Persian variety is large and round, with a yellow and green netted skin and a light creamy

orange flesh. This melon has exceptional flavor when allowed to fully ripen on the vine, but is

rather mediocre when picked to soon. The stem end should be smooth. Persian melons should

be avoided when there is a green background below the netting. They have a peak season

during the mid-summer months.

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Crenshaw

The crenshaw variety is a cross between the Persian and casaba varieties. This melon has two

colored rinds, creamy white or yellow, and both have a creamy orange flesh. Yellow crenshaws

are sweeter and more flavorful. The blossom end will yield to light pressure when ripe.

Honeydew

The honeydew variety is rather large, with a smooth, almost silky rind and a juicy vivid green

flesh. As honeydew melons ripen, they turn from pale green to white, to yellow, and continue to

ripen after they have been picked. The honeydew is ripe when the blossom end yields to light

pressure.

Canary

The canary variety has a brilliant yellow rind, with a greenish white flesh. Quality varies greatly,

making them difficult to select. These melons are best during the fall.

Santa Claus

The Santa Claus variety has a light and dark green striated rind with a creamy, light green flesh.

This melon has a thick rind and little aroma, but if uncut will last for several months.

Watermelons

Nearly 50 varieties of watermelon exist today, yet all of them are somewhat similar in flavor. The

color of the rind and the flesh vary greatly, and they may or may not have seeds. All

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watermelons have thick rinds with bright, crisp flesh containing large amounts of water. When

selecting a watermelon, the pale side should be carefully inspected, as this is where the fruit

rested while growing. It should not be white, but rather pale yellow.

Stone Fruits

Stone fruits consist of peaches, nectarines, apricots, cherries, and plums and are characterized

by one large central pit, or stone. These fruits have a delicate, thin skin and a juicy, soft flesh.

Being fragile, they tend to bruise easily and have a short shelf life. Because they are difficult to

transport, growers often pick stone fruits before they are ripe. Those with rich color but still a bit

firm should be selected, and then allowed to ripen for a few days.

Peaches

Peaches are round and medium sized, with very thin, fuzzy skin and sweet, juicy flesh. The

flesh can range from white to pale orange, and can be either freestone or clingstone, which

indicates whether the stone readily releases from the flesh or not. Peaches should be chosen

without wrinkles or blemishes. They will further soften after picking, but will not become sweeter.

The peak season is during the summer months, with July and August producing the finest fruits.

Nectarines

Nectarines are similar to peaches but have a smooth skin and are sweeter. These fruits are

grown in the summer months, with the freestone variety peaking in June and July. Clingstone

varieties, which are less flavorful, and available later in the summer.

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Apricots

Apricots have a slightly fuzzy, thin skin similar to peaches, but are smaller and have drier flesh.

They vary from brilliant orange to rich yellow. These fruits have a short season, peaking during

late June through July.

Plums

Plums vary in size from small, like nectarines, to more of a medium size, like peaches. These

fruits have a wonderful contrast in flavor, with the skins fairly tart and the flesh juicy and sweet.

They vary in color, ranging from green, yellow, and red to many shades of purple. Plums are

harvested during June until October, and peak in August and September.

Cherries

Cherries can be classified as sweet or sour. Sweet cherries vary greatly in color, ranging from

yellow to deep red to virtually black. The skins are thin and lightly tart; the flesh is sweet and

very juicy. The most common varieties of sweet cherries are Bing, yellow-red Royal Anns, and

Queen Anns. Cherries are chosen when firm, plump, and unblemished, with the stems still

attached. Cherries with dry brown stems should be avoided. Sour cherries vary from light red to

deep burgundy. The most common varieties are Montmorency and Morello. These cherries are

typically used for making preserves or pie fillings.

Pomes

This category of fruits consists of apples, pears, and quince.

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Apples

Apples are the most commonly available fruit worldwide. Their ease of use, flavor, abundant

varieties, and year-round availability make them a favorite of cooks and pastry chefs. Although

hundreds of varieties exist, the most common are Red Delicious, Golden Delicious, McIntosh,

Granny Smith, Gala, Rome, Fuji, and Jonathon.

Apples range from very sweet to very tart, firm to crisp, and soft to mealy. Different varieties

have different purposes and are generally classified as either eating or cooking. Varieties such

as Red Delicious, Fuji, or Jonathon are wonderful for eating out of hand, or sliced and left fresh.

Cooking varieties are characterized as being able to cook down into purees. Some varieties

retain their shape when cooked or baked, which may be important if a recognizable slice or

apple appearance is desired. Other varieties are best for juicing or making applesauce.

