0021-972X/04/$15.
00/0 The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 89(9):4351– 4358
Printed in U.S.A.
Essential Amino Acid and Carbohydrate
Supplementation Ameliorates Muscle Protein Loss in
Humans during 28 Days Bedrest
DOUGLAS PADDON-JONES, MELINDA SHEFFIELD-MOORE, RANDALL J. URBAN,
ARTHUR P. SANFORD, ASLE AARSLAND, ROBERT R. WOLFE, AND ARNY A. FERRANDO
Departments of Surgery (D.P.-J., M.S.-M., A.A., R.R.W., A.A.F.), Anesthesiology (A.A., R.R.W.), and Internal Medicine
(R.J.U.), University of Texas Medical Branch, and Shriners Hospitals for Children (D.P.-J., M.S.-M., A.P.S., A.A., R.R.W.,
A.A.F.), Galveston, Texas 77550
We determined whether essential amino acid and carbohy-
drate supplementation could offset the catabolic response to
prolonged inactivity. Major outcome measures included
mixed muscle fractional synthetic rate (FSR), phenylalanine
net balance, lean leg mass, and leg extension strength. On d 1
and 28, vastus lateralis muscle biopsies and femoral arterio-
venous blood samples were obtained during a primed con-
stant infusion of L-[ring-2H5]phenylalanine. Net balance and
FSR were calculated over 16 h, during which the control group
(CON) received a nutritionally mixed meal every 5 h (0830,
1330, and 1830 h). The experimental group (EXP) also con-
sumed 16.5 g essential amino acids and 30 g carbohydrate
R EDUCTIONS IN SKELETAL muscle mass and func-
tional capacity are inherent and undesirable conse-
quences of muscle inactivity. Unfortunately, a degree of mus-
cular inactivity is inevitable in many situations, including
convalescence from illness or injury, exposure to micrograv-
ity, and the progression of aging. Mechanistically, the loss of
lean body mass associated with prolonged bedrest is pri-
marily due to alterations in protein turnover (1), including an
increase in protein degradation and/or a decrease in protein
synthesis (2– 4). In each instance, the resultant muscle atro-
phy is most pronounced in the muscles of the lower back and
legs (5– 8).
Although it is clear that exercise provides a potent anabolic
stimulus and has been shown to be effective during bedrest
(9, 10), it may not be feasible in situations in which the ability
to move is severely restricted by pathology, physical impair-
ment, and/or environmental constraints. Consequently, less
invasive strategies, such as dietary manipulation, have also
been tested in an attempt to ameliorate the debilitating effects
of inactivity. Increasing dietary protein intake from 0.6 g
protein/kg䡠d to more than 1.0 g protein/kg䡠d has been
shown to maintain nitrogen balance (3), but may not neces-
sarily prevent the loss of skeletal muscle mass (4). Others
Abbreviations: CON, Control group; DEXA, dual energy x-ray ab-
sorptiometry; EAA, essential amino acids; EAAC, essential amino acids
and carbohydrate; EXP, experimental group; FSR, fractional synthetic
rate; ICG, Indocyanine Green; MRI, magnetic resonance imaging; 1RM,
one-repetition maximum.
JCEM is published monthly by The Endocrine Society (http://www.
endo-society.org), the foremost professional society serving the en-
docrine community.
4351
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Copyright © 2004 by The Endocrine Society
doi: 10.1210/jc.2003-032159
(1100, 1600, and 2100 h). The dietary regimen was maintained
during bedrest. FSR was higher in the EXP group on d 1 (EXP,
0.099 ⴞ 0.008%/h; CON: 0.075 ⴞ 0.005%/h) and d 28 (EXP, 0.093 ⴞ
0.006%/h; CON, 0.055 ⴞ 0.007%/h). Lean leg mass was main-
tained throughout bedrest in the EXP group (ⴙ0.2 ⴞ 0.3 kg),
but fell in the CON group (ⴚ0.4 ⴞ 0.1 kg). Strength loss was
more pronounced in the CON group (EXP, ⴚ8.8 ⴞ 1.4 kg; CON,
ⴚ17.8 ⴞ 4.4 kg). Essential amino acid and carbohydrate sup-
plementation may represent a viable intervention for indi-
viduals at risk of sarcopenia due to immobility or prolonged
bedrest. (J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89: 4351– 4358, 2004)
have suggested that the beneficial effects of increased protein
ingestion may be attributable to a concomitantly greater in-
take of branched chain amino acids (8, 11). Certainly, iden-
tification of the fundamental anabolic units in a dietary sup-
plement would provide the best opportunity to develop the
most effective countermeasure.
The magnitude of the anabolic stimulus afforded by a
dietary supplement compared with regular food is of central
importance when evaluating its potential to prevent muscle
loss during periods of inactivity. Bolus oral ingestion of es-
sential amino acids produces a rapid, several-fold increase in
plasma amino acid levels (12) and has been shown to stim-
ulate net protein synthesis to a greater extent than a mixed
meal or a solution containing nonessential amino acids
(13, 14).
