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CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION
3D-Printing or Additive manufacturing is a process of making a three dimensional solid
objects of virtually any shape from a digital model. 3D printing is achieved using an
additive process, where successive layers of material are laid down in different shapes.
3D printing is also considered distinct from traditional machining techniques, which
mostly rely on the removal of material by methods such as cutting or drilling know as
Subtractive process.

3D printing is a rapidly developing technology in the last years. This technology has
applications in the fields like engineering, medical, industries and many more. These
include creation of mass-customized products, prototypes, replacement of parts and even
medical and dental implants. The speed and ease of designing and modifying products has
made them the number one rapid prototyping technique.

Fig 1.1 Makerbot Replicator 2 3D printer

A 3D printer is a limited type of industrial robot that is capable of carrying out an additive
process under computer control

While 3D printing technology has been around since the 1980’s, it was not until the early
2010’s that the printers became widely available commercially.

The first working 3D printer was invented in1984 by Chuck Hull of 3D Systems Corp.
Since the start of the 21st century there has been a large growth in the sales of these
machines and their price has been dropped substantially.

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The 3D printing technology is used for both prototyping and distributed manufacturing
with applications in architecture, construction (AEC), industrial design, automotive
industry, aerospace, engineering field, food industry, and many more fields.

Rapid prototyping in a general term describing technologies that can produce physical
objects form CAD data. It is often also called Solid Freeform Fabrication (SFF) and
Additive Manufacturing (AM). RP can be used in a wide range of industries and
technologies and in no of applications.

Three dimensional ink-jet printing is a rapid prototyping process which describes

technologies using the principle of conventional ink-jet printing technology to produce
objects. 3D printing is a registered trademark of Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(MIT), where 3D printing was developed in mid 90’s and later licensed.

3D printing is generally classified as a powder based RP method and the 3D ink jet
printing process is one by Z Corporation, with basic materials being in the form of
powder and liquid binder. It is the only RP method that can produce physical models in
full color, by using subtractive color mixing and digital half toning, much like in
conventional color ink jet printing, realized through the applications of colored binders in
addition to the clear binder. This enables creation of various models that are useful in
solutions for e.g. visualization, concept modeling, Finite Element Analysis (FEA),
presentation models, etc

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CHAPTER-2

HISTORY
The inception of 3D printing can be traced back to 1976, when the inkjet printer was
invented. In 1984, adaptations and advances on the inkjet concept morphed the
technology from printing with ink to printing with materials. In the decades since, a
variety of applications of 3D printing technology have been developed across several
industries.

The technology for printing physical 3D objects from digital data was first developed by
Charles Hull in 1984. He named the technique as Stereo lithography and obtained a patent
for the technique in 1986. While Stereolithography systems had become popular by the
end of 1980s, other similar technologies such as Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) and
Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) were introduced.
In 1993, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) patented another technology,
named "3Dimensional Printing techniques", which is similar to the inkjet technology used
in 2D Printers.
In 1996, three major products, "Genisys" from Stratasys, "Actua 2100" from 3D Systems
and "Z402" from Z Corporation, were introduced.
In 2005, Z Corp. launched a breakthrough product, named Spectrum Z510, which was the
first high definition color 3D Printer in the market.
Another breakthrough in 3D Printing occurred in 2006 with the initiation of an open
source project, named Reprap, which was aimed at developing a self replicating 3D
printer.

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CHAPTER-3
WORKING

3.1 BASIC WORKING PRINCIPLE

The basic working principle of 3D-Printing is Additive Manufacturing process.
In additive manufacturing process an object is created by laying down successive layers
of material until the entire object is created.
This technique is different from Subtractive processes, where the object is created by
removal of material by cutting or drilling.

Fig 3.1 Additive Manufacturing and Subtractive Manufacturing

3.2 WORKING OF A 3D PRINTER

The working of a 3D printer consist of 8 steps

Fig 3.2 Steps of working of a 3D printer

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Step 1: CAD - Produce a 3-D model using Computer Aided Design (CAD) software. The
software provides hint as to the structural integrity expected in the finished product using
scientific data about certain materials, by creating virtual simulations of how the object
will behave under certain conditions.

Step 2: Conversion to STL - Convert the CAD drawing to the STL format. Standard
Tessellation Language (STL) is a file format developed for 3D Systems in 1987 for use
by Stereo lithography apparatus (SLA) machines. Most 3-D printers can use STL files in
addition to some proprietary file types such as ZPR by Z Corporation and ObjDF by
Objet Geometries.

