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●❡♦♠("$✐❝♦%

✭❛✮
✭❜✮
✭❝✮

✹✳
❉❛❞♦*
+,-*
♣♦♥+♦* A✱
B✱ C
♥1♦✲❝♦
❧✐♥❡❛,
❡*✱
❝♦♠♦ ♥❛
✜❣✉,❛
❛
*❡❣✉✐,
✱
,❡♣,❡*❡
♥+❛, ♦
✈❡+♦, ẋ
♥♦*
*❡❣✉✐
♥+❡*
❝❛*♦*✿

−→ −→
✭❛✮ ẋ = BA +
2BC❀
1 −→ −→
✭❜✮ CA + 2BA❀
ẋ = 2
−→ −→ −→
✭❝✮ ẋ = AC + CB −
AB✳

✺✳ o

❙❛❜❡♥❞♦
?✉❡ ♦
@♥❣✉❧♦
❡♥+,❡ ♦*

28
✈❡+♦,❡* u̇ ❡ v̇
A ❞❡ 30 ✱
❞❡+❡,✲
♠✐♥❛, ♦
@♥❣✉❧♦
❢♦,♠❛❞♦
♣❡❧♦*
✈❡+♦,❡*
❛
*❡❣✉✐,✳

✭❛✮ u̇ ❡ −v̇
✭❜✮ −u̇
❡ 2v̇
✭❝✮ −u̇
❡ −v̇
✭❜✮ 3u̇
❡ 5v̇

✶✳✶✵
❈♦♠❡
♥()*✐♦
❞❛.
❛(✐✈
✐❞❛❞
❡.

❙❡ ✈♦❝-
❝♦♥*❡❣✉✐
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❛+✐✈✐❞❛❞
✶✱ ❡♥+1♦
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,✉❞✐✲
♠❡♥+♦*
❞♦*
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+♦* ❞❡
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?✉❛♥+♦
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❛+✐✈✐
❞❛❞❡*
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❄
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❊♥+1♦ ❥M
❡♥+❡♥❞
❡✉ ❛
✐❞A✐❛
❞❡
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❞✐❢❡,❡
♥N❛ ❞❡
✈❡+♦,❡*
✱ ❛❧A♠
❞❡
♠✉❧+✐♣
❧✐❝❛N1
♦ ♣♦, ✉♠
❡*❝❛❧
❛,✳ ❊ ❛
❛+✐✈✐
❞❛❞❡
✺❄ ❙❡
✈♦❝-
❝♦♥*❡❣
✉✐✉
,❡*♦❧✈-
✲❧❛✱
❛❥✉❞❛
❛
✜①❛, ❛
✐❞A✐❛
❞♦
@♥❣✉❧♦

28
❡♥+,❡
✈❡+♦,❡*
✳ ❙❡
❛✐♥❞❛
+✐✈❡,
❞✐✜❝✉
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*✱
✈♦❧+❡ ❡
,❡✈❡❥❛
❝♦♠
❝✉✐❞❛
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❝♦♥❝❡✐
+♦*
❛♣,❡*❡♥
+❛❞♦* ♥❛
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+✉+♦,❡*
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1♦ ❛
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❇❖▲❉❘■◆■✱
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✬➪❧❣❡❜%❛
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✶✾✽✵✳