To be effective, a supplement should strongly stimulate
net muscle protein synthesis without interfering with the
normal anabolic response to meals. In elderly individuals,
the provision of a nutritionally mixed, 360-kcal supplement
resulted in a compensatory caloric redistribution, with the
supplement serving as a caloric replacement rather than a
true supplement per se (15). The ingestion of carbohydrates
increases the secretion of insulin in healthy individuals, but
alone produces only a minor improvement in net protein
synthesis (16). However, if amino acid precursors are avail-
able, as is the case after the ingestion of protein or a sup-
plement, insulin can also stimulate amino acid uptake and
protein synthesis (17). Furthermore, in young individuals,
the combined effect of essential amino acids and carbohy-
drate (EAAC) on muscle protein synthesis is greater than the
sum of their independent effects (18, 19).
 4352 J Clin Endocrinol Metab, September 2004, 89(9):4351– 4358
The purpose of this study was to determine whether
EAAC supplementation during 28 d of strict bedrest could
provide an anabolic stimulus capable of offsetting the cata-
bolic response associated with prolonged inactivity.
Subjects and Methods
Subjects
Thirteen healthy male volunteers participated in this project. Subjects
were randomly assigned to an experimental group [EXP; n ⫽ 7; 36 ⫾ 10
(⫾sd) yr; 87 ⫾ 12 kg; 180 ⫾ 3 cm] or a control group [CON; n ⫽ 6; 38 ⫾
8 (sd) yr; 86 ⫾ 10 kg; 179 ⫾ 3 cm]. The EXP group consumed supplements
containing essential amino acids and carbohydrate during each of the
stable isotope infusion studies and throughout bedrest. All subjects gave
informed, written consent according to the guidelines established by the
institutional review board at University of Texas Medical Branch. Sub-
ject eligibility was assessed by a battery of medical screening tests,
including medical history, physical examination, electrocardiogram,
blood count, plasma electrolytes, blood glucose concentration, and liver
and renal function tests. Exclusion criteria included recent injury, the
presence of a metabolically unstable medical condition, low hematocrit
or hemoglobin, vascular disease, hypertension, or cardiac abnormality.
Experimental protocol
The experimental protocol is depicted in Fig. 1. During the diet
stabilization period, bedrest, and isotope infusion studies, subjects were
housed in the General Clinical Research Center (GCRC) at University of
Texas Medical Branch. Volunteers were instructed to maintain their
normal diet and refrain from strenuous activity during the weeks fol-
lowing medical screening and preceding admission.
Subjects were admitted to the GCRC for 5 d of dietary stabilization
and pretesting before the start of bedrest. During this period, subjects
FIG. 1. Experimental and stable isotope infusion protocol.
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Paddon-Jones et al. • Amino Acids and Bedrest
were sedentary, but remained ambulatory. Consistent with previous
bedrest studies in our laboratory (4), the Harris-Benedict equation with
an activity factor (AF) of 1.6 (diet stabilization) or 1.3 (bedrest) was used
to estimate daily caloric requirements, according to the following for-
mula: daily energy requirement (kcal) ⫽ [66 ⫹ (13.7 ⫻ kg) ⫹ (5 ⫻ cm) ⫺
(6.8 ⫻ yr)] ⫻ AF. During the diet stabilization period and for the duration
of the study, subjects were placed on a 3-d rotating diet. Daily nutrient
intake was evenly distributed between three meals (0830, 1300, and
1830 h) with carbohydrate, fat, and protein representing 59%, 27%, and
14%, respectively (4). Water was provided ad libitum.
Pre- and posttest measures
Pretest measures were performed during the second and third days
of diet stabilization before bedrest. Posttesting was performed before
reambulation on d 29 (Fig. 1). Lean leg mass was determined using dual
energy x-ray absorptiometry (DEXA; Hologic, Inc., Natick, MA). Calf
volume was calculated using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI; Gen-
eral Electric, Fairfield, CT; 1.5T). Sequential 10-mm transverse images of
the gastrocnemius and soleus were obtained from the tibial plateau to
the medial malleous after at least 12 h of horizontal bedrest. Muscle
cross-sectional area was calculated as previously described (20). Famil-
iarization with strength-testing equipment was performed during the
initial screening visit. Single-leg, one-repetition maximum (1RM) leg
extension strength was determined on the second day of the diet sta-
bilization period and again on d 29.
Stable isotope infusion studies (d 1 and 28)
At approximately 0600 h on d 1 and 28 of bedrest, an 18-guage
polyethylene catheter (Insyte-W, BD Biosciences, Sandy, UT) was in-
serted into an antecubital vein. Baseline blood samples were drawn for
analysis of background amino acid enrichment and concentration and
insulin and glucose concentrations. A second 18-guage polyethylene
 Paddon-Jones et al. • Amino Acids and Bedrest
catheter was placed in the contralateral wrist for blood sampling for the
spectrophotometric determination of leg blood flow (21). A primed
(2 ␮mol/kg) continuous infusion (0.05 ␮mol/kg/min) of [ring-
2
H5]phenylalanine was initiated and maintained for the duration of the
study. At approximately 0700 h, 3-Fr 8-cm polyethylene Cook catheters
(Bloomington, IN) were inserted into the femoral artery and vein of one
leg under local anesthesia. Femoral arterial and venous blood samples
were obtained at 15- to 30-min intervals from 0800 –2400 h. Samples were
analyzed to determine phenylalanine kinetics and plasma concentra-
tions of glucose and insulin. The femoral arterial catheter was also used
for Indocyanine Green (ICG) infusion. ICG was infused into the femoral
artery for approximately 20 min on two occasions (1000 and 2000 h).
