Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1259–1272

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Energy structure of Turkey for sustainable development

Murat Ozturk a,n, Yunus Emre Yuksel b
a
Department of Mechatronics Engineering, Faculty of Technology, Suleyman Demirel University, 32260 Isparta, Turkey
b
Department of Elementary Science Education, Education Faculty, Afyon Kocatepe University, 03200 Afyon, Turkey

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Total energy consumption per capita of any country is a critical input for the economic and social
Received 5 May 2014 development. But nowadays, the current energy production systems are not sustainable and they are not
Received in revised form environment friendly. Increased fossil energy consumptions in manufacturing, transportation and
13 June 2015
standard of living in the growing population have the highest impact on the environment in terms of
Accepted 18 September 2015
global warming potential and air pollution. Also fossil fuel prices are increasing because of shortening of
Available online 10 November 2015
fossil fuel sources. Sustainable development improves standard of life economically and environmentally
Keywords: over the long term in a way that must be supported by the industrial structure of the country. In order to
Energy sustain energy availability and keep environment livable for future generations, finding new alternatives
Environment
is necessary. Increased awareness of society about environmental issues and fossil energy sources
Sustainable development
depletion support new clean alternatives. These alternatives are one of the important and determinant
Renewable energy
Global warming policy areas for the countries, and should include both short and long term energy policies. This paper
discusses the environmental pollution caused by energy consumption, and the role of conventional and
renewable energy technologies as one component of the effective sustainable development and solution.
Also, renewable energy potential of Turkey for assessment of the green energy systems is investigated in
terms of sustainable development, environmental impact and prices. All the given results in this paper
will be useful to researchers, engineers, decision and policy makers in industry and government.
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1260
2. Definition of the sustainable development indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1261
3. Energy policy and development in Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1261
4. Fossil energy sources of Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1262
4.1. Coal and lignite sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1262
4.2. Asphaltite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1262
4.3. Bituminous shale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1262
4.4. Petroleum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1262
4.5. Natural gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1263
5. Conventional power systems and pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1263
6. Renewable energy potential of Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1264
6.1. Solar energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1264
6.1.1. Solar energy in Turkey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1264
6.2. Photovoltaic (PV) power system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1266
6.2.1. Photovoltaic system potential in Turkey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1266
6.3. Wind energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1266
6.3.1. Wind energy in Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1266
6.4. Biomass energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1267
6.4.1. Biomass energy in Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1267

n
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 90 246 211 14 73; fax: þ90 246 211 19 84.
E-mail addresses: muratozturk@sdu.edu.tr (M. Ozturk),
yeyuksel@aku.edu.tr (Y.E. Yuksel).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.09.087
1364-0321/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1260 M. Ozturk, Y.E. Yuksel / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1259–1272

6.5. Hydroelectric power systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1267

6.5.1. Hydroelectric power systems in Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1268
6.6. Geothermal energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1268
6.6.1. Geothermal energy in Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1268
6.7. Hydrogen energy systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1268
6.7.1. Hydrogen energy in Turkey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1268
7. Renewable energy and sustainable development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1270
8. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1270
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1271