Step 3: Transfer to AM Machine and STL File Manipulation - The user copies the
STL file to the computer that controls the 3-D printer. There, the user can designate the
size and orientation for printing. This is similar to the way you would set up a 2-D
printout to print 2-sided or in landscape versus portrait orientation.

Step 4: Machine Setup - Each machine has its own requirements for how to prepare for a
new print job. This includes refilling the polymers, binders and other consumables the
printer will use. It also covers adding a tray to serve as a foundation or adding the
material to build temporary water-soluble supports.

Step 5: Build - The build process is mostly automatic. Each layer is usually about 0.1
mm thick, though it can be much thinner or thicker. Depending on the object's size, the
machine and the materials used, this process could take hours or even days to complete.

Step 6: Removal - Remove the printed object (or multiple objects in some cases) from
the machine. We have to take safety precautions to avoid injury such as wearing gloves to
protect from hot surfaces or toxic chemicals.

Step 7: Post Processing - Many 3-D Printers will require some amount of post-
processing for the printed object. This could include brushing off any remaining powder
or bathing the printed object to remove water-soluble supports. The new print may be
weak during this step since some materials require time to cure, so caution might be
necessary to ensure that it doesn't break or fall apart.

Step 8: Application - The newly printed objects are for the desired application.

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3.3 MATHEMATICAL ASPECT

We have to consider what mathematical statements and theorems allow us to materialize

the idea of 3D printing. By using FUBINI Theorem we have analyzed and proved that 3D
printers can duplicate and print almost everything.

3.3.1 FUBINI THEOREM

The FUBINI theorem named after the Italian mathematician Guido Fubini. The theorem
is a result which gives the conditions under which it is possible to compute double
integral using iterated integrals.

∫ (∫ ( ) ) ∫ (∫ ( ) ) ∫ ( ) ( ) ......(3.31)

Fubini’s theorem, states that an object of n dimensions can be represented as a spectrum

of layers of shapes of n-1 dimensions layers. This means that a 3 dimensional shape can
be portrayed as a layer of 2 dimensional shapes. In 3D printing technology this means that
it is possible to express any 3D object as layer of 2D planes.

∫ | ( )| ( ) ……………………. (3.32)

In order to analyze the theorem, we suppose A and B are complete measure spaces.
Suppose f(x,y) is A x B measurable if

∫ (∫ ( ) ) ∫ (∫ ( ) ) ∫ ( ) ( )

…………(3.33)

Where the integrals is taken with respect to a product measure on the space over A x B,
then

∫ ( ) ∫ ( ) ∫ ( ) ……(3.34)

The first two integrals being iterated integrals with respect to two measures respectively
and the third being an integral with respect to product of these two measures. If the above
integral of the absolute value is not finite, then the two iterated integrals may actually
have different values. Thus we have that if f(x,y)=g(x,y) for some functions g and h.

The integral on the right side with respect to a product measure. Fubini’s theorem proves
that 3D printers can print any real life solid object.

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CHAPTER-4

MATERIALS USED FOR PRINTING

3D printers can use a wide range of materials, including plastics, resins, metals, ceramics
and many more.

The most popular material is plastic, and most of home desktop style printers print objects
using plastic, however some of the higher end printers are capable of printing using many
different materials. Currently some of the object range of printers support up to 107
materials.

4.1 PLASTICS
At the moment the majority of the 3D printers, especially the low cost system, print using
a technology called “Fused Filament Fabrication”(FFF) , these printers currently tend to
print using one of the following materials:

4.1.1 PLA FILAMENT

PLA (Polylactic Acid) is probably the easiest material to work with when you first start
3D printing. It is an environmentally friendly material that is very safe to use, as it is a
biodegradable thermoplastic that has been derived from renewable resource such as
cornstarch and sugar canes.

4.1.2 ABS FILAMENT

ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene) is considered to be the second easiest material to
work with when you start 3D printing. It’s very safe and strong and widely used for the
thinks like car bumpers and lego toys.

4.1.3 PVA FILAMENT

PVA (Polyvinyl Alcohol Plastic) which is quite different to PVA Glue. The popular
Makerbot Replicator 2 printers use a PVA Plastic.

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4.2 POWDERS
The higher end printers can use a various powder based materials. These materials
include

4.2.1 POLYAMIDE
This is a strong and flexible material that allows a high level of detail to be achieved.
Polyamide objects are constructed from a white, very fine, granular powder.