Though apples are available all year, the peak season is during the fall. Large apple producers

harvest underripe apples, then hold them in climate-controlled cold storage units for several

months with little loss of quality. Apples should be chosen when unblemished, with firm taught

skins and a good aroma. Fruits that are scarred, bruised, or wrinkled should be avoided, and

spoiled apples, which emit ethylene gas, will increase the decaying of other apples in the bunch.

Pears

Like apples, pears have many varieties that offer different flavors, textures, and applications.

The most common varieties include D’Anjou, Asian, Bartlett, Bosc, Sekel, and Comice. Pears

are often eaten out of hand, but are cooked, baked, and poached for a multitude of applications.

Pears are picked before full ripening due to their fragile exterior. Pears with have a smooth,

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unblemished skin, and little or no brown spots should be chosen. These fruits continue to ripen

off the tree, and will become more fragrant and should yield to light pressure.

D’Anjou pears have light green skins that turn yellow when ripe. They are economical and good

for both eating and cooking. Asian pears have light green skins that turn yellow with slight brown

spots when ripe. They are apple-shaped, with the crisp texture of an apple, but the moist sweet

flavor of a pear. Bartlett pears also have light green skins that turn yellow when ripe, are very

juicy and flavorful, and are good for eating out of hand. Bosc pears have light brown skins, are

firm, and hold their shape well while cooking. Sekel pears are considerably smaller than most

varieties. They have green skins with a reddish blush. Although very sweet and juicy, Sekel

pears tend to have thicker skins, which limit their applications. Comice pears are extremely juicy

and flavorful and are best eaten fresh, but they tend to be expensive.

Quince

Quince looks like a large, lumpy, yellow pear. They are not eaten raw, but when cooked with

sugar, they become very aromatic, sweet, and flavorful. Because they contain a high amount of

pectin, quince are often added to jams and preserves to promote gelling. They should be

selected when firm with few blemishes, and any blemishes that do exist can be cut away prior to

cooking. These fruits are available from October through January and keep well under

refrigeration.

Tropicals/ Exotics

A broad range of fruits fall under the category of tropicals/exotics. Each is very unique, and all

can be eaten fresh. These fruits complement each other very well and are popular in pastry and

desserts.

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Banana

Bananas are the most common of the tropical fruits. They are picked green and allowed to ripen

off the tree. When ripe, banana skin is a bright yellow with a few brown spots and milky white

flesh. Bananas with excessive brown spots or a grayish hue should be avoided.

Pineapple

Pineapples have long, spear-shaped leaves that top a large, brown-eyed fruit that resembles a

pinecone. By cutting away the exterior, a pale yellow that surrounds a very woody core is

revealed. The flesh is extremely sweet and can be eaten raw or cooked. Pineapples must be

fully ripened on the shrub, and therefore perish quickly. They are available all year, but have a

peak season from March through June. Pineapples should be chosen when they are aromatic

with a full, deep color.

Mango

Mangoes are oval fruits with a thin, yet tough skin. They range in color between red, orange,

and yellow with spots of green. The aromatic and sweet flesh, which surrounds a large, flat

seed, is a vibrant yellow. Mangoes are chosen when they have strong colors and are firm with

no blemishes. A mango will begin to lose its greenish colors as it ripens. The peak season is

May through August.

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Papaya

Papayas are pear-shaped fruits with greenish yellow skin and a yellow or reddish flesh. The

juicy flesh has a melon-like flavor and surrounds a cluster of small black seeds. The peak

season is April through June.

Passion

Passion fruits are egg shaped and have a tough purplish, brown skin with an orange-yellow pulp

and large black seeds. The sweet citrus flavor of the pulp is unique. Passion fruits should be

chosen when they have slightly shriveled skins and a heavy aroma. They may be allowed to

ripen at room temperature and then stored refrigerated.

Pomegranate

Pomegranates are a unique fruit in that they have many deep red seeds enclosed by a thin

white membrane and surrounded by tough, leathery red skin. The seeds, which have a

tremendously tangy flavor, are the fruit. Pomegranates that are firm, but not hard, and have no

blemishes should be chosen. The peak season is September through December.

Persimmon

Persimmons are bright orange to yellow fruits with a jelly-like flesh that has a rich but mild flavor.

They should be chosen when somewhat soft but not bruised. A fully ripe persimmon will have an

almost translucent skin. These fruits are available October through January.