1. Introduction
Although there are many definitions in the literature, sustain-
able development should be defined clearly as meeting the
population increasing needs of the present generation without
compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their
own needs [1]. Consequently, sustainability should be used to
describe the desired balance between economic growth, envir-
onmental preservation and energy productions [2]. Kerk and
Manuel [3] have announced that sustainability is created of three
components, i-) depletion of resources, ii-) environmental and
ecological aspects, and iii-) quality of life. Energy production
methods are one of the main indicators that should be considered
in the viewpoint of the sustainable development. Indicators
should be given as quantitative measures selected to assess pro-
gress towards or away from a stated goal, and tools for commu-
nicating energy issues related to sustainable development [4].
Since the industrial revolution, population has been increasing,
life standards step up and technology develops, energy has gained
significant importance while the energy consumption rate has
increased considerably. After that, economic, environmental,
technical and social benefit concerns related to energy have been
described, and significant attention is paid both locally and glob-
ally. The large part of residential energy consumption is respon-
sible for lighting, heating and cooking purposes [5]. In addition to
this, due to technologic developments, increases in human popu-
lation all over the world and environmental concerns are rising
through society, because all energy production systems, especially
the ones using fossil sources are harmful to environment and
ecosystem [6].
According to Oyedepo [7] energy is very important factor for
accomplishment of Millennium Development Goals such as era-
dicating extreme poverty and hunger, achieving universal primary
education, promoting gender equality and empowering women,
reducing child mortality, improving maternal health, combating
diseases, and ensuring environmental sustainability.
Economy of a country is shaped mostly by energy which affects
international relations such as politics and military targets. Beside,
energy is a primary element for social development. Using
renewable energy sources is important because of short life fossil
sources and damages of fossil fuels to the environment [8]. Benli
[9] stated that renewable energy sources are crucial for future of
countries. In order to deal with the climate change, Turkey should
take side with global efforts on sustainable development.
Menanteau et al. [10] state that public authorities show rising
attention to renewable energy sources (RES) due to environmental
advantages over conventional energy sources. In order to control
greenhouse gas emissions, these renewable energy technologies
are able to be used instead of conventional electricity generation
techniques.
Nowadays, much of the world’s energy is supplied from fossil
fuel based on unsustainable energy sources as coal, natural gas
and oil. Sustainable energy sources have a large role in replacing
current fossil fuel energy sources. The cost and environmental
impacts of power generation raise concern about the global future
of energy utilization and its effect on the environment, human
health and the economy. One of the most important issues for
economic and social development of societies is to use clean and
cheap energy sources. High usage of fossil resources and increas-
ing of life standards together with population bring out some
problems such as greenhouse gases, land, water, and oil usage.
Solutions such as efficient use of energy and renewable resources
have thus become a major option [11]. In order to meet these
increasing demands for energy and keep environment clean, some
precautions should be taken such as: i) short term policies should
be applied such as decreasing of current energy use, efficient use
of energy sources, and increment of energy saving awareness; ii)
long term policies should be made actual like renewable energy
usage. A successful overall strategy would aim at: reducing the gap
between energy demand and supply, improving energy efficiency
and conservation of energy, optimization of energy mix, using
different energy resources, investing new energy infrastructure,
shifting to clean and alternative sources, encouraging innovation,
reducing the prices of energy, and achieving good management of
energy sector.
Energy security, economic growth and environmental protec-
tion are the national energy policy drivers in any country of the
world. Energy consumption of the world is estimated as
8979 Mtoe in 2012, 66% of this consumption is belonging to fossil
fuel sources. Consequently, nearly 31734 Mt of CO2 emissions are
released in the atmosphere as a result of this energy consumption
[12]. About 80% of the greenhouse gases affect the global warming
and this is due to carbon emissions from the combustion of the
natural fuels. The renewability potential of a fuel used in such
process does not mean zero emission because all renewable
energy production systems produce some emissions during
installation, operation and maintenance, and uninstallation.
Greenhouse gas emissions, waste, flexibility, energy security and
independent indicators should also be taken into consideration.
For future projection of energy production, the terms of renewable
and sustainable are very crucial, as over usage of current energy
resources are becoming disaster [13]. Although there is a little
decrease in the increase of extracting of some energy resources,
this precaution is still not sufficient for a greener world.
Turkey has an area of 780,580 km2 with a total coastline of
8430 km, and shares its land borders with Armenia, Azerbaijan,
Bulgaria, Georgia, Greece, Iran, Iraq, and Syria. The total population
in Turkey was recorded as 76.6 million in 2013. Turkey is one of
the fastest growing, developing and industrializing economies in
the world over the past two decade. The expected growth of
purchasing power and industrial production growth rate are 7.6%
and 6.2% in 2015, respectively, and Turkish population will be
increased to almost 80 million people with an average age of 29.
Because of Turkey’s strategically geographical location between
three important energy transit corridors as Europe, Asia and
 M. Ozturk, Y.E. Yuksel / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1259–1272
Middle East, and young people generation, foreign companies
have invested in the energy manufacturing area [14].
There are several impacts for the energy sector which are
considered to be important for establishing the future level and
pattern of the energy consumption and production. Such impacts
include sustainability, renewability, clean environment, population
growth, economic performance, technological developments and
government policies. In this paper, the main indicators of sus-
tainable development and renewable energy potentials and poli-
cies of Turkey are defined by using environmental protection,
source potential, socially and economically sustainable supply of
energy sources.
2. Definition of the sustainable development indicators
The scope of the sustainable development is to evaluate it by
regarding not only the industrial development aspects but also
considering the environmental, social and economic aspects.
Sustainable development can be evaluated by regarding environ-
mental, social and economic aspects. By the way, Hales and Allen-
Prescott [15] stated that to obtain a sustainable behavior in mea-
surable terms and the progress of assessments about sustainability
should be applied clearly. The need for this clarification results in
many descriptions and different structures of sustainable devel-
opment indicators, which are beneficial to show us the progress
towards or away from the defined aims and to advise the public,
decision makers and managers about the results of sustainability
scenarios [3].
Definition of the sustainable energy should be given as the
production, conservation and use of energy sources in ways that
promote or at least are suitable with long-term human well-being
and ecological balance [16]. As seen in Fig. 1, the sustainable
development is a triangle comprising of energy, environment and
economy which are not superior to each other. Although renew-
able energy is very essential indicator for sustainability, it does not
provide the desired sustainable development without protecting
the environment and taking the economic indicators into con-
sideration [17].
The focusing areas of the sustainable energy are mainly energy
security, energy sources management and environmental protec-
tion [18]. Five important targets for the sustainable energy view-
point should be given as i-) zero emissions of carbon dioxide, ii-)
no important ecological harmful impacts, iii-) improving the
security of the energy transit, iv-) decreasing the cost of the energy
production, and v-) improving the use of the green technologies. It
is very important that, even though nature can tolerate little
Energy
Sustainable
Development
Economy Environment
Fig. 1. The interdisciplinary triangle of sustainable development.
1261
amounts of increases in carbon dioxide emissions, high levels of
carbon dioxide emissions cause the global warming effect. Because
of this reason, low carbon emission technologies are very sig-
nificant for sustainable energy road maps. Also, sustainable energy
view point requires the operation of energy flow and removal of
wastes without exceeding the carrying capacity of the nature. The
security of the energy transit has a social impact as energy sources
are used in daily life and access to energy sources is important for
well-being of the community. The cost of energy production is the
other important issue for industrial and household uses. In the
improved world, accessibility to the energy sources is human
right, and also technological development should reduce the cost.
An important target for the sustainable development view point is
the increasing renewable energy technology use in the world.
Davidson [19] stated the definition of sustainable energy as
follows;
Sustainable energy is defined as energy providing affordable,
accessible and reliable energy services that meet the economic,
social and environmental needs within the overall develop-
mental context of the society for which the services are
intended, while recognizing equitable distribution in meeting
those needs.
3. Energy policy and development in Turkey
Turkey is located in the northern hemisphere between the 36–
42° northern parallel and the 26–45° eastern meridian. As of its
geographical position, Turkey connects Europe to Asia. Turkey has
a population of 78 million (end of 2014) officially, and it is esti-
mated as over 100 million in the year 2020 which is the second
highest population after Germany in Europe. Turkey is the 17th
and 6th largest economy in the world and Europe, respectively,
according to World Bank Statistics, and also is a dynamic and
rapidly developing country. Energy consumption rate per capita
constitutes one of the primary indicators for economic and social
improvement.
Energy supply is critical in the development of Turkey. The
energy policy of Turkey is aimed at satisfying energy request
without any adverse effect on its economic development. As Tur-
key rapidly develops, Turkey’s economic development is integrally
linked to its energy supply. Turkey’s energy industry, including
thermal and renewable energy based power generation, has
expanded rapidly. As given in Table 1 [20], the primary energy
sources of Turkey are quite diversified. As seen in this table, hard
coal, lignite, asphaltite, oil, natural gas, hydro, geothermal, wood,
animal and plant wastes, solar and secondary energy resources
such as coke and briquettes are produced and consumed in Turkey.
With the increasing energy consumption, Turkey’s primary
energy generation has increased nearly 2.4 times in 42 years, from
14.5 Mtoe in 1970 to 34.5 Mtoe in 2012. But, when the energy
consumption for Turkey is analyzed, it is observed that nowadays
nearly 28% of Turkey’s energy demand is met by the domestic
primary energy sources. As shown in Fig. 2, wide gap between
energy production and consumption rate is observed for Turkey.
The major reason for this deficiency should be connected with the
high increase in population and economic growth in spite of lim-
itations in the domestic primary energy resources of the country.
As seen in Fig. 2, total primary energy supply of the country has
increased from 24.4 Mtoe in 1973 to 122 Mtoe in 2012 at a com-
pound annual increasing rate of 4.2%. Turkey’s total primary
energy supply is most likely taken into account to increase to grow
at a compound annual increase rate of nearly 4.6% from 2018 to
2038, rising to over 250 Mtoe in the year 2038.
1262 M. Ozturk, Y.E. Yuksel / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1259–1272

Table 1 2014 year, power production by primary energy sources for the
Turkey’s primary energy resources. country is given in Table 2 [21].
Capacity of the installed power production system and elec-
Reserves Proven Probable Possible Total
tricity production using by the thermal power plants during the
Hard coal (Mt) 550 425 368 1343 period 2006–2012 is given in Table 3 [21]. As illustrated in that
Lignite (Mt) table, Manisa – Soma A þB, K.Maras – Afsin-Elbistan þ B and
Elbistan 4274 612 4274 Kutahya – Seyitomer lignite deposits have significant impact in
Other 3709 612 4421
Total (Mt) 7983 8695
electricity production for Turkey.
Asphaltite (Mt) 45 29 8 82
Bituminous shale (Mt) 555 1086 1641
Crude oil (Mt) 47.8 47.8 4. Fossil energy sources of Turkey
Natural gas (Bcm) 10.8 10.8
Hydro
Generation capacity (GW h/year) 153858 153858 4.1. Coal and lignite sources
Installation capacity (MW/year) 43359 43359
Wind (MW) 78000 Turkey has both hard coal and lignite reserves. As given in
Biomass (Mtoe/year) 25 65 90 Fig. 3, total fossil energy sources of Turkey are given as 2454 Mtoe,
Geothermal (MW/year)
Electricity 200 4300 4500
and 48% of this amount belongs to lignite, 15% belongs to Elbistan
Thermal 2250 28850 31100 lignite and 28% belongs to hard coal.
Solar (Mtoe) The most significant fossil energy source of the country is lig-
Electricity 32.4 nite, and it accounts nearly for 40% of Turkish domestic energy
Heat 87
generation. The General Directorate of Mineral Research and
Nuclear energy sources (t)
Uranium 9129 380000 Exploration has reported 142 economical lignite field up to 2012
Thorium 380000 and has stated the total lignite reserves as being 10.2 Bt. As seen in
Table 4 [20], over the 65% deposits lignite reserves of the country
Mtoe¼million ton of oil equivalent. are located in Kahramanmaras–Elbistan, Konya–Karapınar,
Afyonkarahisar–Dinar, Eskisehir–Alpu and Manisa–Soma regions.
140 The proven lignite reserves of Turkey is 8.1 Bt, which corresponds
to 2.3% of the proven lignite reserves of the world [22].
120
4.2. Asphaltite
100
Energy (Mtoe)

The total asphaltite reserves of the country are concentrated in

80
only two states around Sirnak and Silopi in Southeastern Anatolian
Energy Consumption (Mtoe) Region in Turkey. The proven asphaltite sources equal to 45 Mt and
60
the total reserve with probable and possible reserves sum up to
Energy Production (Mtoe)
40
82 Mt. In the year 1982, asphaltite production reached its peak
value as 860,000 t, but next decades it started to decrease sharply
20 and in the year 2002, only 31,000 t asphaltite was produced. End
of the year 2014, nearly 700,000 t asphaltite was produced in
0 Sirnak and Silopi regions. Asphaltite has a high higher heating
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 value (HHV), 18,000 kJ/kg, and also should be used for synthetic
Year petroleum production. However, asphaltite is used mainly as a fuel
for heating application in some places in Southeastern Anatolian
Fig. 2. Turkey’s energy production and consumption (Mtoe).
Region.