4.2.2 ALUMIDE
Is a Polyamide-like material with a distinctive sandy and granular look that is a rigid and
strong material. Alumide objects are constructed from a blend of gray aluminum powder
and polyamide, a very fine granular powder.

4.2.3 MULTICOLOR
A full color material with a sandy and granular appearance. Models made out of
multicolor are constructed from a fine granular powder.

4.3 RESINS
Resins are also a material sometimes used in a 3D printing. Although design freedom is
limited due to the structure necessary to support the objects during the printing process.
The following are the examples of some resins that can be used:

4.3.1 HIGH DETAIL RESIN

Objects made out of high detail resin are constructed from a photo polymeric liquid. This
material is ideal for small and/or very finely-detailed visual models, where high detail is
required.

4.3.2 PAINTABLE RESIN

Objects made out of paintable resin have a smooth surface and will look beautiful
painted.

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4.3.3 TRANSPARENT RESIN
Objects made out of transparent resin are constructed from a hardened liquid. The
material is strong, hard, stiff, water resistant by nature, and of course, transparent.
Transparent resin is suited for models needing a good, smooth, quality surface with a
transparent look.

4.4 OTHER MATERIALS

Some materials and ceramics are also being used in 3D printing, here are a few examples:

4.4.1 TITANIUM
Is very light and the strongest 3D printing material available. Objects made from titanium
are printed using titanium powder that is sintered together by a laser.

4.4.2 STAINLESS STEEL

Object produced in stainless steel are 3D printed using a stainless steel powder that is
infused with bronze material. Stainless steel is the cheapest form of metal printing, very
strong and suitable for very large objects.

4.4.3 BRONZE
Objects produced in bronze are 3D printed in using a bronze powder that is infused with
bronze. Bronze is an affordable and strong material for printing models in metal.

4.4.4 BRASS, SILVER, GOLD

Can also be used in 3D printing, although involves printing a wax mould which is then
filled with the molten material.

4.4.5 CERAMICS
A 3D printing material that has a shiny appearance is heat resistant, recyclable and food
safe. Models made out of ceramics are constructed from alumina silica ceramic powder,
then sealed with porcelain and silica and glazed. A perfect material for home décor items
and tableware.

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CHAPTER-5

TYPES OF 3D PRINTERS
There are 9 different types of 3D-Printer technologies.

5.1 FDM (FUSED DEPOSITION MODELING)

FDM is the most common 3D printing method used in desktop 3D-Printing.

Thermoplastic filament is heated and extruded through an extrusion head that deposits the
molten plastic in X and Y coordinate, while the build table lowers the object layer by
layer in the Z direction. Effectively, the object is built from the bottom up. If an object
has overhanging parts, however, it will need support structures that can be removed after
the printing is finished. This type of 3D printers is a cost-effective.

Fig 5.1 Fused Deposition Modeling 3D printer

5.2 SLA (STEREO LITHOGRAPHY)

SLA has been the oldest of the 3D printing technologies, first invented by Chuck Hull in
1984. SLA works by exposing a layer of photosensitive liquid resin to a UV-laser beam
so that the resin hardens and becomes solid. Once the laser has swept a layer of resin in
the desired pattern and it begins to harden, the model-building platform in the liquid tank
of the printer steps down the thickness of a single layer, and the laser begins to form the
next layer. Each layer is built on top of the preceding one. After printing has completed,
the object is rinsed with a solvent. Sometimes baked in a UV oven to finish processing.

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Fig 5.2 Stereo lithography 3D printer

5.3 DLP (DIGITAL LIGHT PROCESSING)

DLP technology was invented in 1987 by Larry Hornbeck of Texas Instrument. DLP also
uses liquid photopolymers but instead of laser, it uses a special projector. It has a
computer-controlled, micro-mirror grid, laid out on a semiconductor chip. These tiny
mirrors tilt back and forth. When a mirror is tilted, it reflects light, creating a bright pixel.
When the mirror is tilted the other way, the pixel is dark. One of the benefits is its speed.
We can print layers in an instant with this type of 3D printer.