Three 2-ml blood samples were drawn simultaneously from the femoral
and wrist veins during the final 10 min of each ICG infusion period. Leg
plasma flow was calculated from steady state ICG concentrations and
converted to leg blood flow using the hematocrit (21, 22).
Muscle biopsies (⬃50 mg) were taken from the lateral portion of the
vastus lateralis approximately 10 –15 cm above the knee using a 5-mm
Bergstrom biopsy needle as previously described (23). Samples were
obtained at 0800 and 2400 h and were used to calculate the mixed muscle
fractional synthetic rate (FSR) as described below.
During the stable isotope infusion studies (d 1 and 28), subjects
received a liquid meal (Boost Plus, Novartis Medical Nutrition Corp.,
Minneapolis, MN; Polycose, Ross Products, Columbus, OH; and Mi-
crolipid, Mead Johnson, Evansville, IN) based on the Harris Benedict
equation with an activity factor of 1.3. The meal contained the same
nutrient distribution as the regular meals (59% carbohydrate, 27% fat,
and 14% protein). The meals (⬃500 ml) were consumed over a 5-min
period at 0830, 1300, and 1830 h and were chosen to control nutrient/
protein content and to reduce variability associated with digestion and
gastric emptying of whole foods. The total carbohydrate content of each
meal was approximately 130 g.
During each stable isotope study and throughout bedrest, subjects in
the EXP group received three daily supplements (1100, 1600, and 2100 h),
each containing 16.5 g essential amino acids (EAA) and 30 g sucrose (49.5
g EAA and 90 g sucrose/d). The proportion of EAA in the supplement
was based on the distribution required to increase the intracellular
concentration of EAA in proportion to their respective contribution to
the synthesis of skeletal muscle protein (Table 1). Sucrose was added to
the EAA blend primarily to improve palatability. However, changes in
plasma insulin concentrations after ingestion of the supplement were
also measured. The amino acids and sucrose were dissolved in 250 ml
of a noncaloric, noncaffeinated soft drink. The additional daily caloric/
nutrient intake (558 kcal) provided by the EAAC drinks represented a
true dietary supplement and not a caloric replacement or substitution.
Subjects in the CON group received only the diet soft drink.
We have previously determined that a constant infusion of [ring-
2
H5]phenylalanine (0.05 ␮mol/kg䡠min) results in an isotopic enrichment
(tracer-tracee ratio) in the femoral artery of approximately 0.08 (24). To
maintain an isotopic steady state after ingestion of 2.0 g unlabeled
TABLE 1. Proportion of EAA in the supplement
Supplement Grams
Histidine 1.7
Isoleucine 1.0
Leucine 3.1
Lysine 2.6
Methionine 0.5
Phenylalanine 2.0
Threonine 2.2
Valine 2.1
[Ring-2H5]phenylalanine 0.19
Glycine 0.7
Tryptophan 0.6
Sucrose 30
Total 46.5
The EXP group received three supplements per day during bedrest.
Each contained 15 g EAA and 30 g sucrose. To maintain an isotopic
steady state, an additional 0.186 g [ring-2H5]phenylalanine was
added to each supplement.
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J Clin Endocrinol Metab, September 2004, 89(9):4351– 4358 4353
phenylalanine, an additional 0.186 g [ring-2H5]phenylalanine was added
to each EAAC drink (12, 24). Similarly, 0.133 g [ring-2H5]phenylalanine
was added to the Boost meals, which contained 1.67 ⫾ 0.07 g unlabeled
phenylalanine.
Phenylalanine net balance and uptake was examined over a 16-h
period before and after 28 d of bedrest. During each 16-h period on d
1 and 28, data were grouped into three major periods incorporating 1)
a postabsorptive period (30 min), 2) three identical meal periods (each
150 min), and 3) three identical supplement/placebo periods (each 150
min).
Bedrest (d 1–28)
This protocol was primarily designed to mimic the effects of pro-
longed inactivity of the lower extremities in the absence of accompa-
nying hypercortisolemia or hormonal imbalance observed after trauma-
induced inactivity (2, 25). Subjects remained on strict bedrest after the
first tracer infusion study and were continually monitored by GCRC
nursing staff. During daily activities (reading, computer use, and tele-
vision viewing), subjects were permitted to raise their shoulders with
two pillows, and a slight bed-back elevation was permitted. Subjects
were permitted to change position periodically to alleviate positional
discomfort and to eat. Bathing, hygiene activities, and urine collection
were performed during bedrest. Subjects were permitted to use a bed-
side commode for bowel movements, but the time out of bed was limited
to approximately 5 min.
Reambulation (d 29 –32)
After completion of posttesting, subjects slowly resumed weight-
bearing activities and were discharged after medical evaluation on d 32.