Table 2 4.3. Bituminous shale

Power production by primary energy sources for
Turkey.
Bituminous shale sources of the country are given as 1.6 Bt and
Sources Production (GW h) the proven bituminous shale sources of country is estimated as
555 Mt. The bituminous reserves are distributed to almost all
Natural gas 99,680 vicinities of the country, except for Thrace, East and Central Ana-
Hydraulic 35,361 tolian Regions. Also, the biggest bituminous reserve is located in
Lignite 30,352
Hard coal þImportant coal 29,552
the west Anatolian region, and the most significant reserves are
Geothermalþ wind 8643 Beypazari, Seyitomer, Hatildagi and Himmetoglu regions [23]. The
Liquid fuels 2559 HHV of the bituminous shale compositions in Turkey are between
Renewable þ waste 2031 1528 and 5820 kJ/kg. This energy source should be used as a fuel at
Total 208,178
thermal power plants, and also in the generation of synthetic
petroleum, oil or gas.

The target of The Turkish Government on the electricity gen-

eration is to increase the renewable energy sources to 30% in the
year 2023, building 20 GW of wind energy as well as 600 MW
geothermal energy. Also, in the year 2013, the administration aims
to build two nuclear power plants for reaching nuclear power
responsible at least 6% of the country’s electricity production. In
4.4. Petroleum
Crude oil reserves of the country, which are mainly located in
Hakkari in the South east corner of Turkey, are calculated as
845 Mt, and also 43.1 Mt of the sources is suitable for production.
Petroleum consumption in Turkey reached an estimated rate of the
country was reached 25.8 Mt in 2012, and is expect to increase to
 M. Ozturk, Y.E. Yuksel / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1259–1272 1263

Table 3
Turkey’s installed power production system and electricity generation.

Fuel Type Plant name Location Installed capacity (MW) Generation (GW h)

2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Hard coal Catalagzi Zonguldak 300 1909 2072 1882 1851 1882 2004 1479
Lignite Afsin-Elbistan-A K.Maras 1355 2761 4157 4198 4114 2042 3251 2960
Afsin-Elbistan-B K.Maras 1440 4888 6149 7241 7843 7694 5733 4623
18 Mart Can Canakkale 320 1261 2051 2191 1950 2141 2127 1449
Orhaneli Bursa 210 1084 1160 1332 1202 1174 1300 941
Seyitomer Kutahya 600 2986 3122 4051 4022 3623 3896 3384
Tuncbilek Kutahya 365 1148 1478 1607 1606 1659 1791 1547
Kangal Sivas 457 2535 2745 1811 1658 2313 2491 1268
Soma A þ B Manisa 1034 3328 4688 5482 4796 3897 5019 5063
Kemerkoy Mugla 630 2495 2906 3411 3011 2720 2503 2826
Yenikoy Mugla 420 2011 2212 1929 901 1308 2611 2897
Yatagan Mugla 630 2895 3069 3981 3266 2599 3274 2982
Fuel-oil Ambarli Istanbul 330 1036 2224 3365 9744 622 102 981
Natural gas AmbarliþB Istanbul 1351 7669 9525 9371 8441 7941 7317 8151
Bursa Bursa 1432 5008 8111 8956 8478 7098 6431 6176
Aliaga Bursa 180 - - 492 306 2512 1925 28
Hamitabat Kirklareli 1156 2268 5612 7995 6694 5750 5419 6384
Geothermal Denizli Denizli 15 94 52 – – – – –
Total – – 12,225 45,376 61,333 69,295 60,139 53,841 55,269 52,158

Table 4
Turkey’s lignite reserves in the year 2013.

Location Proved reserves LHVn Percentage

(  1000 t) (kcal/kg) (%)

Adana–Tufanbeyli 323,329 1289 2.47

Ankara–Beypazari 250,222 2399–2839 1.91
Afyonkarahisar–Dinar 912,429 1351 6.98
Bingol–Karliova 88,662 1460 0.68
Bolu–Goynuk 39,000 2340 0.3
Bursa–Keles 29,672 1900 0.23
Bursa–Davutlar 17,555 2340 0.13
Bursa–Orhaneli 37,041 2500 0.28
Canakkale–Can 74,195 3000 0.57
Fig. 3. The share of hard coal and lignite reserves of Turkey among the fossil
Corum–Alpagut 18,895 3150 0.14
sources.
Corum–Osmancik 6575 1470 0.05
Eskisehir–Alpu 902,000 2100 6.9
30 Mt in 2018. Crude oil provides nearly 40% of the total energy Istanbul–Catalca 228,457 1894–2086 1.75
requirements of the country. Because the country’s crude oil Kirklareli–Vize 135,045 1400–2300 1.03
K.Maras–Elbistan 4,341,550 1031–1201 33.2
reserves is limited, crude oil import rates have increased at an
K.Maras–Elbistan 515,055 950–1115 3.94
average of 2.5% since 2000. In the year 2012, nearly 78.7% of crude Konya–Beysehir 81,011 1110 0.62
oil demand of the country is met by imports from Iraq, Iran, Saudi- Konya–Ilgin 19,400 2180 0.15
Arabia, Russia, Kazakhstan and Libya. Konya–Karapinar 1,832,816 1320 14
Kutahya–Seyitomer 169,940 1800–2080 1.3
Kutahya–Tavsanli 261,557 2560 2
4.5. Natural gas Manisa–Soma 702,023 2080–3150 5.37
Mugla–Milas 249,576 1775–2279 1.91
Turkey’s total natural gas reserves, which are mainly located in Mugla–Yatagan 154,914 1903–2670 1.19
Thrace vicinity at Bayramsah, Danismen, Osmancik, Sogucak, Tekirdag 160,585 2183–2865 1.23
Tekirdag–Saray 23,581 2080 0.18
Hayrabolu, Hamitabat, Karacaoglan, Kandamis, Karacaali, Kumru-
Sivas–Kangal 90,369 1207–1494 0.69
lar, Umurca, Silivri in the North west corner of the country and in Other public 169,171 1.29
South eastern Anatolia at Camurlu, Katin, Derin Barbes, G. Dincer Other private companies 1,235,956 9.46
and G. Hazro fields are estimated as 18.6 Bcm (billion cm3) and Total reserves 13,070,581 100
6.16 Bcm of the natural gas reserves is suitable for production. n
Lower heating value.
Nearly, 80% of the natural gas production in the country is pro-
vided in Hamitabat field in the North West region of Turkey.
natural gas mainly in power generation activities, which is not the
In the year 2012, natural gas demand was 45.2 Bcm, but total
case even in gas exporting countries.
domestic natural gas production was only 664 Mcm (million m3),
in other words the domestic natural gas production in that year
should supply nearly 1.5% of the natural gas demand of the
country. In that year, probably 98.5% of natural gas demand of 5. Conventional power systems and pollution
Turkey is met by imports from Russia (58%), Iran (19%), Algeria
(9%), Azerbaijan (9%), Nigeria (3%) and spot import (2%). As it is Conventional power systems are the ones that are generally
seen in Table 5 [24], natural gas imports increased significantly used in fossil energy sources such as petroleum, natural gas and
after 1985 when The Turkish government signed its first natural coal. After the reaction of burning of fossil fuels, it releases
gas purchase contract with Russia. Turkey has preferred to use greenhouse gases and causes global warming. It is obviously seen
1264 M. Ozturk, Y.E. Yuksel / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1259–1272

Table 5
Turkey’s natural gas production, import, consumption and sectoral consumption overview.