Fig 5.3 Digital Light Processing 3D printer

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5.4 SLS (SELECTIVE LASER SINTERING)

SLS is similar to SLA, but difference is that it uses powdered material in the build
area instead of liquid resin. A laser is used to selectively sinter a layer of granules,
which binds the material together to create a solid structure. When the object is fully
formed, it’s left to cool in the machine before being removed. This type of 3D printer
requires the use of expensive high-powered lasers. The materials used in SLS can range
from nylon, glass, and ceramics to aluminum, silver, and even steel.

Fig 5.4 Selective Laser Sintering 3D printer

5.5 SLM (SELECTIVE LASER MELTING)

SLM is sometimes regarded as a subcategory of the SLS, where it uses a high-powered

laser beam to fully melt metallic powders into solid 3D parts.

Fig 5.5 Selective Laser Melting 3D printer

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5.6 EBM (ELECTRON BEAM MELTING)

The EBM technique uses a computer-controlled electron beam under high vacuum to
fully melt the metallic powder at high temperatures up to 1000 °C.

Fig 5.6 Electron Beam Melting 3D printer

5.7 LOM (LAMINATED OBJECT MANUFACTURING)

LOM uses layers of adhesive-coated paper, plastic or metal laminates, which are fused
under heat and pressure then shaped by cutting with a computer controlled laser or knife.
This is sometimes followed by machining and drilling. The 3D object is created layer-by-
layer and after the excess material is cut away, the object can be sanded or sealed with
paint. LOM is one of the most affordable and fastest 3D printing methods available to
create relatively large parts. It also allows for full-color 3D printed objects.

Fig 5.7 Laminated Object Manufacturing 3D printer

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5.8 BJ (BINDER JETTING)

This was invented at MIT. Its also known as “powder bed printing”, “inkjet 3D printing”,
“drop-on-powder printing”. Binder jetting is an additive manufacturing process. This type
of 3D printer uses two materials: a powder based (often gypsum) material and a bonding
agent. The agent acts as an adhesive between powder layers. Usually, the binder is
extruded in liquid form from a print head – regular inkjet 2D printer. After a layer is
finished, the build plate is lowered and the process repeated.

Fig 5.8 Binder Jetting 3D printer

5.9 MATERIAL JETTING (MJ) / WAX CASTING

The Material Jetting technology is better known as “Wax Casting”. Material jetting
machines utilize inkjet print heads to jet melted materials. This then cooled and solidified.
By adding layer on layer, the part is built. Wax materials are used with this technology.
Material jetting requires support structures for overhangs, which is usually built in a
different material. Material is cured by UV light, and then post processing is done by
removal of support material.

Fig 5.9 Material Jetting 3D printer

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CHAPTER-6

ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS

6.1 ADVANTAGES

3D printing technology has various advantages. The 3D printing technology can now be
used in almost any field.

6.1.1 MASS CUSTOMIZATION

With 3D printing technology, manufacturing has become easier than before.3D printing
processes allow for mass customization the ability to personalize products according to
individual needs and requirements. Even within the same build chamber, the nature of 3D
printing means that numerous products can be manufactured at the same time according
to the end-users requirements at no additional process cost. By using this technology we
have unlimited possibilities of custom designing.

6.1.2 RAPID PROTOTYPING

3D printing enables quick production of prototypes or small version of real life objects.
This also helps the researchers and engineers to plan the actual object and catch any
design flaws that may affect the quality and functionality of the object. Rapid prototyping
makes R&D cycles shorter while providing the flexibility of creating and testing multiple
design iterations 3D printing can be used to modify, rather than create, existing products.

6.1.3 LOW PRODUCTION COST

Although the initial cost of setting up a 3D printer is high, the overall cost is reduced in
the form of labor cost, also time saved and mass manufacturing ensures that the cost of
production is relatively low.

6.1.4 SUSTAINABLE

Since 3D printers can print products as and when needed and does not cost more than the
manufacturing cost, no expenses on storage of good is required. Furthermore, 3D printing
is showing great promise in terms of fulfilling a local manufacturing model, whereby

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products are produced on demand in the place where they are needed, eliminating huge
inventories and unsustainable logistics for shipping high volumes of products around the
world.

6.1.5 MANUFACTURING AND SUPPLY CHAIN EFFICIENCY

3D printing enables on-site production, thereby helping companies reimaging their
manufacturing and supply networks. It also helps in reduction of development time,
eliminate tooling costs, limitation of inventory or storage spaces, reduced logistics and
transportation costs and help contain labor requirements

6.1.6 WASTE REDUCTION

3D printing can improve the productivity of materials by eliminating waste. With the
unused material being reused for successive printing, hence much less material is wasted.
Nike indicates that reducing waste through 3D printing alone could produce US$1 billion
in cost savings.