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Star Fruit

Uniquely shaped, the star fruit is roughly 12 centimeters long with five distinct ribs along the

fruit. When cut in half, the fruit resembles a star. The skin is an orange-yellow color, somewhat

waxy, but edible. The flesh is a juicy pale yellow with a tart, yet sweet flavor. Star fruits are

available from August through February.

Figs

Figs are a small, pear-shaped fruit with a thin, edible skin and a moist seeded flesh. This fruit

has a very sweet flavor, and the seeds have a crunchy texture. Figs should be allowed to fully

ripen on the tree for the richest, sweetest flavor to come about. Although they are very delicate,

most figs are picked before they are fully ripe. The peak season for figs is from June until

November.

Rhubarb

Though it is really a vegetable, rhubarb is used as though it were fruit. Rhubarb has reddish,

pink stalks that are extremely acidic, yet when combined with sugar and cooked, produce a

wonderful sweet-sour flavor. Rhubarb is often married with strawberry or even orange and

ginger. Firm, crisp stalks with no blemishes should be chosen. Rhubarb is available from

February through May.

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Nuts

Nuts, which have hard shells and edible kernels, are the fruit of a variety of trees. Peanuts

actually grow in an underground leguminous root system and are not botanically classified as a

nut, but rather as a legume. However, for the purposes of this text, they will be referred to as

nuts. Nuts are often used in cooking and baking, where they offer wonderful flavor and texture

to any item.

Nuts are relatively high in fat and protein, and are often roasted or sautéed to bring out their

natural oils, which intensify flavor. If finely ground, nuts can be used as flour, but are most often

used whole, sliced, slivered, or chopped. When purchased in the shell, nuts can last for many

months without turning rancid, but once shelled, shelf life is greatly reduced. Shelled nuts

should be stored in a cool dry place, refrigerated, or even frozen.

Almonds

Almonds are the most commonly used nut in the bakeshop or kitchen. They are available with

the skin on or blanched with the skin off, and either whole, slivered, chopped, ground, or in

paste form.

Hazelnuts

Hazelnuts, also known as filberts, are small round nuts that have a rich, distinct flavor. They are

most often found whole but can also be purchased ground. These nuts are best toasted before

use.

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Walnuts

The most common varieties of walnuts are the Black Walnut, indigenous to the Appalachian

states, and the English walnut, now grown in California. The black walnut has a robust flavor,

whereas the English walnut has a rich but mild flavor. Walnuts can be found in the shell, shelled,

whole, halved, or chopped.

Pecans

Pecans have a rich, almost maple-like flavor and are commonly used in pastries, desserts, and

breads. These nuts may be found whole, chopped, slivered, sliced, or ground.

Macadamia Nuts

Native to Australia, macadamia nuts are known for their deep, rich, sweet flavor and high fat

content. They are always sold shelled, because they have a tremendously hard shell that must

be removed by machines.

Peanuts

Peanuts may be eaten raw or roasted and are sold with the shell or shelled, or as a butter.

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Pistachios

Pistachios are unique in that they have a distinct green meat with a rich, sweet flavor. They are

typically sold with the shell or shelled, raw or roasted, and sometimes chopped.

Coconuts

The nut of the coconut is the hard, brown woody exterior that encases a layer of rich white

meat, as well as clear liquid called coconut water. The coconut meat has a chewy and

somewhat crunchy texture with a sweet flavor. Coconut meat is found shredded or flaked, and

coconut milk and cream are also available.

Spices

Spices are the root, bark, seed, bud, or berry of plants grown almost exclusively in tropical

regions. Mostly found whole or ground in dry form, spices are considerably powerful and are

used sparingly—as a rule, too little is better than too much. When ground, spices lose their

flavor quickly. For this reason, purchasing them whole and grinding them per use is

recommended. Whole spices keep for long periods of time when kept in a dark, airtight

environment.

Allspice

Allspice is the berry of an evergreen tree that is indigenous to the rainforest of South and

Central America. The name refers to the spice’s aroma, which is of a combination of cinnamon,

clove, ginger, and nutmeg. Dried allspice berries resemble large brown peppercorns and have a

78
warm, pungent flavor with peppery overtones. Allspice is found in whole or ground forms and is

sometimes called pimento when in whole form.

Anise

Anise is the true flavor of licorice. The seeds are a grey-green to brownish color. Anise has a

sweet fragrant aroma. Due to its rapid loss of flavor when ground, it should be purchased as

whole seeds and ground per use.

Cardamom

Cardamom refers to the small, brownish-black sticky seeds of a ginger-like plant that is

indigenous to Southern India. The spice has a eucalyptus-like flavor that is warm and aromatic.