Analytical methods
Blood. Femoral artery and vein blood samples were immediately mixed
and precipitated in preweighed tubes containing a 15% sulfosalicyclic
acid solution and an internal standard. The internal standard (100 ␮l/ml
blood) contained 53.5 ␮mol/liter l-[ring-13C6]phenylalanine. Samples
were reweighed and centrifuged, and the supernatant was removed and
frozen (⫺80 C) until analysis. Upon thawing, blood amino acids were
extracted from 500 ␮l supernatant by cation exchange chromatography
(Dowex AG 50W-8X,100 –200 mesh H⫹ form; Bio-Rad Laboratories,
Richmond, CA) and dried under vacuum (Savant Instruments, Farm-
ingdale, NY). Phenylalanine enrichments and concentrations were de-
termined on the tert-butyldimethylsilyl derivative using gas chroma-
tography-mass spectrometry (HP model 5973, Hewlett-Packard Co.,
Palo Alto, CA) with electron impact ionization. Ions 336, 341, and 342
were monitored (26, 27). Plasma insulin and cortisol concentrations and
urinary cortisol concentrations were determined by RIA (Coat-A-Count,
Diagnostic Products Corp., Los Angeles, CA).
Muscle. Muscle biopsy samples from the vastus lateralis were immedi-
ately rinsed, blotted, and frozen in liquid nitrogen until analysis. Upon
thawing, samples were weighed, and protein was precipitated with 800
␮l 14% perchloroacetic acid. To measure the intracellular phenylalanine
concentration, an internal standard (2 ␮l/mg wet weight) containing 3
␮mol/liter l-[ring-13C6]phenylalanine was added. Approximately 1.5
ml supernatant were collected after tissue homogenization and centrif-
ugation and processed in the same manner as the supernatant from
blood samples. Intracellular phenylalanine enrichment and concentra-
tions were determined using the tert-butyldimethylsilyl derivative (28,
29). The remaining muscle pellet was washed and dried, and the proteins
were hydrolyzed in 6 n HCl at 50 C for 24 h. The protein-bound l-[ring-
2
H5]phenylalanine enrichment was determined using GCMS (HP model
5973, Hewlett-Packard Co.) with electron impact ionization (30).
Calculations
Phenylalanine was selected to trace muscle protein kinetics because
it is neither produced nor metabolized in skeletal muscle. Therefore, the
disappearance of phenylalanine reflects incorporation into protein (i.e.
synthesis), whereas phenylalanine appearance reflects protein break-
down (28). Net phenylalanine balance across the leg was considered a
 4354 J Clin Endocrinol Metab, September 2004, 89(9):4351– 4358 Paddon-Jones et al. • Amino Acids and Bedrest

primary end point reflecting the balance between protein synthesis and
degradation and was calculated as follows: net balance ⫽ (Ca ⫺ Cv) ⫻ BF.
To reflect the proportionate contribution of all proteins to synthesis
and breakdown, including those with slower turnover rates, we calcu-
lated mean 16-h phenylalanine rate of disappearance (Rd) and appear-
ance (Ra) based on multiple determinations of each factor: Rd ⫽ (Ea ⫻
Ca ⫺ Ev ⫻ Cv)/Ea ⫻ BF, and Ra ⫽ Rd ⫺ NB. Ca and Cv represent the
phenylalanine concentrations in the femoral artery and vein, and Ea and
Ev represent the phenylalanine enrichment (tracer to tracee ratio) in the
artery and vein, respectively. BF represents leg blood flow, as deter-
mined by the ICG dye dilution method (21). These calculations do not
include phenylalanine that is recycled and does not appear in the blood
after breakdown.
Net phenylalanine accrual over 24 h was calculated by first deter-
mining net phenylalanine uptake (net balance area under the curve)
from 0800 –2400 h (16 h). Net phenylalanine uptake during the non-
measured 8-h overnight period was estimated by extrapolating mea-
sured postabsorptive values. This assumption was supported by the fact
that phenylalanine net balance at 2400 h had returned to postabsorptive
levels and in the absence of further nutrient ingestion was unlikely to
vary greatly thereafter. Calculation of the resultant change in net muscle
mass over 24 h was based on the following: 1) phenylalanine accounts
for approximately 4% of skeletal muscle protein (22); 2) the protein
content of muscle is approximately 25% (22); and 3) muscle is approx-
imately 73% water (31). To predict muscle loss over 28 d of bedrest,
changes in net muscle mass over 24 h on d 1 and 28 were averaged and
multiplied by 28.
The FSR of mixed muscle protein was calculated by measuring the
direct incorporation of l-[ring-2H5]phenylalanine into protein using the
precursor-product model: FSR ⫽ [(EP2 ⫺ EP1)/(Em ⫻ t) ⫻ 60 ⫻ 100,
where EP1 and EP2 are the enrichments of bound l-[ring-
2
H5]phenylalanine in the first and second muscle biopsies, t is the time
interval between biopsies (i.e. ⬃16 h), and Em is the mean l-[ring-
2
H5]phenylalanine enrichment in the muscle intracellular pool (32).
Statistical analysis
Within-group (d 1 vs. 28) and between-group (EXP vs. CON) com-
parisons for each period (postabsorptive, meal, and supplement/
placebo) were performed using two-way ANOVA. Two-tailed t tests
were used to compare FSR, blood flow, net phenylalanine uptake, and
demographic and outcome variables. A Bonferroni correction was ap-
plied to account for the multiple comparisons. Data are presented as the
mean ⫾ sem. Differences were considered significant at P ⬍ 0.05.
Results
Postabsorptive variables (d 1 and 28)
Twenty-eight days of bedrest did not change postabsorp-
tive insulin concentrations. Values in the EXP group were
6.8 ⫾ 1.1 and 8.6 ⫾ 2.0 ␮IU/ml, and CON group values were
7.3 ⫾ 0.8 and 7.2 ⫾ 1.4 ␮IU/ml, respectively (P ⬎ 0.05).