28
29
 2
▲■❱❘❖

❖! ❊!♣❛%♦! ❱❡)♦*✐❛✐!
2
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▼❊❚❆

!♦♠♦
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✐✜
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◗✉❡ ❜♦♠
❡♥❝♦♥,-
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✦ ❊2♣❡-♦
4✉❡ ,❡♥❤❛
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✐♠❡✐-❛
❛✉❧❛✳
◆❡❧❛
❞❡✜♥✐♠♦
2 ♦ ♦❜❥❡,♦
❣❡♦♠=,-
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✈❡,♦-
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❞❡ 2✉❛2 ♣-
♦♣-
✐❡❞❛❞❡2✳
◆❡2,❛
❛✉❧❛✱ ✐-
❡♠♦2
✐❞❡♥,✐✜
❝❛- ❡
❧♦❝❛❧✐
③❛- ♣♦♥,♦2
♥♦ ♣❧❛♥♦
✭❜✐✲
❞✐♠❡♥2✐
♦♥❛❧✮ ❡
♥♦ ❡2♣❛B♦
✭,-
✐❞✐♠❡♥2
✐♦♥❛❧✮✳
❱❡-❡♠♦2
4✉❡ =
32
❱❡"♦$❡
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✈❡❧
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♣❧❛♥♦ ♦✉
♥♦
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♦ ✭❧✐♥❡❛-
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♦2 ✈❡,♦-
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✐✜❝❛-
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4✉❡
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❛❧❣=❜-
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❡♥,❡2 F2
♦♣❡-❛BG❡2
❡♥,-❡ ✈❡,♦-
❡2 ❛❝❛--❡✲
,❛♠ ❡♠ ♣-♦♣-
✐❡❞❛❞❡2
❣❡♦♠=,-
✐❝❛2 2♦❜-❡
❡22❡2✱
❝♦♠♦ ♣♦-
❡①❡♠♣❧♦
✱❛
❡①✐2,I♥❝
✐❛ ❞❡ ✉♠
❡❧❡♠❡♥,♦
♥❡✉,-♦
❛❞✐,✐✈♦
4✉❡
✐♠♣❧✐❝❛
✉♠
❡❧❡♠❡♥,♦

33
 ❖!
❊!♣❛%♦!
❱❡)♦*✐❛✐!
♥❡✉,-♦ ♥❛
2♦♠❛ ❞❡
✈❡,♦-❡2✱ ❛
2❛❜❡-✱ ♦
✈❡,♦-
♥✉❧♦✳

R 2
✷✳✷
❉❡❝
♦♠♣♦1
✐*+♦
❞❡ ✉♠
✈❡%♦&
♥♦
4❧❛♥♦
✭
✮

❉❛❞♦2
❞♦✐2
✈❡,♦-❡2
♥E♦
❝♦♣❧❛♥❛-
❡2 ✭✈❡-
❆✉❧❛ ✶✮ v̇1
❡ v̇2✱
4✉❛❧4✉❡-
✈❡,♦- v̇
♣♦❞❡ 2❡-
❞❡❝♦♠♣♦2,
♦
❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❞
♦ ❞❡ v̇1 ❡ v̇2✳
M❛-❛
✐22♦✱
❞❡✈❡♠♦2
❡♥❝♦♥,-❛- a1, a2 ∈
R✱ ,❛❧ 4✉❡

v̇ = a1 v̇1 + a2 v̇2
✭
✷✳✶✮

❊①❡♠♣❧♦
✷✳✷✳✶✳

34
❱❡"♦$❡
% ❡
●❡♦♠❡
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❆♥❛❧-
❙❡❥❛♠ v̇1 ❡ v̇2
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✈❡,♦-❡2
♥E♦
❝♦❧✐♥❡❛-
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✈❡,♦- ♥♦
♠❡2♠♦
♣❧❛♥♦ ❞❡ v̇1 ❡
v̇2✳

35
 ❖!
❊!♣❛%♦!
❱❡)♦*✐❛✐!

✶
❊①❡♠♣❧♦
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v̇
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❛
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♦
0✱ ❡ ❛
♣❛+*✐+
❞❡ v̇ = a1 v̇1 + a2 v̇2✱ ❧
*❡♠♦$ '✉❡ ✐
v̇ = 0 · v̇1 + a2 v̇2 ⇒ v̇ = a2 v̇2 . ♥

❉❡✜♥✐:;♦ ❡
✷✳✾✳ ❛

36
 $ ❞❡ v̇1 ❡ v̇2 ❝
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♦ ✶ ♥
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D♦+ ❉
37
❡✜♥✐:;♦
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✭✐$*♦ 2
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1✮✳
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38
❖!
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39
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♦✶
❋✐❣✉.❛
✷✳✶✼✿ v̇2
❡ v̇2 !=♦
♦."♦♥♦.♠❛
✐!✳

◆♦"❛$%♦
✶✳
❈♦♥!✐❞
❡.❛.❡♠♦!
✱ ❞❡
❛❣♦.❛
❡♠
❞✐❛♥"❡
✱ ,✉❡ ♦!
✈❡"♦.❡!
❝♦♠
❡①".❡♠✐❞❛
♥❛ ♦.✐❣❡♠ ❡
♣♦♥"♦! ✭✶✱✵
✭✵✱✶✮ !❡.=
.❡✲
♣.❡!❡♥"❛
❞♦! ♣♦. i̇ ❡ j̇
.❡!♣❡❝"
✐✈❛♠❡♥
"❡✳ ■!"♦
$✱

(1, 0) = i̇ ❡ (0, 1) = j̇.