Natural gas Years

1985 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Production (Mcm) 68 868 875 874 969 684 682 759 632
Import (Mcm) 0 26,571 30,221 35,842 37,350 35,856 38,036 43,875 45,922
Consumption (Mcm) 68 27,348 30,982 35,394 36,865 35,218 37,411 43,697 45,241
Sectoral consumption
Power Generation (%) 26.5 61.25 54.49 56.03 55.77 55.48 52.6 47.89 53.68
Industry (%) 73.5 15.51 21.3 21.63 21.94 18.09 27.13 26.46 21.99
Residence (%) 0 23.24 24.21 22.34 22.29 26.43 20.27 25.65 24.33

Table 6 depending on the country location, the technical solar power

Greenhouse and air pollution emissions for various production technologies.
Technology mGHG (g/MJ) AP (g/MJ)
Electricity from natural gas 149.9 0.57
Hydrogen from natural gas 85.6 0.087
Electricity and hydrogen from wind energy 7.25 0.0063
Electricity and hydrogen from solar energy 17.9 0.015
Gasoline from crude oil 84.0 0.24
mGHG means mass of greenhouse gases in gram per MJ of produced energy, AP
means air pollutant in gram per MJ of produced energy. The pressure of produced
hydrogen is considered as compressed to 350 atm. Electricity production from
natural gas is considered with 40% thermal efficiency.
that the climate is changing, and the negative effects of climate
change can be determined by several methods. One of the main
causes of this situation is human activities [25]. Therefore, these
negative effects should be minimized. However, there are some
negative reflections of this minimizing effort in terms of economy,
employment, investment, trade and life standards. Table 6 shows
the comparison of greenhouse gases and air pollutant of energy
carriers from different sources. Although renewable energy sour-
ces are seen as clearer compared to conventional energy sources,
they are not zero-emission systems from the perspective of Life
Cycle Assessment (LCA). Life cycle emissions of electricity pro-
duction from coal, oil, and gas fired systems are 975.3, 742.1, and
607.6 g-CO2/kW h respectively. On the other hand, life cycle
emissions of electricity production from wind, solar PV, biomass,
solar thermal, and hydro are 9.7–123.7, 53.4–250, 35–178, 13.6–
202, and 3.7–237 g-CO2/kW h respectively [26].
6. Renewable energy potential of Turkey
All of the energy sources are available in Turkey, but except for
lignite and renewable energy sources such as hydraulic, solar and
wind, they are not enough to supply the energy consumption of
the country. Renewable energy production perspective and pro-
jections for future in Turkey is given in Table 7 [27,28]. In Turkey,
electricity production was about 255.5 billion kWh, in 2014.
79,62% of this production was generated in thermal power stations
in which natural gas power stations contributed with 57,9%. In
2012, Turkey imported 98,64% of natural gas, therefore Turkey
imports more than half amount of this energy supply from other
countries, especially such as Russia and Iran [29]. Renewable
energy sources potential of Turkey is enough to meet the energy
consumption of the country. Turkey is a rich country in terms of
renewable energy source especially hydropower, solar, and wind
energy. Technical solar energy potential of Turkey is 6105 TW h/
year, wind energy potential is about 290 TW h/year, and hydro-
power potential is 216 TW h/year [30]. The power and thermal
energy generation potentials of the main renewable energy sour-
ces of the country are illustrated in Table 8 [31]. As given in table,
generation potential with an amount of 6105 TW h/y is very
enormous, followed by the wind electric generation technical
potential with an estimated value of 120 TW h/y and the hydro-
electric power potential with 240 TW h/y.
But, renewable energy sources have different properties, such
as capacity for power production, suitability of sources potential,
sustainability and stability of energy sources. Apart from this,
although operation and maintenance costs of the renewable
energy technologies are generally low relative to conventional
energy production systems, their capital cost generally high.
According to the Law No. 6094, Turkish government in order to
support renewable energy technology production was announced
the purchasing guarantee of the electricity generated from the
renewable energy systems (see Table 9) [32].
6.1. Solar energy
Solar energy has less harmful effects than other energy pro-
duction systems on the environment, and it is abundant, easily
available and one of the safest form of the sustainable energy
production systems. Solar energy technologies should be divided
in three groups. Photovoltaic (PV) system generates electricity
through direct conversion of solar radiation by using the semi-
conductor material. Concentrating collectors use concentrating
solar energy to heat a receiver, which is placed on the focus point
of the collector, to reach high temperature, after that heat energy
is transformed into mechanical energy by using turbine system
and then into electricity. Solar heating and cooling systems use the
solar thermal energy for heating and cooling of domestic water
and building space [33]. It is commonly known that, solar thermal
collectors have an important potential in reducing the fossil
energy consumption for heating and cooling applications. Apply-
ing solar technology in desalination system is one of the clear
options to supply fresh water from saline or sea water [34]. Also,
solar energy based on integrated systems [35,36] play a significant
role for more efficiently system designs. Efficiency and suitability
of the solar energy systems are extremely dependent on the daily
solar radiation and radiation flux.
6.1.1. Solar energy in Turkey
Because of geographical location, Turkey is one of the luckiest
countries in terms of solar energy potential. According to the study
conducted by Renewable Energy General Directorate, Turkey’s
annual average total radiation time is about 2640 h (daily total
7.2 h) and average solar density is 1311 kW h/m2-year (daily total
3.6 kW h/m2) based on the Turkish State Meteorological Service
data gained between 1966 and 1982 [37]. Table 10 shows average
monthly solar energy and sunshine duration potential in Turkey
[38]. In addition, Table 11 shows the regional solar energy poten-
tial of the country [33].
 M. Ozturk, Y.E. Yuksel / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1259–1272 1265

Table 7
Renewable energy production in Turkey from 1990 to 2020.

Years

Renewable energy sources 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

Primary energy production

Hydropower (ktoe) 1991 3057 2656 4067 4903 7060 9419
Geothermal, solar and wind (ktoe) 461 654 978 1683 2896 4242 6397
Biomass and waste (ktoe) 7208 7068 6457 5325 4416 4001 3925
Renewable energy production (ktoe) 9660 10,779 10,091 11,074 12,215 15,303 19,741
Rate of total production (%) 38 40 38 48 33 29 30
Rate of TPES (%) 18 17 12 12 10 9 9
Generation
Hydropower (GWh) 23,148 35,541 30,879 47,287 57,009 82,095 109,524
Geothermal, solar and wind (GWh) 80 86 109 490 5274 7020 8766
Renewable energy production (GWh) 23,228 35,627 30,988 47,777 62,283 89,145 118,290
Rate of total production (%) 40 41 25 29 26 25 25
Total final consumption
Geothermal, solar and wind (ktoe) 392 580 910 1385 2145 3341 5346
Biomass and waste (ktoe) 7208 7068 6457 5325 4416 4001 3925
Renewable total consumption (ktoe) 7600 7648 7367 6710 6561 7342 9271
Rate of total consumption (%) 18 15 12 10 7 6 6

Table 8 Table 11
Renewable energy potential of the country. Regional solar radiation and sunshine duration of the country.