6.2 LIMITATIONS
3D printing technology has some of the limitations too, which sometimes affect the
thinking of a person to take up this technology.

6.2.1 COST OF THE PRINTERS

The cost of buying a 3D printer still does not make is possible to be purchased by a
normal person feasible. Printers which manufacture in color are costlier than those which
print monochrome objects. Parts to build the printer are still very expensive. Actual
printing is cheap. In addition, there is a lingering concern about warranty. Resource
companies are hesitant to put 3D-printed parts into their machines if they are not covered
for damage in case the parts fail.

6.2.2 LIMITATION OF SIZE

The 3d printing technology is currently limited by the size constraints. Very large objects
are not feasible when built using 3D printers. Also very large objects takes lot of time to
get printed hence the production speed also reduced due to the size of printers is small.

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6.2.3 LIMITATIONS OF RAW MATERIALS
At present 3D printer can work with approximately 100 different raw materials. But still
some of more complex products require strong and different material which is not yet
found. More research is required to devise methods to enable 3D printed products to be
durable and robust.

6.2.4 INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY ISSUE

Public access to blueprints online raises copyright and intellectual property (IP) right
concerns. If anyone can print anything, then who is the creator of the object? Also many
organizations are generating profits from this technology by using the available blueprints
online without the concern of the actual authority.

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CHAPTER-7
APPLICATIONS

The applications of 3D printing are basically divided into 3 major fields.

7.1 MANUFACTURING APPLICATIONS

The 3D printing technology has played a major role in the manufacturing field. It has
helped in customizing, rapid manufacturing and also modifying the product.

7.1.1 MASS CUSTOMIZATION

With 3D printing technology, manufacturing has become easier than before.3D printing
processes allow for mass customization the ability to personalize products according to
individual needs and requirements. Even within the same build chamber, the nature of 3D
printing means that numerous products can be manufactured at the same time according
to the end-users requirements at no additional process cost. By using this technology we
have unlimited possibilities of custom designing.

7.1.2 RAPID MANUFACTURING AND PROTOTYPING

3D printing enables quick production of prototypes or small version of real life objects.
This also helps the researchers and engineers to plan the actual object and catch any
design flaws that may affect the quality and functionality of the object. Rapid prototyping
makes R&D cycles shorter while providing the flexibility of creating and testing multiple
design iterations 3D printing can be used to modify, rather than create, existing products.

7.1.3 FOOD MANUFACTURING

Additive manufacturing of food is being developed by squeezing out food, layer by layer,
into three-dimensional objects. A large variety of foods are appropriate candidates, such
as chocolate and candy, and flat foods such as crackers, pasta, and pizza. NASA has
considered the versatility of the concept, awarding a contract to the Systems and
Materials Research Consultancy to study the feasibility of printing food in space. One of
the problems with food printing is the nature of the texture of a food. For example, Early
adopters are German retirement homes, which serve a 3D-printed food product called
Smoothfoods to elderly residents who have difficulty chewing.

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Fig 7.1 Foodini 3D printer

Foodini is a 3D printer for foodstuffs. It uses real food ingredients to create edible
products. Real food, straight from the printer

7.2 MEDICAL APLLICATIONS

The 3d printing technology has also found a prominent application in the field of medical.

7.2.1 BIO-PRINTING
It’s a process of creating spatially controlled cell patterns, in which the behavior of
biological tissues can be reproduced. This ideally extends to printing complete viable
organs for transplant. Bio printed organs could potentially decrease transplant organ
rejection and increase the availabity of organs for patients.

Fig 7.2 3D printed Ear

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7.2.2 MEDICAL DEVICES AND HEALTH CARE
The medical sector is viewed as being one that was an early adopter of 3D printing. 3D
printing technologies are being used for a host of different applications. In addition to
making prototypes to support new product development for the medical and dental
industries, manufacturing both stock items, such as hip and knee implants, and bespoke
patient-specific. Hearing aids, orthotic insoles for shoes, personalized prosthetics and
one-off implants for patients suffering from diseases such as osteoarthritis, osteoporosis
and cancer, along with accident and trauma victims. For e.g On October 24, 2014, a five-
year-old girl born without fully formed fingers on her left hand became the first child in
the UK to have a prosthetic hand made with 3D printing technology

7.3 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION

The 3D printing technology as the major use in the field of industry. It has changed the
way things are manufactured and produced. The four main industries are automotive
aerospace, construction and industrial art and jewelry.