❚❡♥❞♦
✉♠❛
❜❛!❡
✜①❛❞❛
✱
♣♦❞❡♠♦!
❢❛③❡.
✉♠❛
❝♦..❡!♣♦♥
❞H♥❝✐❛

40
❖!
❊!♣❛%♦!
❱❡)♦*✐❛✐!
2
❜✐✉♥I✈♦❝❛
❡♥".❡ ♦! ♣❛.❡
♦.❞❡♥❛❞♦! (x, y
❞♦ ♣❧❛♥♦ ✭
✮ ❡ ♦! ✈❡"♦✲
.❡!✳
❉❡!"❛
❢♦.♠❛✱

v̇ = (x, y)

$❛
❡①♣*❡!!2♦
❛♥❛❧4)✐❝❛
❞❡ v̇✳
❆!!✐♠✱
♥♦♠❡❛♠♦!
x ❝♦♠♦
❛❜❝✐!!❛
❡ y ❝♦♠♦
♦*❞❡♥❛❞❛✳

41
❱❡"♦$❡
% ❡
●❡♦♠❡
"$✐❛
❆♥❛❧-
"✐❝❛✿
▲✐✈$
♦✶
˙
v

❋✐
❣✉
$❛

❋✐❣✉$❛ ✷✳
✷✳✶✽✿ ✶✾ i̇
❡ j̇ ❝♦♠♦
❜❛0❡ ✿
◆❡
06❡
❝❛
0♦✱
♦
✈❡
✲
6♦$
❛$
❜✐
6$:$
✐♦ v̇ = xi̇
+ yj̇✱
❡♠

;✉❡
x, y ∈ R✱
0<♦
❛0
❝♦
♠♣♦
✲
42
 ❖!
❊!♣❛%♦!
❱❡)♦*✐❛✐!

❆❯
2 ▲❆
♥❡♥6❡0
❡♠
❞❡
$❡❧❛>< ? ❜❛0❡
R2
♣❛ {i̇, j̇}✳
$❛
♦
♣❧
❛♥
♦
✳

❊①❡♠♣❧♦
✷✳✷✳✹✳
❙❡❥❛ v̇ = 2i̇ + (−3)j̇✱
♣♦❞❡♠♦0
$❡♣$❡0❡♥6❛$
♣♦$
v̇ = (2, −3) ∈ R2 ✳
B❡$❝❡❜❛
;✉❡✱

2j̇ = (2, 0),

(−3)˙i = (0, −3) ❡ ❛00✐♠

v̇ = 2i̇ + (−3)j̇ = (2 + 0, 0 + (−3)) = (2, −3)

✷✳✸
■❣✉❛
❧❞❛❞❡
❡
❖♣❡,❛-
.❡/

✷✳✸✳✶
■❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡

❖0 ✈❡6♦$❡0
u̇ = (x1 , y1 ) ❡ v̇ = (x2 , y2 ) 0<♦
✐❣✉❛✐0
0❡✱ ❡
0♦♠❡♥6❡
0❡✱

43
x 1 = x 2 ❡ y1 = y 2 ✱ ❡
❱❡"♦$❡
%
●❡♦♠❡ ❡
"$✐❛
❛00✐♠✱
❆♥❛❧- u̇ = v̇✳
"✐❝❛✿
▲✐✈$
♦✶
❊①❡♠♣❧♦
✷✳✸✳✶✳
❖0 ✈❡6♦$❡0
u̇ = (2, 1) ❡ v̇ = (2, 1) 0<♦
✐❣✉❛✐0✱
♣♦$D♠✱ ṗ = (2, 1) ❡ q̇ = (1, 2)
♥<♦ ♦ 0<♦✳

✷✳✸✳✷
❖♣❡0❛12❡3

❙❡❥❛♠ ♦0
✈❡6♦$❡0 u̇ = (x1 , y1 )
❡ v̇ = (x2 , y2 ) ❡ λ ∈ R✱
❞❡✜♥❡✲0
❡✿

44
 ❖!
❊!♣❛%♦!
❱❡)♦*✐❛✐!