Renewable energy Technical Economical Region of Turkey Monthly total solar radia- Sunshine duration
tion (kW h/m2-month) (h/month)
Solar electric (TW h/year) 6105 305
Solar thermal (Mtoe) 500 25 Southeastern Anatolia 1648 2845
Hydroelectric (TW h/year) 240 130 Mediterranean 1548 2737
Wind electric (TW h/year) 120 60 East Anatolia 1523 2519
Geothermal electric (TW h/year) 2 1 Central Anatolia 1481 2563
Geothermal heat (Mtoe) 7500 2850 Aegean 1528 2615
Classic biomass (Mtoe) 10 8 Marmara 1329 2250
Modern biomass (Mtoe) 40 25 Black Sea 1305 1929

Table 12
Table 9 Domestic manufacture incentives for concentrating solar systems.
Renewable energy support mechanism in Turkey.
Domestic manufacture Domestic contribution
Renewable energy sources Time period Prices to be applied ($ cents/kW h)
(year) ($ cents/kW h)
Radiation collection tube 2.4
Hydropower 10 7.3 Solar tracking system 0.6
Wind 10 7.3 Reflective surface plate 0.6
Geothermal 10 10.5 Mechanical equipment for thermal energy store 1.3
Biomass and waste 10 13.3 system
Solar 10 13.3 Mechanical equipment for steam production 2.4
system that collects the solar radiation on the
tower
Stirling engine 1.3
Panel integration and solar structure mechanics 0.6
Table 10
Average monthly solar energy and sunshine duration in Turkey.

Months Average monthly radiation energy Sunshine duration Although Turkey has high potential for solar energy, this high
kcal/cm2-month kW h/m2-month h/month potential is not used efficiently. Solar energy usage potential is
expected to increase to 0.11 Mtoe (million tons of oil equivalents)
January 4.45 51.75 103
February 5.44 63.27 115 by 2020. In spite of this high potential, in Turkey, there are about
March 8.31 96.65 165 12 million m2 solar collectors which produce hot water from solar
April 10.51 122.23 197
energy coming onto it and its potential is about 420,000 toe. In
May 13.23 153.86 273
June 14.51 168.75 325 2010 the Law on Renewable energy systems was revised by Law
July 15.08 175.38 365 No. 6094. According to the revisions, extra intensive support
August 13.62 158.40 343
mechanism for the domestically produced mechanical and energy
September 10.60 123.28 280
October 7.73 89.90 214 conversation process for concentrating solar thermal system is
November 5.23 60.82 157 given in Table 12 [32].
December 4.03 46.87 103
Yearly total 112.74 1311 2640
Daily average 0.308 kcal/cm2-day 3.6 kW h/m2-day 7.2 h/day
1266 M. Ozturk, Y.E. Yuksel / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1259–1272
6.2. Photovoltaic (PV) power system
Photovoltaic cells are made up of semiconductor materials in
different ways and they have several forms. These nano-
technologic materials have the ability to convert solar radiation
into the electricity. PV systems were used initially in the latter part
of 1950s in order to provide energy to satellites. By the 1970s, with
the world energy crisis, use of PV systems started to increase and
therefore their costs started to decrease but still they are more
expensive than the electricity from fossil sources. In the market,
there are mainly three types PV technologies i-) mono-layer
crystalline silicon solar cells (m-Si), ii-) multi-layer crystalline
silicon solar cells (mc-Si), and iii-) ribbon silicon based solar cells.
Efficiency of the m-Si solar cell is higher than mc-Si solar cell and
as far as the cost is compared, m-Si based cell is more expensive
than mc-Si based solar cell [39]. The conversion performance of
the commercial type of m-Si is found to be in the range of 18–21%,
but, the efficiency should be enhanced up to 25% via more
sophistic PV cell design. The smallest unit of the PV system is the
PV cells. Several PV cells constitute PV module by connecting them
in series and/or parallel circuits. Then several modules make up PV
panel and the lastly PV panels connect each other and form PV
array. A complete PV system includes other auxiliary equipment
such as DC–AC inverter, batteries, wiring, and backup power
sources. PV systems may be used either off-grid systems or utility
interconnected on-grid systems.
6.2.1. Photovoltaic system potential in Turkey
Photovoltaic (PV) systems are already being used but in small
scale and its power is about 40 MW [40]. These PV systems are
used mainly district areas such as forest observation tower, light-
house, and autobahn lighting [37]. The tangible financial and
infrastructural assistance programs of the Turkish government are
underway to apply both the local PV system application and PV
module production. The master plan should be incentive to the
industrialists in the private sector regarding investments in
renewable energy system and generating concerned sectorial job
opportunity. A purchase guarantee of 0.133$/kW h as feed-in tariff
is paid for PV electricity generation for 10 years. Turkish govern-
ment supplementary subsidy for PV system is given in Table 13
[32].
In 2011, wafer based on PV module production of Turkey was
reached as 22 MW, which is one half of the current production
capacity in the country with 44 MW per year. Only 1 MW power
production from the PV system can supply electricity to nearly 300
houses per year. Solar electricity production is depended on the
solar intensity of regional area. Approximately, 1.7 MWh electricity
can be produced in one square meter in Turkey per year, more
than one half in German with 1.1 MWh. This is very significant
potential for PV electricity production which should be used in
viewpoints of sustainable development.
Table 13
Turkish government supplementary subsidy for PV system.
Products Supplementary subsidy ($ cents/
kW h)
PV panel integration and solar mechanical 0.80
construction
PV modules 1.30
Constituent cells of PV module 3.50
Inverter 0.60
Focusing materials to collect solar radia- 0.50
tion onto PV system
Table 14
Total wind potential of Turkey above 50 m from ground level.
Grade of wind Wind power Wind speed Total potential (MW)
(W/m2) (m/s)
3 300–400 6.5–7.0 83906.96
4 400–500 7.0–7.5 29259.36
5 500–600 7.5–8.0 12994.32
6 600–800 8.0–9.0 5399.92
7 4800 49.0 195.84
Total 131756.40
6.3. Wind energy
Energy production from wind energy is clean, renewable, nat-
ural, and does not cause emissions during production but if it is
analyzed with LCA perspective it is seen that electricity production
from wind energy produces 9.7–123.7 g-CO2/kW h emissions [26].
Wind energy systems are usually categorized based on the struc-
ture into to two simple groups, as i-) horizontal axis, and ii-)
vertical axis. The main advantages of the horizontal axis are easier
to design for constructing and installing, cheaper (involving fewer
materials per meter square of swept area) and higher total per-
formance, but the main disadvantage is that maintenance of this
system is difficult. The main advantage of the vertical wind turbine
is that they have less noise and law mechanism as highly reliable
and visually more attractive mechanisms, but this system has
more expensive rotor and heavier construction process. Wind
energy has been used in agriculture to pump water or to rotate
turbines of mill from time immemorial by many cultures. Elec-
tricity production from wind energy was initially started in US, in
1888 with 12 kW wind mill which has direct current output.
Before the first alternative current (AC) wind turbine was built, the
small scale DC wind turbines have been used until 1930s [41].
Together with development of technology, wind turbines started
to become much complex such as multi-turbine wind farms with
multi-megawatt output. One of the advantages of wind turbines is
that there are no harmful emissions from operation processes. The
theoretical potential of wind energy and effective use of the wind
turbine systems that sport crucial role in sustainable development
should be connected with stability, availability and environmental
impacts [42]. Wind speed data and wind characteristic are sig-
nificant parameters for evaluating of the wind turbine system’s
reliability and availability. It must be mentioned that, wind tur-
bines occupy only approximately 2% of the area, so the rest of the
area should be used for farming. The highest wind energy
potential is available in coastal regions because of land sea effects
or in mountainous regions, due to strong winds at higher altitudes.
6.3.1. Wind energy in Turkey
Turkey is the one of the richest country in Europe in terms of
wind potential. The locations having high wind potential are
coastal areas, mountainous areas, and near the open lands. Since
1990s, the wind speed and direction of Turkey have been mea-
sured for determining of the areas having high energy production
potential [43]. The highest average wind speeds near the open
lands are present in the across of the west coast of Turkey, near the
Sea of Marmara, and the small area near Antakya. When 50 m
above the sea level is considered, Aegean, Marmara and East
Mediterranean Regions have large wind energy potentials. Wind
energy potential and technical potential of the country are esti-
mated as 400 and 120 billion kW h/year, respectively, and tech-
nical potential is equal to 1.1 times annual electricity production,
although nowadays only 2.1% of wind energy potential is used. The
wind energy potential of Turkey is calculated as about 48 GW for
wind speed higher than 7 m/s [44]. Table 14 presents the total
 M. Ozturk, Y.E. Yuksel / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1259–1272 1267

Table 15 Table 17
Wind energy potential for seven geographic regions of Turkey. Turkey’s annual potential and energy production potential from the biomass.