Cinnamon

Cinnamon is the inner bark of a tropical evergreen tree grown in Sri Lanka. Available ground or

as rolled strips of bark, cinnamon is the most commonly used spice in baking. The spice has a

warm, sweet aroma.

Clove

Cloves are the dried flower buds of a tropical evergreen tree. Resembling tiny rusty nails, they

have sweet aroma but an astringent flavor.

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Ginger

Ginger, a root native to India and China, comes in many forms. Ginger can be purchased whole

or fresh, dried and ground, crystallized or pickled. This spice has a warm, sweet aroma with a

fiery flavor.

Nutmeg

Nutmeg is the seed kernel inside the fruit of a tropical evergreen indigenous to Moluccas (the

Spice Islands). It is a wrinkled brown seed that is sold ground or whole and has a sweet, nutty

aroma and flavor.

Mace

Mace is the lacy covering of the nutmeg seed kernel. It is typically sold ground and has a

nutmeg flavor, but is stronger and slightly sweeter.

Peppercorns

Peppercorns are the dried, unripe fruit of several species of vinous plants. Common

peppercorns include black, white, green, and pink. Peppercorns have pungent, fiery flavor with

different degrees of intensity, black being the hottest.

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Flavorings

Vanilla Bean

The vanilla bean is the highly fragrant seed pod or bean of the vanilla plant native to Mexico.

Used in many products, vanilla beans and extract are the most valuable of all flavorings. To

impart a vanilla flavor to products, the whole bean can be added to a warming liquid. For a

stronger flavor, the bean can be cut lengthwise to extract the seeds and add to a mixture along

with the shell. To fully utilize the vanilla bean, the used bean shell can be put into sugar, where it

will infuse a vanilla flavor.

Orange Blossom Water

Distilled from the blossoms of the Bitter Orange tree, orange blossom water imparts a mild

orange flavor.

Herbs

Herbs are the flowers, leaves, or stems of aromatic plants grown throughout the world. Although

traditionally used for savory applications, herbs are beginning to have a strong presence in the

pastry shop. Herbs are used fresh and dried, but the dried varieties have little flavor, and fresh

herbs should be used when available. Fresh herbs are highly perishable and should be stored

refrigerated with a damp paper towel in a plastic bag.

Basil

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Basil, a member of the mint family, has many varieties that range from the pungent Asian

varieties to the milder, sweet European varieties. All have an aromatic licorice flavor.

Rosemary

Rosemary is a very pungent herb that has needle-like leaves on a woody stem. A member of the

mint family, rosemary has a robust woody flavor.

Mint

Although mint has many varieties, it is typically thought of as peppermint or spearmint.

Peppermint has a rather strong, menthol flavor, and spearmint is milder with a tart flavor. Both

are commonly used as oils.

Lavender

Lavender is an evergreen that has tall stems with thin leaves and tiny purple flowers. It has a

sweet, lemony flavor that makes it a favorite for infusions or for crystallizing and using as a

garnish.

Questions for Review

 Describe the sugar refinement process.

 What is an invert sugar, and what would be a reason to use one?

 Name the two proteins present in wheat flour that are responsible for gluten

development.
82
  List some ingredients that encourage gluten development and some that hinder it.

 What type of variances can the baker expect to find in flour milled in different parts of the

country?

 Yeast can exist in both aerobic and anaerobic conditions. How does it act in each?

 Discuss the different characteristics of egg yolks and egg whites.

 What temperature conditions are best for separating eggs? for whipping egg whites? for

egg storage?

 How do fermented milk products differ from fresh milk and cream?

 What is the difference between cultured and acidified sour cream?

 What are some vegetarian alternatives to gelatin?

 What is the difference between baking powder and baking soda? Are the two

interchangeable?

 What are some differences between leavening with yeast and with chemical leaveners?

What is a third source of leavening?

 What are some fruits that must be fully ripened prior to harvesting and some that

continue to ripen after being harvested?

Bibliography

Amendola, J., & Rees, N. (2003). Understanding baking. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

American Egg Board, Park Ridge, Illinois. (2005). http://www.aeg.org. Retrieved December
2005.

Labensky, Sarah R. (2005). On baking: A textbook of baking and pastry fundamentals. New
Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.

Larousse gastronomique. (2001). New York: Clarkson Potter/Publishers.

McGee, H. (2004). On food and cooking. New York: Scribner.

Pyler, E. J. (1988). Baking science and technology. Kansas: Sosland Publishing Company.

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