Similarly, postabsorptive plasma glucose concentrations
were 92.6 ⫾ 1.6 and 92.5 ⫾ 2.2 mg/dl (EXP) and 90.8 ⫾ 4.9
and 92.2 ⫾ 3.7 mg/dl (CON), respectively (P ⬎ 0.05). Post-
absorptive plasma cortisol concentrations were not altered
by bedrest, with values of 14.4 ⫾ 1.3 and 11.2 ⫾ 1.5 ␮g/dl
(EXP) and 12.0 ⫾ 1.3 and 10.8 ⫾ 1.3 ␮g/dl (CON; P ⬎ 0.05).
Similarly, 24-h urinary cortisol concentrations on d 1 and 28
were 55.1 ⫾ 7.9 and 46.4 ⫾ 9.4 ␮g/dl (EXP) and 50.7 ⫾ 4.2
and 44.0 ⫾ 6.1 ␮g/dl (CON), respectively (P ⬎ 0.05).
Postabsorptive femoral artery phenylalanine concentra-
tions on d 1 and 28 were 64.3 ⫾ 5.0 and 72.6 ⫾ 3.5 nmol
phenylalanine/ml (EXP) and 68.0 ⫾ 3.5 and 69.7 ⫾ 2.6 nmol
phenylalanine/ml (CON; P ⬎ 0.05). Postabsorptive phenyl-
alanine concentrations in the femoral vein were 70.4 ⫾ 5.7
and 83.2 ⫾ 4.9 nmol phenylalanine/ml (EXP) and 75.0 ⫾ 3.7
and 74.7 ⫾ 3.0 nmol phenylalanine/ml (CON), respectively
(P ⬎ 0.05). Postabsorptive net phenylalanine balance was
similar in EXP and CON groups on d 1 (P ⬎ 0.05). Net
phenylalanine balance in the EXP group became more neg-
ative after bedrest (P ⬍ 0.05) and was significantly lower than
CON group values (P ⬍ 0.05; Fig. 2).
Blood flow
Leg blood flow was similar in both the EXP and CON
groups and was not altered by bedrest (P ⬎ 0.05). Mean blood

FIG. 2. Phenylalanine net balance

across the leg on d 1 and 28. †, Signif-
icant within-group difference, d 1 vs. d
28 (P ⬍ 0.05). *, Significant between-
group difference, EXP vs. CON (P ⬍
0.05). ‡, Significant difference from
postabsorptive values (P ⬍ 0.05). $, Sig-
nificant difference, meal vs. EAAC (P ⬍
0.05).

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 Paddon-Jones et al. • Amino Acids and Bedrest
flow values (morning and afternoon) in the EXP group were
3.4 ⫾ 0.4 and 3.6 ⫾ 0.5 (d 1) and 3.5 ⫾ 0.7 and 3.3 ⫾ 0.6
ml/min/100 ml leg volume (d 28). CON group values were
3.4 ⫾ 0.4 and 3.7 ⫾ 0.4 (d 1) and 3.3 ⫾ 0.4 and 3.3 ⫾ 0.4
ml/min/100 ml leg volume (d 28).
Postprandial plasma phenylalanine concentrations
Meal ingestion increased femoral artery phenylalanine
concentrations in both EXP and CON groups (P ⬍ 0.05).
Values on d 1 and 28 were 91.6 ⫾ 4.7 and 100.8 ⫾ 5.0 nmol/ml
(EXP) and 84.0 ⫾ 3.9 and 85.1 ⫾ 2.4 nmol/ml (CON), re-
spectively. Similarly, EAAC ingestion (EXP group) signifi-
cantly increased femoral artery phenylalanine concentra-
tions to a much greater degree than the meal. Femoral artery
phenylalanine concentrations after EAAC ingestion on d 1
and 28 were 145.9 ⫾ 6.7 and 162.5 ⫾ 5.5 nmol/ml (EXP) and
70.8 ⫾ 2.0 and 78.9 ⫾ 2.7 nmol/ml (CON), respectively.
Phenylalanine uptake and kinetics
The mean phenylalanine Rd during the 16-h period incor-
porating the postabsorptive, meal, and EAAC periods did
not change in response to 28 d of bedrest (P ⬎ 0.05). However,
mean Rd values were consistently greater in the EXP vs. the
CON group (d 1, 56.6 ⫾ 8.6 vs. 38.4 ⫾ 8.1; d 28, 51.9 ⫾ 7.1 vs.
34.0 ⫾ 7.3 nmol phenylalanine/min/100 ml leg volume; P ⬍
0.05). The mean phenylalanine Ra was not statistically dif-
ferent in the CON group after bedrest (d 1, 48.0 ⫾ 9.6; d 28,
39.4 ⫾ 9.5 nmol phenylalanine/min/100 ml leg volume; P ⬎
0.05). The 16 h phenylalanine Ra values in the EXP group
were similar to CON values and were not affected by bedrest
(d 1, 46.8 ⫾ 6.1; d 28: 47.1 ⫾ 6.9 nmol phenylalanine/min/100
ml leg volume; P ⬎ 0.05).
Net phenylalanine balance values are presented in Fig. 2.