Region Annual average wind Annual average wind Biomass Annual potential (Mt) Energy (Mtoe)
speed (m/s) density (W/m2)
Annual crops 54.4 15.5
Marmara region 3.29 51.91 Perennial crops 16 4.1
Aegean region 2.65 23.47 Forest residues 18 5.4
Mediterranean region 2.45 21.36 Residues from agro-industry 10 3
Middle Anatolia region 2.46 20.14 Residues from wood-industry 6 1.8
Black Sea region 2.38 21.31 Animal wastes 7 1.5
Eastern Anatolia region 2.12 13.19 Other (municipal) 5 1.3
Southeastern Anatolia 2.69 29.33 Total 116.4 32.6
region
Average 2.58 25.82

Table 18
Biogas energy potential from the animal wastes of Turkey.
Table 16
Premiums for local equipment for wind energy system. The amount of biogas available

Domestic manufacture Domestic contribution ($ cents/ Animal Animal number Total amount Amount of avail- Hard coal
kW h) waste of manure able biogas equivalent
(t/year) (m3/year) (t/year)
Turbine 1.3
Generator and power electronics 1.0 Cow 11,054,000 39,794,400 1,313,215,200 1,181,894
Blade 0.8 Sheep– 38,030,000 26,621,000 1,544,018,000 1,389,616
Turbine tower 0.6 goat
All of the mechanical equipment in rotor 1.3 Poultry 243,510,453 5,357,230 417,863,937 376,078
and nose cone groups Total 292,594,453 71,772,630 3,275,097,137 2,947,588

wind potential of Turkey. Wind energy has a significant role in the
country’s renewable energy potential. The wind energy potential
of the country based on the regions is given in Table 15 [45].
In Turkey, there are around 75 installed wind power plants and
their total current capacity is about 2958.45 MW [46]. Installed
wind energy production is expected to grow at between 750 and
1100 MW per year. At the end of 2015, more than 12.3 GW of new
wind power production systems will be installed primarily in the
west regions of Turkey, with some turbine in the south regions.
Incentive mechanism for Turkish government for domestic man-
ufactured mechanical equipment used in wind turbine system is
shown in Table 16 [32].
6.4. Biomass energy
The source of biomass energy is from organic materials that
have been involved in growing cycle. Biomass energy has several
sources such as wood, wood wastes, agricultural crops, animal
wastes, food wastes, and aquatic plants etc. Although direct
combustion of biomass releases carbon dioxide to the environ-
ment, they sequester the carbon dioxide during their span.
Because of low cost, biomass energy is seen as a near term solution
for energy crisis during transition to the renewable energy sources.
Beside the direct combustion of biomass, there are cleaner ways to
use biomass like gasification and pyrolysis methods. In order to
use biomass source in a gasification process, biomass source
should have a moisture content of 5–30%. There are two ways of
gasification: (1) indirectly heated and (2) directly heated gasifi-
cation. Biomass sources can be also used in pyrolysis method to
produce hydrogen and methane.
6.4.1. Biomass energy in Turkey
In 2013, electricity production from biogas and waste potential
with an installed capacity of Turkey reached 158.5 MW (nearly
0.28% of the total electricity production). Nowadays, many bio-
energy sources are replenished by the growing of energy products,
such as fast growing trees and grasses, called bio-energy feed
stock [43]. Only the biomass, among the other renewable energy
sources should be converted into liquid fuel or bio-diesel for
transportation need. Today, bio-diesel is used in many places
except very the cold places in Turkey for decreasing of the vehicle
emissions.
Bio-ethanol is another usage example of biomass. It is produced
via fermentation of sugar beet, corn, wheat, sugar, starch, and
some agricultural products containing cellulose. Bio-ethanol is an
alternative fuel which is used by mixing it with gasoline. In Turkey,
having total fuel consumption of 22 Mt and 3 Mt of gasoline usage,
there are 160,000 t capacity of bio-ethanol production.
Bio-gas is a gas mixture containing mostly methane and carbon
dioxide. Biogas is produced via anaerobic fermentation of organic
materials (animal wastes, vegetable wastes, and industrial wastes).
Biogas technology makes possible energy production from these
wastes or recycle of them into the soil.
The annual and total recoverable biomass energy potential of
Turkey is estimated as 32.6 and 17.2 Mtoe, respectively. In 2013,
Turkey’s total biomass consumption reached 5.2 Mtoe/year. In
general, the recoverable biomass energy potential comes from the
crop residues, forestry and wood processing residues, firewood,
animal wastes and municipality wastes. Annual potential (Mt) and
energy production potential (Mtoe) from the biomass energy in
Turkey are given in Table 17. As seen in the table, annual crops
have the important biomass potential for the country. The largest
portion of this biomass product is used in rural areas for heating
and cooking purposes in a primitive way [31]. Biogas production
potential from the animal wastes of the country is shown in
Table 18. For increasing biomass based on energy production
systems, Turkish government states the support mechanism for
domestic production. Law No. 6094 on renewable energy also
contains incentive mechanism for the local produced mechanic
and electronic equipment used in biomass energy conversation
system (see Table 19) [32].
6.5. Hydroelectric power systems
Because hydroelectric power systems are one of the best
alternatives for fossil fuels, they are considered as the most
important renewable energy sources. There are lots of advantages
of these systems; the most important ones are reduction of air
pollution and low cost. Hydroelectric power systems consist of
1268 M. Ozturk, Y.E. Yuksel / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1259–1272