7.3.1 AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY

Another general early adopter of Rapid Prototyping technologies the earliest incarnation
of 3D printing was the automotive sector.
They use this technology for prototyping applications, but developing and adapting their
manufacturing processes to incorporate the benefits of improved materials and end results
for automotive parts.
In 2014, Swedish supercar manufacturer Koenigsegg announced the One:1, a supercar
that utilizes many components that were 3D printed. In the limited run of vehicles
Koenigsegg produces, the One:1 has side-mirror internals, air ducts, titanium exhaust
components, and complete turbocharger assemblies that were 3D printed as part of the
manufacturing process.

7.3.2 AEROSPACE INDUSTRY

The aerospace sector was an early adopter of 3D printing technologies in their earliest
forms for product development and prototyping. These companies, typically working in
partnership with academic and research institutes, have been at the sharp end in terms or
pushing the boundaries of the technologies for manufacturing applications. E.g The Zero-

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G Printer, the first 3D printer designed to operate in zero gravity, was built under a joint
partnership between NASA Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) and Made In Space,
Inc. In September 2014, SpaceX delivered the zero-gravity 3D printer to the International
Space Station (ISS). On December 19, 2014, NASA emailed CAD drawings for a socket
wrench to astronauts aboard the ISS, who then printed the tool using its 3D printer

7.3.3 ARCHITECTURE FIELD

The field of architecture and civil engineering has also found the use of 3D printing
technology. Using 3D printing technology they print the miniature structure of real life
objects and then look for the flaws present in it. Also many houses and other items are
printed using 3D printer. E.g Recent a company in Russia built an house using the parts
completely made out of 3D printers.

7.3.4 INDUSTRIAL ART AND JEWELERY

Artists and Sculptors are engaging with 3D printing in myriad of different ways to
explore form and function in ways previously impossible. There are numerous artists that
have now made a name for themselves by working specifically with 3D modeling, 3D
scanning and 3D printing technologies.
For the jewellery sector, 3D printing has proved to be particularly disruptive. There is a
great deal of interest and uptake based on how 3D printing can, and will, contribute to the
further development of this industry. From new design freedoms enabled by 3D CAD and
3D printing, through improving traditional processes for jewellery production all the way
to direct 3D printed production eliminating many of the traditional steps.

4
7.3.5 EDUCATION AND RESEARCH
Coming to the field of education and research, 3D printing technology can help in many
ways. 3D printing and open source 3D printers in particular, are the latest technology
making inroads into the classroom. It can help students in creating various models and
also they can use in field of research.

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CHAPTER-8

CONCULSION
The developed, existing standardized method for color measurement ,monitoring and
control, used in graphic technology, printing and color science can, to some extent be
applied to issues arising in the field of color 3D printing. 3D printing provides various
capabilities, permanence and the appropriate research methodology.

The contribution of 3D printing in field like medical, aerospace and others have brought
lot of new possibilities and ways to explore new things.3D printing technology has
brought lot of change in manufacturing sector too, by reducing the cost of labor and
increasing the time of production.

We have also seen mathematically that 3D printing technology is justified and there are
numerous methods of implementing the same. Still lots of research is required in this
technology to bring the its cost and also to make it feasible and robust.

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REFRENCES

[1] Berman A. “3D-Printing Making the Virtual Real”. EDUCAUSE Evolving

Technologies Committee 2007. Web 1 may 2010.

[2] Vivek Srinivasan ,Jarrod Bassan .”3D-Printing” CSE Leading Edge Forum 2012.

[3] Howard Smith, “3D Printing News and Trends”, CSC Forum ,
http://3dprintingreviews.blogspot.com

[4] Charles Hull “A BRIEF HISTORY OF 3D PRINTING” , 3D Systems.

[5] Ide. A. “ The matematics-of-3d-printing”.Retrived October 16 2013.

[6] Market, M.S, Jiang Z., James T, Kong “A 3D printed model”, ConfProc IEEE Eng
Med BiolSoc,5,2007 pp. 4472-4475.

[7] Tsirelson, A. “Analysis 3 lecture notes Fubini theorem”, (2011).

Available:http://www.tau.ac.il/tsirel/Courses/Analysis3/lect9.pdf

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