On d 1 and 28 in both groups, net phenylalanine balance
improved, but remained near zero or negative after meal
ingestion (P ⬍ 0.05). The increase in net phenylalanine bal-
ance after ingestion of the EAAC supplement (EXP group)
was significantly greater than the response to the meal (P ⬍
0.001). Net balance in the CON group after ingestion of
placebo was not different from the postabsorptive value (P ⬎
0.05). Net phenylalanine uptake values over the 16-h study
period are presented in Fig. 3.
Phenylalanine net balance had returned to postabsorptive
levels in all subjects by 2400 h, and in the absence of addition,
nutrient ingestion should remain at or near postabsorptive
FIG. 3. Sixteen-hour net phenylalanine uptake on d 1 and 28. *,
Significant between-group difference, EXP vs. CON (P ⬍ 0.05).
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J Clin Endocrinol Metab, September 2004, 89(9):4351– 4358 4355
levels until the next meal. Therefore, with the addition of an
8-h period reflecting postabsorptive net phenylalanine up-
take values during the overnight period, 24-h net phenylal-
anine uptake values on d 1 and 28 were estimated, and the
average value was projected over the entire bedrest period.
In the EXP group, the average 24-h net uptake values from
d 1 and 28 resulted in a predicted change in muscle mass in
both legs of ⫹210 ⫾ 313 g over 28 d. This value was consistent
with the change in muscle mass (⫹210 ⫾ 310 g) determined
by DEXA (Fig. 4.).
Body composition and strength
Body weight in the EXP group remained stable throughout
bedrest, with values on d 1 and 28 of 86.8 ⫾ 4.7 and 86.9 ⫾
4.7 kg (EXP), respectively (P ⬎ 0.05). Body weight in the CON
group fell by an average of 2.4 ⫾ 0.5 kg, with values on d 1
and 28 of 86.1 ⫾ 4.3 and 83.7 ⫾ 3.9 kg, respectively (P ⬍ 0.01).
EAAC supplementation maintained lean leg mass (deter-
mined by DEXA) after 28 d of bedrest. The CON group lost
lean leg mass (P ⬍ 0.05; Fig. 4). There was a loss of calf
cross-sectional area (determined by MRI) in both groups
after bedrest (P ⬍ 0.05). Values were ⫺491 ⫾ 197 mm2 (EXP)
and ⫺1004 ⫾ 278 mm2 (CON), respectively (P ⫽ 0.09). De-
spite the loss of lean body mass in the CON group, the caloric
content of the experimental diet was sufficient to contribute
to an increase in whole body and leg fat mass (determined
by DEXA) in both groups during bedrest (P ⬍ 0.05). The
increase in leg fat mass was similar in each group, with
values of ⫹494 ⫾ 172 g (EXP) and ⫹370 ⫾ 61 g (CON),
respectively. The increase in whole body fat mass was also
similar in both groups, with values of ⫹1366 ⫾ 377 g (EXP)
and ⫹954 ⫾ 162 g (CON), respectively.
Both groups lost 1RM leg extension strength after bedrest.
However, this decrement was significantly greater in the
CON group (P ⬍ 0.05; Fig. 5). Values on d 1 and 28 were
82.4 ⫾ 3.7 and 73.3 ⫾ 7.2 kg (EXP) and 78.0 ⫾ 6.6 and 60.2 ⫾
7.6 kg (CON), respectively (P ⬍ 0.05).
FSR
The mixed muscle FSR calculated over a 16-h period in the
EXP group was not altered by 28 d of bedrest, with values
of 0.099 ⫾ 0.008%/h (d 1) and 0.093 ⫾ 0.006%/h (d 28; P ⬎
0.05). The FSR was significantly higher in the EXP group than
in the CON group on both d 1 and 28 (Fig. 6). There was a
trend toward decreased FSR in the CON group after bedrest
FIG. 4. Change in lean leg mass (determined by DEXA) after bedrest.
#, Significant reduction (P ⬍ 0.05).
 4356 J Clin Endocrinol Metab, September 2004, 89(9):4351– 4358
FIG. 5. Change in 1RM leg extension strength after bedrest. *, Sig-
nificant between-group difference, EXP vs. CON (P ⬍ 0.05). #, Sig-
nificant reduction (P ⬍ 0.05).
FIG. 6. Sixteen-hour mixed muscle FSR on d 1 and 28. *, Significant
between-group difference, EXP vs. CON (P ⬍ 0.05).
(d 1, 0.076 ⫾ 0.005%/h; d 28, 0.055 ⫾ 0.008%/h), but it did
not reach statistical significance (P ⫽ 0.09).
Plasma insulin and glucose concentrations
Changes in plasma insulin and glucose concentrations 30
and 60 min after meal and EAAC ingestions are presented in
Table 2. Plasma insulin concentrations increased signifi-
cantly after both meal and EAAC ingestions (P ⬍ 0.05). In
both groups, insulin concentrations on d 28 (60 min postmeal
and 30 min post-EAAC) were significantly higher than d 1
values (P ⬍ 0.05).
On d 1 and 28, blood glucose concentrations were higher
after ingestion of the meal than after the EAAC supplement
(P ⬍ 0.05). These changes in blood glucose concentration
after meal and EAAC ingestions were not significantly al-
tered by bedrest (P ⬎ 0.05).