Table 19 Geothermal energy is renewable, sustainable, limitless, cheap, and

Domestic manufacture incentives for biomass based systems. environment friendly energy source. Geothermal energy has been
used for centuries in different purposes such as for bathing since
Domestic manufacture Domestic contribution ($ cents/
kW h) Paleolithic times and for space heating since ancient Roman times.
Geothermal energy sources are categorized into 3 sub-categories
Steam boiler with fluid bed 0.8 based on their temperature values; i-) low temperature fields
Liquid or gas fired steam boiler 0.4 (o70 °C), ii-) medium temperature fields (70–150 °C), and iii-)
Gasification and gas cleaning system 0.6
Steam or gas turbines 2.0
high temperature fields (4 170 °C). The capacity of geothermal
Stirling engine or internal combustion 0.9 energy in the world is enough for human energy needs but only a
engine very small fraction of geothermal energy is profitable.
Generator and power electronics 0.5
Cogeneration system 0.4
6.6.1. Geothermal energy in Turkey
There are 17 geothermal fields in Turkey which are suitable for
Table 20
electricity production and all of these fields are in the West Ana-
Electricity generation potential from Turkey’s hydroelectric power plants. tolia. The technical electricity production potential from the total
geothermal fields of the country is estimated as 2000 MW. But,
Current station Number Installed Rate (%) Electricity Rate (%) current electricity production from these fields are about 91.7 MW
of plants capacity generation
(MW) (GW h/year)
and with this potential Turkey is ranked as 1st and 7th in Europe
and world, respectively. Only 8% of Turkey’s geothermal energy
In operation 228 14,503 32 50,487 35 fields have high enthalpy and suitable for electricity generation.
DSI 57 10,748 These fields are given in Table 22. Geothermal energy production
Other 171 3719
still remains underdeveloped although the geothermal industry in
organization
Under 148 8600 18 20,000 14 the world is highly developed. The main reason for this case is the
construction investment cost of a new geothermal energy production system,
DSI 23 3600 since the cost is nearly two times more than a natural gas plant
Other 125 5000 [47]. Table 23 presents the fields and their electricity production
organization
Planned next 1418 22,700 50 72,000 51
capacity. Beside electricity production, geothermal energy can be
term used for space heating, greenhouse heating, thermal cure, and
DSI 17 4000 thermal tourism. In Turkey, there are 18 cities which are using the
Other 1401 18,700 geothermal energy for space heating and their total capacity is
organization
about 608 MW. Geothermal energy is used for greenhouse heating
Total 1794 45,803 100 142,487 100
in 15 areas in Turkey and their capacity is about 292 MW. Also
there are over 200 thermal tourism centers which present thermal
dam (concrete or dike) turbines, gate, baffle reservoir, penstock cure for some sicknesses [50] (see Table 24) [49]. It is estimated
and other auxiliary equipment. The most important sub-system is that in 10 years period, electricity production from geothermal
penstock of these sub-systems based on cost, because penstock energy sources will reach up to 1000 MW. A purchase guarantee of
cost is about 32% of total dam cost and any improvement made in 0.105$/kW h as feed-in tariff is paid for geothermal based on
penstock may make the total cost decrease. electricity generation for 10 years period. Also, Turkish govern-
ment supplementary subsidy for geothermal energy is given in
6.5.1. Hydroelectric power systems in Turkey Table 25 [32].
Hydroelectric source is one of the most significant renewable
energy sources in Turkey. The theoretical potential of hydroelectric 6.7. Hydrogen energy systems
power of Turkey is estimated as 433,000 GWh, which is about 1%
of the world theoretical potential, while it is 16% of European Although hydrogen is the most abundant element in the world,
theoretical potential [43], but almost 62% of hydroelectric possible it is not found freely in nature. Hydrogen is found to be bonded to
sources of the country are yet not converted to useful energy [47]. other compounds mostly in water and other organic compounds.
Also economic potential of Turkey is 16% of world economic Therefore, extra energy is necessary to separate the hydrogen from
potential. In 2013, 24.8% of total electric production is from these compounds. For that reason, hydrogen is considered as an
hydroelectric power stations [48]. The electricity generation energy carrier not a primary energy source. Hydrogen energy has
potential by using the hydroelectric power plants in Turkey is many usage areas such as transportation, electric power produc-
given in Table 20 [49]. Installed capacity and hydroelectric power tion, thermal energy, and even in portable devices either in liquid
generation potential using by the hydropower sources for the or gas form. Hydrogen can be generated from both fossil energy
country during the period 2006–2012 are given in Table 21 [21]. As sources and renewable energy sources by using different tech-
nologies. In spite of its many advantages, hydrogen technology is
seen in table, the most significant hydropower plants of Turkey are
still new and expensive in comparison with fossil fuel technolo-
Sanliurfa-Ataturk, Diyarbakir-Karakaya and Elazig-Keban. At the
gies. If some problems related to hydrogen technologies are
end of 2020, it is estimated that nearly 500 new hydroelectric
solved, hydrogen technologies can compete with fossil fuel tech-
power plants will be installed to make use of the estimated
nologies. These problems can be divided into four sub-categories:
available potential.
i-) production step, ii-) storage step, iii-) transmission and dis-
tribution step, and iv-) safety step. Table 26 presents the wide
6.6. Geothermal energy range of hydrogen production options [51].

Geothermal (geo means ground, thermal means heat energy) is 6.7.1. Hydrogen energy in Turkey
a component of hot water, vapor and gases containing some Hydrogen energy application potential of the country is very
chemicals. The source of geothermal is hot magma and destroyed high, and also common uses of hydrogen energy will have
radioactive materials that exist in deep levels of earth crust. important impact on its energy system, from production to end-
 M. Ozturk, Y.E. Yuksel / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1259–1272 1269

Table 21
Installed capacity and hydroelectric power generation.

Plant name Location Installed capacity (MW) Generation (GW h)

2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Ataturk Sanliurfa 2405 8881 7967 6611 4525 6163 6752 8174
Karakaya Diyarbakir 1800 8598 6906 6297 4557 8024 7167 7142
Keban Elazig 1330 7281 6105 4959 3959 7959 6331 5654
Altinkaya Samsun 702 721 466 294 436 1372 1403 681
Berke Osmaniye 510 1592 1027 976 1500 2150 1786 2243
Hasan Ugurlu Samsun 500 1201 807 1180 1658 1722 1407 1017
Ermenek Karaman 302 – – – – – – 280
Borcka Artvin 300 – 565 921 937 1129 928 646
Sir K.Maras 283 687 432 434 691 989 581 995
Gokcekaya Eskisehir 278 407 241 255 420 505 474 611
Obruk Corum 210 – – – 182 430 522 532
Batman Diyarbakir 198 510 343 140 326 474 380 412
Karkamis Gaziantep 189 462 430 355 286 461 500 557
Ozluce Elazig 170 583 374 320 496 650 380 428
Catalan Adana 169 418 225 358 627 497 563 606
H.P.Sariyar Ankara 160 291 180 190 313 366 356 441
Aslantas Osmaniye 138 599 405 355 650 763 691 804
Hirfanli Kirsehir 128 144 134 137 92 274 319 329
Menzelet K.Maras 124 485 317 321 460 658 541 656
Kilickaya Sivas 120 444 285 339 344 488 308 252
Muratli Artvin 115 440 451 424 449 495 424 296
Akkopru Mugla 115 – – – – – – 207
Dicle Diyarbakir 110 212 192 147 186 270 204 214
Torul Gumushane 103 – – 18 326 389 272 262
Kokluce Tokat 90 418 218 424 615 480 194 421
Kurtun Gumushane 85 199 142 155 204 189 146 150
Kesikkopru Ankara 76 94 93 82 59 171 200 211
Kadincik-1 Mersin 70 208 149 141 288 297 277 341
Demirkopru Manisa 69 128 55 47 108 138 114 201
Suat Ugurlu Samsun 69 344 238 307 415 434 370 281
Adiguzel Denizli 62 68 3 11 89 129 145 182
Seyhan-1 Adana 60 247 130 170 339 308 351 362
Kadincik-2 Mersin 56 146 106 102 223 235 215 269
Kapulukaya Kirikkale 54 94 93 81 57 150 194 196
Kemer Aydin 48 69 24 42 88 122 75 187
Manavgat Antalya 48 151 115 104 216 164 161 194
Karacaoren-2 Burdur 46 127 134 103 92 217 129 169
Karacaoren-1 Burdur 32 83 86 62 52 149 77 111
Power plants with dams total 37,441 30,041 27,558 27,267 40,311 36,108 37,614
Natural lakes and rivers total 1238 939 865 1072 1066 780 697
Total 38,679 30,981 28,419 28,338 41,377 36,888 38,311

Table 22
Suitable geothermal electricity generation fields in Turkey. Table 24
Geothermal energy direct heat uses in the country.
Field Temperature (°C) Potential (MWe)
Technologies Installed capacity Annual energy Capacity factor
Denizli-Kizildere 242 120 (MWt) use
Aydin-Germencik-Omerbeyli 232 150
Manisa-Salihli-Gobekli 182 30 Individual space 219 2417 0.35
Canakkale-Tuzla 173 50 heating
Aydin-Salavatli 171 50 District heating 792 7,386.4 0.35
Kutahya-Simav 162 30 Green house heating 483 9138 0.6
Manisa-Salihli-Caferbeyli 155 30 Bathing and 552 17,408 1
Izmir-Seferihisar 153 10 swimming
Aydin-Yilmazkoy 142 20 Geothermal heat 38 536.5 0.5
Izmir-Balcova 136 10 pumps
Izmir-Dikili 130 10 Total 2084 36,885.9
Total 510

Table 23
Electricity production from geothermal energy sources in Turkey. Table 25
Domestic manufacture incentives for geothermal based systems.
Field Electricity production capacity (MWe)
Domestic manufacture Domestic contribution ($ cents/
Denizli-Kizildere (2 plants) 15 þ5 (total 20) kW h)
Aydin-Salavatli 7.4
Aydin-Germencik 47.4 Steam or gas turbine 1.3
Canakkale 7.5 Generator and power electronics 0.7
Total 82.3 Steam injector or vacuum compressor 0.7
1270 M. Ozturk, Y.E. Yuksel / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1259–1272

Table 26
Hydrogen production options.