✶✳ u̇ + v̇ = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 )❀

✷✳ λu̇ = (λx1 , λy1 )✳

❊①❡♠♣❧♦
✷✳✸✳✷✳
❙❡❥❛♠
♦* ✈❡,♦-
❡* u̇ = (2, −1) ❡ q̇ = (1, 3)✱
,❡♠♦*
/✉❡

u̇ + q̇ = (2 + 1, −1 + 3) = (3, 2)

3u̇ = (3 · 2, 3 · (−1)) = (6, −3).

❋✐❣✉-❛
✷✳✷✵✿ u̇ + q̇ = (3,
2)✳
❋✐❣✉-❛
✷✳✷✶✿ 3u̇ = (6,
−3)✳

❈♦♠
❜❛*❡
♥❛* ♦♣❡-
❛:;❡*
❞❡✜♥✐
❞❛*
❛♥,❡-
✐♦-
♠❡♥,❡✱
❝♦♥*,❛,

45
❱❡"♦$❡
% ❡
●❡♦♠❡
"$✐❛
❆♥❛❧-
"✐❝❛✿
❛♠♦*
▲✐✈$
♦✶
/✉❡ ♦
❝♦♥❥✉♥,
♦ ❞♦*
✈❡,♦-❡*
,❡♠ ❛* ♣-
♦♣-
✐❡❞❛❞
❡* /✉❡
❛♣-
❡*❡♥,❛-
❡♠♦*
❛
*❡❣✉✐-
✳

❚❡♦*❡♠❛
✷✳✶✳
❛"❛
#✉❛✐&#
✉❡"
✈❡)♦"❡&
u̇✱ v̇ ❡ ẇ✱
)❡♠✲&❡

A1✮ u̇ + v̇ = v̇ + u̇❀

A2✮ (u̇ + v̇) + ẇ = u̇ + (v̇ + ẇ)❀

A3✮ u̇ + 0̇ = u̇❀

A4 ✮˙ u̇ + (−u) = 0̇✳

❡ ♣❛"❛
#✉❛✐&#✉❡"
u̇ ❡ v̇ ❡ α, β ∈ R✱
)❡♠✲&❡

46
 ❖!
❊!♣❛%♦!
❱❡)♦*✐❛✐!

P1✮ α(βu̇) = (αβ)u̇❀

•
P2✮ (α + β)u̇ ❡
♠
= αu̇ + βu̇❀ ✭
A1
P3✮ α(u̇ + v̇) ✮
✱
= αu̇ + αv̇❀
u̇ + v̇ = (x1 ,
P4 ✮ 1 v̇ = y1 ) + (x2 ,
y2 ) = (x1 +
v̇✳
x2 , y1 + y2 ).
❖❜%❡'✈❛*+♦
✹✳ ❖ ✈❡$♦& ▼ 0̇
❞❡♥♦$❛ ♦ ❛
✈❡$♦& .
♥✉❧♦✱ ✐.$♦ ❝
/✱ 0̇ = (0, 0)✳ ♦
♠
❉❡♠♦♥%0'❛*+♦ ♦
➱ ✐♠♣♦&$❛♥$❡ .
4✉❡ ✈♦❝6 ❛
❛❝♦♠♣❛♥❤❡ ❜
♥♦..♦ &❛❝✐♦✲ ❡
♠
❝9♥✐♦✱ ♦.
♣♦✐. 4
✈❛♠♦. ✉
✈❡&✐✜ ❡
❝❛& ❛
.❡❣✉✐& ❛
❛❧❣✉♠ .
❛. ❞❛. ❝
♣&♦♣&✐ ♦
❡❞❛❞ ♦
❡. 4✉❡ &
❥= ❞
❛♣&❡.❡♥$❛♠♦ ❡
♥
❉❛❞♦. u̇ = (x1 , y1 )✱ v̇ = (x2 , y2 ) ❡
y3 )✱ ❛
❞
$❡♠♦.
❛
4✉❡✿
47
❱❡"♦$❡
% ❡
●❡♦♠❡
"$✐❛
❆♥❛❧-
"✐❝❛✿
▲✐✈$
♦✶
. ❞❡ = 0̇ ⇔ (x1
❛♠❜♦. ♦. + a 1 , y1 +
✈❡$♦& a2 ) = (0,
❡. 0)
.D♦ ✱