Discussion
A loss of muscle mass and functional capacity are two of
the more deleterious consequences of prolonged muscular
inactivity. Our data demonstrate that essential amino acid
and carbohydrate supplementation during 28 d of bedrest
provided an anabolic stimulus capable of ameliorating the
loss of lean muscle mass. However, the maintenance of lean
muscle mass in the absence of a neuromuscular stimuli such
as exercise was not sufficient to fully preserve muscle
strength.
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Paddon-Jones et al. • Amino Acids and Bedrest
Bedrest is widely used as a model to examine changes in
substrate metabolism, body composition, and functional ca-
pacity that occur as a result of inactivity. Several bedrest
studies have successfully used resistance exercise to main-
tain muscle mass and function (9, 33–35). However, if we
consider bedrest or muscular inactivity in a clinical setting,
the ability to move or exercise is often compromised by
accompanying injury or pathological condition. In such in-
stances, a dietary intervention may represent one of the few
practical and easily administered alternatives available. This
study was the first to examine the effects of EAAC supple-
mentation on skeletal muscle protein metabolism, body
composition, and strength during a prolonged period of
muscular inactivity. We previously demonstrated that sup-
plementation with 15 g EAA acutely stimulated net muscle
protein synthesis in healthy young and elderly individuals
after an overnight fast and 12–15 h of bedrest (12, 24). Based
on these preliminary data, we hypothesized that the provi-
sion of an EAAC supplement three times per day during
bedrest would result in the repeated acute stimulation of net
muscle protein synthesis and translate to the maintenance of
muscle mass and perhaps strength over 28 d of inactivity.
The decision to use an EAAC supplement was also sup-
ported by an earlier short-term bedrest study (6 d), which
demonstrated that supplementation with branched chain
amino acids (30 mmol/d; leucine, isoleucine, and valine)
attenuated nitrogen loss, whereas an equivalent nonessential
amino acid mixture (glycine, serine, and alanine) did not (8).
Furthermore, as evident from the periods after meal and
EAAC ingestions in the present study, bolus ingestion of
EAAs produces a more potent and calorically efficient ana-
bolic response than an intact protein source.
In the present study several independent measures (net
phenylalanine uptake, DEXA, MRI, and FSR) indicated that
EAAC supplementation maintained muscle protein syn-
thetic capacity and ameliorated muscle loss during 28 d of
bedrest. Our data also suggest that there was no change in
muscle protein breakdown associated with bedrest or EAAC
supplementation. Unlike protein synthesis (Rd), there is no
analogous method, such as FSR, to check the validity of Ra
as representative of protein breakdown over a 16-h period
incorporating postabsorptive and postprandial phases.
However, in this study it may be argued that protein break-
down is less likely to influence the regulation of protein
turnover compared with protein synthesis. For example, it
has been shown that ingestion of amino acids in healthy
resting individuals acutely influences protein synthesis, but
has minimal effect on protein breakdown (12, 36, 37). Sim-
ilarly, in the absence of a concurrent stressor such as hyper-
cortisolemia (2), indexes of protein breakdown have been
shown not to change after 14 d of bedrest (4) or 15-d exposure
to microgravity (38).
The experimental design and choice of variables examined
in this study enabled several outcome measures to be ex-
amined using different approaches. The extrapolation of 24-h
net phenylalanine uptake values resulted in a predicted
change in leg muscle mass consistent with values calculated
by DEXA. This extrapolation was possible because the caloric
distribution, nutrient intake, timing of meals, and activity
level during the stable isotope infusion study days were
 Paddon-Jones et al. • Amino Acids and Bedrest
TABLE 2. Insulin and glucose concentrations 30 and 60 min after ingestion of the meal and EAAC supplement
EXP group
Meal
Plasma insulin (␮IU/ml)
Day 1
30 min 48.3 ⫾ 5.6
60 min 42.1 ⫾ 5.4a
Day 28
30 min 57.3 ⫾ 7.9b
60 min 78.2 ⫾ 4.5a,c
Blood glucose (mg/dl)
Day 1
30 min 150.3 ⫾ 15.0a
60 min 144.5 ⫾ 9.2a
Day 28
30 min 161.8 ⫾ 7.9a
60 min 145.8 ⫾ 5.0a
Values are the means ⫾ SEM.
a
Significant difference, meal vs. EAAC, and meal vs. placebo.
b
Significant between-group difference for meal ingestion, EXP vs. CON.
c
Significant within-group difference, d 1 vs. d 28.
identical to those during each of the subsequent bedrest days.
The potential of changes in short-term (24-h) phenylalanine
kinetic data to reflect actual changes in lean muscle mass
further validates the arterio-venous model and raises the
possibility that future interventional strategies targeting be-
drest may be initially examined using shorter duration, less
costly experimental designs.