Raw feedstock Processed feedstock Production processes Process energy sources Production strategies Delivery options

Fossil fuels: Syngas Thermal: Thermal: Distributed: Hydrogen:

Coal Gasoline Reforming Fossil Fueling stations Gas:
Natural gas Diesel Fuel Steam reforming Renewable Individual buildings Pipeline
Oil Methanol Partial oxidation Nuclear On-board Rail
Ammonia Gasification Barge
Direct use of raw stock Pyrolysis Truck
Tube trailer
Bio-fuels: Ethanol Electrochemical: Electricity: Semi-distributed
Biomass Methanol Electrolysis Fossil Market centered Liquid:
Biogas Biodiesel Photo-electrolysis Renewable Truck
Sugars Nuclear Rail
Direct use of raw feedstock Barge
Hydrides

Other (e.g., carbon nanotubes)

Waste material Direct use of raw feedstock Biological: Photolytic: Central: Other gaseous carriers:
Water Direct use of raw feedstock Photo-biological Solar Resources centered Natural
Aerobic fermentation gas
Anaerobic fermentation Ammonia
Liquid carriers:
Ethanol
Methanol

Other organic liquids

use. Solar energy based hydrogen production system applications
should be applied in the country. Moreover, the Black Sea has rich
hydrogen sulfide reserves, and it has economic value if hydrogen
should be environmentally removed from the hydrogen sulfide.
There are several methods for hydrogen sulfide decomposition,
such as thermal, thermo-chemical, electro-chemical, photo-
chemical and plasma-chemical method. The existence of hydro-
gen sulfide zone starts at a depth of 100 m and the concentration
of this layer increases with depth [52]. Furthermore, hydrogen
production technologies from sodium boron hydrate should be
applied in the country. Also, the individual parts of a hydrogen
energy technology which are production, delivery, storage and
conversion, and end-use applications are closely related and
dependent to each other. Each of these parts as well as the whole
system requires careful consideration when designing and
implementing the hydrogen economy.
7. Renewable energy and sustainable development
Sustainable development means the organization of environ-
mental sources in order to meet present and future generations’
needs. One of the most crucial goals for future energy projection is
the efficient utilization of current energy resources. In this regard,
energy efficiency should be considered as an important tool to
reach sustainable development. The indicators of sustainable
development have considered four dimensions, namely economic
state, social state, environmental state and institutional state.
Turkey’s sustainable development strategy should include a
change in the existing energy production and consumption pro-
cesses, expansion in energy sources and the structure of electricity
generation and creation of an energy structure that is less or not at
all risky to the environment.
Renewable energy and energy efficiency create one of the pri-
mary indicators for sustainable economic and social development.
In line with the rising population, urbanization, industrialization,
spreading of technology and rising of wealth, energy consumption
rate of the country as the other developing countries are
increasing. Energy consumption and consequently energy supply
at minimum amount and cost are the primary targets, within the
approach of a sustainable development that supports economic
and social development and that have destructive impact on the
environment at the minimum level. As basic strategy, improve-
ment of domestic production by increasing efficiency of plants by
rehabilitation, diversification of energy sources to secure fuel
supply, accelerating the existing construction programs, initiation
of new investments are chosen to achieve the sustainable devel-
opment. As given before, the country has high technical renewable
energy potential. Utilization of renewable energy sources in the
country is very important in terms of the sustainable development
and foreign capital flow by means of foreign investors. After using
of the renewable energy potential, the country will become less
dependent on imported fossil energy sources (especially oil and
natural gas), reduce greenhouse gas emissions and may even
export green electricity to Europe.
Because of some environmental concerns such as global
warming, air quality, and environmental destruction, society and
governments have started to become aware of sustainability term.
Therefore to improve current energy strategies to sustainable
development level, sustainable energy resources should be used.
For this reason, studies have been conducted in order to find
sustainable energy sources and to use current energy sources
efficiently. Many researchers suggest that the use of fossil fuel
sources should be limited and energy policies should be updated
to renewable energy sources.
As environmental problems such as global warming, air pol-
lution, and degradation of natural sources increase, renewable
energy sources become more important than ever. When com-
pared the greenhouse gases and air pollutant of renewable sources
to conventional fossil fuel technologies, it is clearly seen that
renewable energy sources will be able to solve at least decrease in
the environmental problems.
8. Conclusions
Because of many superiorities of renewable energy sources
over conventional energy sources such as inexhaustible, green,
clean, and ability to use in district areas, renewable energy sources
play crucial role in the transition to the sustainable development.
 M. Ozturk, Y.E. Yuksel / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 1259–1272
Also, renewable energy is considered as a source which is suitable
to meet the energy consumption of the humanity since they are
sustainable. As mentioned above, Turkey has great potential in
terms of renewable energy sources especially in wind and solar
energy. By using these renewable energy sources, Turkey can meet
their own energy needs, grow in energy economy, and preserve
the environment by decreasing emissions. With the increasing
demand for energy and increasing emissions and air pollution,
transition to the sustainable development based on renewable
energy becomes compulsory. The sustainable development
improves the quality of human life in economic and environ-
mental aspects over the long term in a way that must be sup-
ported by the renewable energy sources, technologies and policies
of the country.
Energy supply is an important indicator for human survival and
development. Renewable energy sources of Turkey are suitable to
meet energy consumption, but they vary in their capacities for
power production, sustainability of potential location, sustain-
ability and stability of energy sources, and economy. In addition to
that, although operation and maintenance cost of the renewable
based energy systems are lower than conventional systems, their
capital costs are usually higher. Therefore, when determining
suitable energy production and consumption policies, various up-
to-date patterns, growth in energy resources and the structures of
power supply, and the generation of an energy structure that is
low or not risky to the environment should be included. The
concluding remarks of this paper should be given as follows;
 Environmental problems, such as greenhouse gas effects, global
warming, global climate change, melting ice, acid precipitation
and stratospheric ozone depletion, have become a global pro-
blem, and must be resolved for sustainable development.
 Sustainable development needs sustainable supplies of energy
sources without causing negative environmental impacts and
societal effects. To reach these aims, renewable energy tech-
nologies play important role without causing negative envir-
onmental impacts.
 For countries aspiring to reach sustainable development level,
efforts should be dedicated to increasing renewable energy
sources and systems. Increasing of usage potential of the
renewable and integrated energy production systems can pro-
vide a significant solution for current environmental problems.
To achieve environmental and social benefits of renewable
energy systems, they should be supplied at reasonable cost and
sustainability.
 Hydrogen energy market system for Turkey should be estab-
lished to meet the energy demand including hydrogen for the
coming years.
 There should be incentives for the investments on hydrogen
production from the bottom of Black Sea.
 Energy and environment policies including the external energy
cost, such as air quality and global climate change should be
established.
 In all the sectors such as energy, urbanization, agriculture,
industry, tourism and etc., the consciousness of sustainable
development should be adopted.
 Assessment of the sustainability of any energy system, and
effort to develop sustainability, should be investigated based on
the sustainable energy indicators. This should be aimed at
decreasing system cost and emissions of harmful gases,
improving system performance, security of energy sources and
use of the renewable energy sources. Sustainable development
involves not only usage of sustainable energy sources, but also
efficient use of these sources.
1271
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