♥E♠❡&♦. ❡
&❡❛✐.
❛
✱❡
..
❝♦♠♦ ♦. ✐
&❡❛✐. ♠
✱
.D♦
❝♦♠✉$ x1 + a1 = 0 ❡
❛$✐✈♦.
♣♦&
❡♠ ❛♥$
&❡❧❛F ♦✱ ẇ
D♦ G −y1 ) = −u̇✳

.♦♠❛✱
♦✉
.❡❥❛✱ x1
+ x 2 = x 2 + x 1 ❡ y1 + y2 = y2 + y1 ✱
❛..✐♠

u̇ + v̇ = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ) = (x2 + x1 , y2 + y1 )
= (x2 , y2 ) + (x1 , y1 ) = v̇ + u̇.

• ❡♠
✭A4✮✱
✐&❡♠♦.
.✉♣♦& ẇ = (a1 ,
a2 )✱ $❛❧
4✉❡

0̇ = u̇ + ẇ = (x1 , y1 ) + (a1 , a2 ) = (x1 + a1 , y1 + a2 )

❉❡.$❡
♠♦❞♦✱ u̇ + ẇ

48
❖!
❊!♣❛%♦!
❱❡)♦*✐❛✐!

2
❆❯▲❆

49
❱❡"♦$❡
% ❡
●❡♦♠❡
"$✐❛
❆♥❛❧-
"✐❝❛✿
▲✐✈$
♦✶
• ❥! ❡♠
✭P2✮✱
'❡❥❛♠ α, β ∈
R✱ )❛❧
+✉❡

(α + β)u̇ = (α + β) · (x1 , y1 ) = ((α + β)x1 , (α + β)y1 ) .

▼❛'
'❛❜❡♠
♦' +✉❡ ♦'
♥1♠❡2♦'
2❡❛✐'
'4♦
❝♦♠✉)
❛)✐✈♦'
❡♠
2❡❧❛✲
84♦ 9
'♦♠❛ ❡ 9
♠✉❧)✐
♣❧✐84♦
✱ ❝♦♠♦
)❛♠❜;♠
)<♠ ❛
♣2♦♣2✐
❡❞❛❞
❡
❞❛
❞✐')2✐❜✉)✐

((α + β)x1, (α + β)y1) = (αx1 + βx1, αy1 + βy1)

= (αx1, αy1) + (βx1, βy1)

❡
50
❖!
❊!♣❛%♦!
❱❡)♦*✐❛✐!
❛''✐♠✱

(α + β)u̇ = (αx1 , αy1 ) + (βx1 , βy1 )

= α(x1 , y1 ) + β(x1 , y1 ) = αu̇ + βu̇.

❆❣♦2❛
+✉❡
✈♦❝<
❛❝♦♠♣❛
♥❤♦✉ ♦
♥♦''♦
2❛❝✐♦
❝A♥✐♦ ❡
❝♦♠♣2❡
❡♥❞❡✉
)♦❞♦ ♦
❞❡'❡♥✈♦❧✈
❞❛' ♣2♦♣2✐❡
❞❡♠♦♥')2❛❞
❞❡✐①❛♠♦'
♣❛2❛
✈♦❝< ❛
❛)✐✈✐❞
❛❞❡ ❛
'❡❣✉✐2
✳

❊①❡*❝.❝✐
♦
✷✳✸✳✶✳
▼♦')2❡
❝❛❞❛
✉♠ ❞♦'
✐)❡♥'
❞❛'
♣2♦♣2✐❡
❞❛❞❡'
+✉❡
♥4♦
❢♦2❛♠
❞❡♠♦♥')2
❛❞❛'✳

❊①❡♠♣❧♦
✷✳✸✳✸✳
❉❛❞♦' ♦'