Some may argue that the maintenance of muscle mass and
the partial preservation of muscle function in the EXP group
may be attributable to the additional energy intake and not
necessarily the nutrient composition per se. However, al-
though the EXP group did consume a greater number of
calories each day (558 kcal: 49.5 g EAA and 90 g sucrose),
both groups experienced a similar increase in fat mass. Al-
though an additional control group serving as a caloric
equivalent control for the EXP group would provide a de-
finitive answer, it is unlikely that the provision of an equiv-
alent isocaloric carbohydrate and/or fat supplement during
bedrest would have also preserved lean muscle mass and
strength. In the current study the acute change in net phe-
nylalanine balance after EAAC ingestion was several-fold
greater than the response to the mixed meal. Furthermore,
even with a concomitant increase in plasma insulin concen-
tration, ingestion of a supplement containing only carbohy-
drate produces little if any stimulation of muscle protein
synthesis (17). Even when 100 g carbohydrate were con-
sumed after resistance exercise, the stimulation of muscle
protein synthesis was minor compared with that after amino
acid ingestion (16). Thus, there is no reason to expect that
additional caloric ingestion would improve protein synthetic
capacity, particularly given the propensity for the develop-
ment of insulin resistance during spaceflight or prolonged
inactivity (39). Rather, these data point to the unique ability
of the EAAC supplement to repeatedly stimulate net muscle
protein synthesis, which may contribute to the maintenance
of lean muscle mass.
During bedrest, EAAC supplementation exerted a positive
effect on several outcome variables and was able to amelio-
rate a number of the deleterious consequences of inactivity
experienced by the CON group. Mechanistically, the loss of
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J Clin Endocrinol Metab, September 2004, 89(9):4351– 4358 4357
CON group
EAAC Meal Placebo
50.1 ⫾ 7.9 68.3 ⫾ 10.3a 37.5 ⫾ 4.9
19.8 ⫾ 7.3 54.2 ⫾ 6.9a 22.1 ⫾ 7.2
72.2 ⫾ 8.2c 86.5 ⫾ 14.9a 53.9 ⫾ 8.3
30.3 ⫾ 9.6 78.4 ⫾ 8.2a,c 23.6 ⫾ 6.6
119.7 ⫾ 5.8 167.3 ⫾ 9.4a 109.3 ⫾ 5.4
88.2 ⫾ 6.8 150.8 ⫾ 13.0a 94.5 ⫾ 9.0
119.2 ⫾ 4.5 155.8 ⫾ 6.0a 120.6 ⫾ 5.1
99.3 ⫾ 7.9 144.2 ⫾ 9.6a 100.4 ⫾ 12.0
lean leg mass in the CON group during bedrest is the result
of a chronic imbalance between muscle protein synthesis and
breakdown. Calculation of phenylalanine net balance during
the postabsorptive and postprandial periods on d 1 of bed-
rest indicated that CON group subjects were in a mild cat-
abolic state from the onset of bedrest. Although there was no
further amplification of net catabolism during bedrest, the
accumulative effects of a negative net balance resulted in a
loss of lean muscle mass and strength.
Phenylalanine net balance and DEXA data were also
largely consistent with mixed muscle FSR values. In a pre-
vious study, postabsorptive FSR fell by 46% after 14 d of
bedrest in healthy volunteers subjected to similar physical
and dietary conditions as CON group subjects in the current
study (10). In comparison, we calculated a nonsignificant
28% reduction in FSR in the CON group after 28 d of bedrest.
However, unlike the earlier study (10), we calculated FSR
over a 16-h period that incorporated both postabsorptive and
postprandial periods.
In the present study we saw no change in either postab-
sorptive plasma glucose or insulin concentrations after be-
drest. The magnitude of the change in blood glucose con-
centrations after ingestion of the EAAC supplement or the
mixed meal was also not affected by bedrest. In terms of the
relative change in blood glucose concentration, the meal
elicited a greater increase compared with the EAAC supple-
ment. However, this was not unexpected, because each
mixed meal contained substantially more carbohydrate (130
vs. 30 g) than the EAAC supplement. Despite the consistent
increase in blood glucose concentrations after feedings on d
1 and 28, plasma insulin concentrations on d 28 of bedrest
were significantly greater than d 1 values after ingestion of
the mixed meal (EXP and CON groups) and the EAAC sup-
plement (EXP group). These data suggest that both groups
experienced some degree of insulin resistance as a result of
bedrest.
In conclusion, provision of an essential amino acid and
carbohydrate supplementation during 28 d of bedrest pro-
vided an anabolic stimulus capable of ameliorating the loss
of lean muscle mass during an otherwise catabolic environ-
 4358 J Clin Endocrinol Metab, September 2004, 89(9):4351– 4358
ment. However, the conservation of muscle mass alone did
not fully preserve muscle strength. Although it is likely that
a neuromuscular stimulus, such as exercise, is also required
to maintain muscle strength, amino acid supplement may
offer an accessible, readily applicable, and effective means of
reducing muscle loss in individuals with a compromised
ability to move or exercise.
Acknowledgments
We gratefully acknowledge Melissa Bailey for her MRI expertise. Our
appreciation is also extended to Stephaine Blasé, David Chinkes, Chris-
topher Danesi, Dessa Gemar, Guy Jones, and Anthony Obuseh for their
invaluable assistance with data processing.
Received December 16, 2003. Accepted June 4, 2004.
Address all correspondence and requests for reprints to: Dr. Douglas
Paddon-Jones, Metabolism Unit, 815 Market Street, Galveston, Texas
77550. E-mail: djpaddon@utmb.edu.
This work was supported by NSBRI Grant NPFR00205, NASA Grant
NAG9-1155, NIH Grant 5-RO1-GM-57295, and Shriners Hospital Grant
8490. Studies were conducted at the General Clinical Research Center at
University of Texas Medical Branch (Galveston, Texas), funded by Grant
M01-RR-00073 from the National Center for Research Resources, NIH,
USPHS.
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