51
 ❱❡"♦$❡
% ❡
●❡♦♠❡
"$✐❛
❆♥❛❧-
✈❡)♦2❡' u̇ = (3,
"✐❝❛✿
▲✐✈$
♦✶
−1) ❡ v̇ = (−1, 2)✱ ♥❛
✉❛84♦
1
4(u̇ − v̇) + ẇ = 2u̇ − ẇ
3
♣2❡)❡♥❞❡♠
❞❡)❡2♠✐♥❛
♦ ✈❡)♦2 ẇ✳
F❛2❛ ✐''♦✱
❢❛2❡♠♦' ✉'♦
❞❛'
♣2♦♣2✐❡❞❛
❞❛' ♦♣❡2❛8G
❡♥)2❡ ✈❡)♦2
❋❛8❛♠♦'
1
4(u̇ − v̇) + ẇ = 2u̇ − ẇ ⇒
1 3
ẇ + ẇ = 2u̇ − 4(u̇ − v̇) ⇒
3
4
ẇ = −2u̇ + 4v̇
3

52
 ❖!
❊!♣❛%♦!
❱❡)♦*✐❛✐!

❡♥"#♦✱
4
2
"❡♠♦'
ẇ = −2u̇ + 4v̇ ⇒ ❆
3 ❯
▲
❆
4ẇ = −6u̇ + 12v̇ ⇒
−6 12
ẇ = 4 u̇ + v̇ ⇒
−3 4
ẇ = u̇ + 3v̇.
2
❋❛③❡♥❞♦
❛
'✉❜'"✐"✉✐
/#♦✱
❝❤❡❣❛♠♦'
❛
−3
u̇ + 3v̇ ⇒
ẇ =
2
−3
ẇ = (3, −1) + 3(−1, 2) ⇒
.2 .
−9 3
ẇ = , + (−3, 6)
2 2
. . . .
−9 3 −15 15
♦✉ − 3, + 6 = , ✱
♣♦❞❡♠♦' 2 2 2 2
❡'❝4❡✈❡4
❛''✐♠✿ ẇ =
♦✉ '❡
♣4❡❢❡4✐4✱
❞❡'"❛
❢♦4♠❛✿

−15
ẇ = (1, −1)
2

❉❡✜♥✐56♦
✷✳✶✶
✭❱❡"♦$
❉❡❢✐♥✐❞♦
♣♦$ ❉♦✐+
,♦♥"♦+✮✳
❈♦♥'✐✲
−→
❞❡4❡ ♦
✈❡"♦4 AB ❞❡
♦4✐❣❡♠ ♥♦
♣♦♥"♦ A = (x1 , y1 ) ❡
❡①"4❡♠✐❞

53
❛❞❡
❱❡"♦$❡
% ❡
●❡♦♠❡ −→
"$✐❛
❆♥❛❧-
"✐❝❛✿
❡♠ B = (x2 , y2 )✳ ❈♦♠♦
▲✐✈$
♦ ✶ ✜❣✉4❛
♥❛
✭✷✳✷✷✮
✱ ❛'
❝♦♦4❞❡♥❛
❞❛' ❞❡ AB
−→
'#♦ ♦❜"✐❞❛'
♣♦4 AB = B − A✱
❛''✐♠
−→
AB = (x2 − x1, y2 − y1).

❊①❡♠♣❧♦
✷✳✸✳✹✳
◆❛ ✜❣✉4❛
✭✷✳✷✹✮✱
♦❜'❡4✈❛♠♦'
B✉❡ ♦'
'❡❣♠❡♥"♦'
♦4✐❡♥"❛❞♦'
AB✱ CD ❡ OP
4❡♣4❡'❡♥"❛♠
♦ ♠❡'♠♦ ✈❡"♦4
(3, 1)✱ ♣♦✐'
−→
AB = B − A = (1, 4) − (−2, 3) = (3, 1)
−→
CD = D − C = (4, 3) − (1, 2) = (3, 1)
−→
OP = P − O = (3, 1) − (0, 0) = (3, 1)

54
❖!
❊!♣❛%♦!
❱❡)♦*✐❛✐!

❋✐❣✉$ A˙B = (x2 −

✷✳✷✸✿
˙
❋✐❣✉$❛
x1, y2 − y1)
✷✳✷✷✿ AB
=B−A

❋✐❣✉$
❛
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55
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56
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60
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62
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66
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67
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